DAV KAPILDEV PUBLIC SCHOOL

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Rashad Tufail student of class XII Science

has successfully completed the research on the project to study
"The Rusting of Iron”. The report is result of his efforts and
endeavors.

The report is found worthy of acceptance as final project report

for the subject chemistry of class XII. He has prepared the report
under the guidance of Mr. S.K Singh sir during the academic year
2024-2025 in partial fulfilment of chemistry practical examination
conducted by AISSCE.

Internal Signature External Signature

 ACKNOWLEGMENT

I would like to express my greatest appreciation to all

individuals who have helped and supported me through
the project. I am thankful to the chemistry teacher Mr. S.K
Singh for his ongoing support during the project, from
initial advice and provision of contacts in the first stage
through ongoing advice and encouragement which lead to
the final report of the chemistry project.
A special acknowledgment goes to my
colleagues who helped me in completing the project by
exchanging ideas and sharing their experience. I wish to
thank my parents as well for their undivided support and
interest who inspired me and encouraged me to go on my
own way.
At last, I would like to thank everyone, who in
one way or another way help me with their crucial
assistance to finalize the project.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Websites
• www.google.com
• Wikipedia.com

2. Books
• NCERT Chemistry
• Lab Manual
 CONCULSION

It is clear from the observation that coupling of iron with

more electropositive metals such as zinc, magnesium resist
corrosion and rusting of iron.

Coupling of iron with less electropositive metals such as

copper increase rusting.
 Introduction

Rust is an iron oxide, a usually reddish-brown oxide formed by the

reaction of iron and oxygen in the catalytic presence of water or air
moisture. Several forms of rust are distinguishable both visually and
by spectroscopy, and form under different circumstances.

Rust consists of hydrous iron (III) oxides (Fe2O3·nH2O) and iron (III)
oxide-hydroxide (FeO(OH), Fe(OH)3), and is typically associated with
the corrosion of refined iron.

Given sufficient time, any iron mass, in the presence of water and
oxygen, could eventually convert entirely to rust. Surface rust is
commonly flaky and friable, and provides no passivation protection
to the underlying iron, unlike the formation of patina on copper
surfaces.

Rusting is the common term for corrosion of elemental iron and its
alloys such as steel. Many other metals undergo similar corrosion,
but the resulting oxides are not commonly called "rust".

Other forms of rust include the result of reactions between iron

and chloride in an environment deprived of oxygen. Rebar used in
underwater concrete pillars, which generates green rust.
 Factor Promoting Rusting
Several factors promote the rusting process are:
1. Presence of Moisture (Water)

• Moisture is essential for rusting to occur because it acts as a

medium for the movement of ions. Water combines with
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to form carbonic acid, which
acts as an electrolyte. This allows for the transfer of electrons,
facilitating the oxidation of iron.
• In the absence of water or in dry conditions, rusting is
significantly slowed or may not occur at all.

2. Oxygen

• Oxygen is another essential component for rusting. The oxygen

in the air reacts with iron in the presence of water to form iron
oxides. This oxidation process converts iron into rust.
• Higher oxygen concentrations, such as in environments with
good air circulation, can accelerate rusting.

3. Electrolytes (Salts)

• The presence of salts, such as sodium chloride (NaCl), speeds

up rusting. Saltwater is a good conductor of electricity, which
enhances the electrochemical reactions necessary for rust
formation.
• This is why metal structures near coastal areas or those
exposed to road salt during winter tend to rust faster due to
the higher presence of electrolytes.

4. Acidic Conditions

• Acidic environments, often due to pollutants such as sulphur

dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), can increase the rate
of rusting. These pollutants dissolve in water to form acids
(e.g., sulfuric acid), which lower the pH and promote faster
oxidation of iron.
• Rainwater, for instance, becomes acidic due to air pollutants,
leading to "acid rain," which corrodes metal objects faster.
5. Impurities in Iron

• Pure iron is less prone to rusting, but most iron used in

industrial applications contains impurities, such as carbon.
These impurities create electrochemical cells (anodes and
cathodes) within the metal structure. In these cells, some parts
of the iron corrode faster than others.
• Areas of the metal with impurities serve as anodes and rust
more rapidly due to localized electrochemical reactions.

6. Temperature

• High temperatures increase the rate of rusting. Elevated

temperatures can cause water to evaporate, increasing the
concentration of dissolved ions and speeding up the
electrochemical processes.
• Moreover, high temperatures can increase the mobility of
oxygen and water vapor, leading to faster oxidation.

7.Surface Area and Exposure

• Larger surface areas exposed to moisture and oxygen will rust

faster. For example, a rough surface has more area in contact
with air and moisture compared to a smooth one, making it
more prone to corrosion.
• Similarly, metal parts that are fully exposed to air and water,
such as bridges, vehicles, or outdoor machinery, tend to rust
faster than those that are well-protected or sealed.

8.Time

• The longer a metal is exposed to conditions that favor

rusting, the more extensive the rusting process will be.
Continuous exposure to moist, oxygen-rich environments
will result in more severe rusting over time.
 Methods for Preventing Rusting
Methods commonly used to prevent rusting are:
1. Galvanization: Galvanization involves coating iron or steel with a
thin layer of zinc, usually through a process called hot-dip
galvanizing (dipping the metal into molten zinc). Zinc acts as a
protective barrier and, because it is more reactive than iron, it will
corrode before the iron. This sacrificial protection ensures that
even if the zinc coating is scratched or damaged, it will still protect
the underlying metal. Galvanized steel is widely used in outdoor
applications such as fences, nails, roofing sheets, and car bodies.

2. Electroplating: In electroplating, a thin layer of a less reactive

metal (e.g., chromium, nickel, or tin) is deposited onto the surface
of iron or steel using an electric current. Electroplated coatings
are often decorative as well as protective. The less reactive metal
layer prevents iron from oxidizing and rusting. Electroplating is
frequently used in household appliances, jewellery, automotive
parts, and utensils.

3. Cathodic Protection: Cathodic protection prevents rusting by

making the iron or steel act as the cathode of an electrochemical
cell. This is achieved by attaching a more reactive metal (such as
zinc or magnesium) to the iron structure. The more reactive metal
(anode) corrodes instead of the iron (cathode), protecting the
iron from rusting.

4. Painting or Coating: Applying a layer of paint or another coating

material creates a physical barrier between the metal and the
environment, preventing moisture and oxygen from meeting the
iron. Painting is one of the most cost-effective and easy-to-apply
methods for protecting large structures such as bridges, gates,
and vehicles.

5. Regular Maintenance: Regular cleaning and maintenance of iron

and steel structures can prevent rust from forming. This involves
removing dirt, moisture, and salts that accumulate on the surface,
and applying protective coatings periodically.
EXPERIMENT – RUSTING OF IRON NAIL
Objective: To study the effect of metal coupling on rusting of iron.

Aim: In this project the aim is to investigate the effects of metals

coupling on the rusting of iron. Metal coupling effects the coupling
of iron if the nail is coupled with a more electropositive metal like
zinc, magnesium or aluminium rusting is prevented but if on the
other hand, it is coupled with less electropositive metal like copper
the rusting is facilitated.

Apparatus Required:
• Two Peri dishes
• Three test-tubes
• Three iron nails
• Beaker
• Sandpaper
• Wire Gauge
• Gelatine
• Copper, Zinc and Magnesium Strips
• Potassium Ferricyanide Solution
• Phenolphthalein
Procedure:

1. At first, we must clean the surface of iron nails with the help
of sandpaper.
2. After that, we must wind zinc strip around one nail, a clean
copper wire around the second and clean magnesium strip
around the third nail. Then to put all these three in petri dishes
so that they are not in-contact with each other.
3. Then to fill the petri dishes with hot agar-agar solution in such
a way that only the lower half of the nails are covered with the
liquids.
4. Keep the covered petri dishes for one day or so.
5. The liquids set to a gel on cooling. Two types of patches are
observed around the rusted nail, one is blue and other is pink.
Blue patch is due to the formation of potassium ferricyanide
where pink patch is dur to formations on hydroxyl ions which
turns colourless phenolphthalein to pink. Zinc strips are
wrapped around one nail.
 Observation Table

S.No Metal Pair Colour Of Patch Nail Rust or Not

1. Iron-Zinc Pink No
2. Iron-Magnesium Pink No
3. Iron-Copper Blue Yes

Conclusion:
It is clear from the observation that coupling of iron with more
electropositive metals such as zinc, magnesium resist corrosion and
rusting of iron.

Coupling of iron with less electropositive metals such as copper

increase rusting.
 Mechanism Of Rusting
Overview: The theory of rust can be explained by taking the example
of rusting of iron. The theory is called electrochemical theory
because it explains the formation of rust on the basic of formation
of electrochemical cells on the surface of the metal.

The overall rusting involves the following steps:

Oxidation occurs at the anodes of each electrochemical cell.

Therefore, at each anode neutral iron atoms are oxidized to ferrous
ions.

1- At anode:
Thus, the metal atoms in the lattice pass into the solution as ions,
leaving electrons on the metal itself. These electrons move towards
the cathode region through the metal.
Fe(s)→Fe2+(aq)+2e−Fe(s)→Fe2+(aq)+2e−

2- At cathode:
The electrons are taken up by hydrogen ions (reduction takes
place). The H+H+ ions are obtained either from water or from acidic
substances in water.
H2O→H++OH−H2O→H++OH−

CO2+H2O→H++HCO3−CO2+H2O→H++HCO3−

The hydrogen atoms on the iron surface reduce dissolved oxygen.

4H++O2→2H2O4H++O2→2H2O

Therefore, the overall reaction at cathode of different

electrochemical cells may be written as,
4H++O2+4e−→2H2O4H++O2+4e−→2H2O

The overall redox reaction may be written by multiplying reaction

at anode by 2 and adding reaction at cathode to equalize number
of electrons lost and gained-
Oxidation half reaction:
Fe(s)→Fe2+(aq)+2e]×2Fe(s)→Fe2+(aq)+2e]×2

Reduction half reaction:

4H++O2+4e−→2H2O4H++O2+4e−→2H2O

Overall cell reaction:

2Fe(s)+4H++O2→2Fe2+(aq)+2H2O2Fe(s)+4H++O2→2Fe2+(aq)+2H2
O

The ferrous ions are oxidized further by atmospheric oxygen to

form rust.

4Fe2+(aq)+O2(g)+4H2O→2Fe2O3+8H+4Fe2+(aq)+O2(g)+4H2O→2F
e2O3+8H+

Fe2O3+xH2O→Fe2O3.xH2OFe2O3+xH2O→Fe2O3.xH2O

Therefore, this is the mechanism of rust with the chemical formula

Fe2O3.xH2OFe2O3.xH2O
.
It may be noted that salt water accelerates corrosion. This is mainly
due to the fact that saltwater increases the electrical conduction of
electrolyte solution formed on the metal surface. Therefore, rusting
becomes a more serious problem where salt water is present.
 Galvanic Rusting
Galvanic corrosion (also commonly termed bimetallic corrosion) is
an electrochemical process. It occurs because of the flow of very
small electric currents usually between two dissimilar metals which
causes the more anodic of the two metals to corrode, the noble or
cathodic metal being unaffected.

Examples of Galvanic Corrosion

The Statue of Liberty in New York, USA was subject to galvanic

corrosion. The corrosion had occurred between the support
structure made up of wrought iron and the copper exterior of the
statue. This led to the rusting of the iron support structure.
Another example of galvanic corrosion occurred in the combat ship
‘USS Independence’. The aluminium hull of the ship had a steel water
jet propulsion system attached to it. The aluminium hull acted as an
anode towards steel in this corrosion.
Rusting in Non-Metal
1. Degradation of Plastics
• Mechanism: Plastics can degrade due to prolonged exposure
to environmental factors such as UV radiation from sunlight,
oxygen, moisture, and chemical reactions. This process is
called photo-degradation or oxidative degradation.

• Example: When plastic items are left outside, they become

brittle and develop cracks over time due to UV-induced
breakdown of polymer chains, often accelerated by oxygen.
• Result: This leads to discoloration, cracking, and loss of
mechanical strength, but it is not the same electrochemical
process as rusting in metals.

2. Corrosion of Ceramics

• Mechanism: Ceramics are generally resistant to corrosion;

however, they can undergo chemical degradation, especially in
extreme environments, such as when exposed to acidic or
basic conditions.
• Example: Silicate-based ceramics may degrade when exposed
to acidic environments, slowly dissolving or developing cracks
over time.
• Result: Ceramics may lose strength or become porous, like the
material loss in metal rusting.

3. Oxidation of Polymers (Rubber)

• Mechanism: Rubber materials undergo oxidation, especially

when exposed to oxygen and ozone. This process is called
ozone cracking.
• Example: Rubber tires or gaskets crack over time when
exposed to ozone in the atmosphere, especially in industrial
areas or near electrical equipment that generates ozone.
• Result: The rubber loses elasticity and becomes brittle, much
like how iron loses its strength due to rust.
 INDEX
S.No TOPIC
1. Introduction
2. Galvanic Corrosion
3. Mechanism of Rusting
4. Rusting in Non-Metal
5. Experiment (Rusting of Iron)
5.1. Apparatus Required
5.2 Procedure
5.3 Observation Table
5.4 Conclusion
6. Factors Promoting Rust
7. Methods for Preventing Rusting
8. Bibliography