HISTORY FINAL EXAM

LESSON 6:
 The U.S constitution was written by rich white man. Therefore, African
Americans and Native Americans didn´t have the same rights as them
 African Americans received the suffrage after the Civil War Amendments,
but women and Native Americans didn´t have the right to vote
 Progressive Movement: resulted in social and political reforms and
happened during the 19th century. It also promoted women´s suffrage and
limited the political influence of corporations.

SECTION A:
 Progressive Era (1896-1920): period of social reform. If followed the
excesses of Gilded Age and promoted women suffrage, labor laws, etc.
All levels of government needed some changes, including the local,
state, and national governments
 Reforms on Local government: development of city council-manager
form of government. Council members were elected by voters to make
laws. Then, the council appointed a manager who typically had training
and experience in public administration. Other cities elected a mayor
interested in reforms, such as fairer taxes, lower fares for public
transportation, work relief for unemployed people.
 Reforms at the State Level: lawmakers created a law in the state that
limited the time of work of men and women to 10 hours. It also gave
compensation to the families of workers who were hurt in labor. They
also started using voting methods, such as:
o Secret ballot: it ensured that all votes were secret
o Initiative: common people can suggest a change in the law by
signing a petition
o Referendum: the people vote directly on a political question.
People can repeal the law by combining this to a petition
o Recall: people can remove a political from its role. Requires
petition and votes
 Reforms at the national level: the citizens started to vote directly on the
candidates for public office. This system initiated the Us 17 th Amendment.
Before this system, each state´s legislature chose its own US Senators.
The progressive taxes approved by the Congress are:
o 16th amendment: gave the federal government the power to collet
income taxes
o 17th: established that senators would directly be elected by
the people
o 18th: prohibited the manufacture, sale, or transportation of
intoxicating liquors
 o 19th: prohibited the states and the federal government from
denying the vote to citizens of the US on the basis of sex
 Women obtain the right to vote
 Native women were excluded

 Theodore Roosevelt: a progressive president who addressed a “Square

Deal”. He was from the Republican political party. His primary concerns
where discussed in its 3 C´s: corporation, consumer protection, and
conservation of natural resource.
o Corporation: the workers were interested in better rights, while the
corporation wanted to keep their salaries low and abusive. There
was a company called Northern Security Company, which
controlled most of the railroads in the US (it had a monopoly, that
is, a “combination of restraint on the trade”). Roosevelt wanted to
 break its monopoly, since it was unconstitutional. Therefore, the
Supreme Court orders the company to be dissolved. Roosevelt
dissolved some trust as was known as a “trustbuster” (destruidor
de trustes). Finally, Roosevelt encouraged the legislation to
prohibit rebating and price-fixing
o Consumer production: there was very little legislation on foods
and drugs in the US. Upton Sinclair published a book called “The
Jungle”, in which he exposed the conditions of the
slaughterhouse. People were sickened with the reality of this
places and shocked by the practiced of the meat industry.
Therefore, under the pressure from Roosevelt, Congress passed
the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act, which
improved the safety of the products.
o Conservation of natural resources: many farmers were consuming
many natural resources, believing they were limitless. They
wanted to earn profit and had little concern about the
environmental impacts they were causing. To preserve the nature,
the federal government created the Newlands Act (1902), which
allowed the federal government to sell dry areas and use the
income for irrigation projects

 William Taft: was the president of the United States (1909-1913) and was
responsible for initiating many antitrust suits. He was a republican
 Woodrow Wilson: was elected in 1913. Promoted his New Freedom
program, which would attack the “Tripple Wall of Privilege”: the tariffs, the
banks, and the trusts. He was supported by the democratic-controlled
congress.
o The tariffs were lowered and the government income started to
come from the 16th Amendment. This was concretized through the
Revenue Act of 1913/Underwood-Simmons Act
o The banking system wasn´t that helpful, as it was expensive for
common citizens to get loans. Therefore, the Congress approved
a legislation creating the Federal Reserve System, which provided
a regulation of the banks, credit and money supply. It was also
created by the Revenue Act of 1913
o Roosevelt created the Antitrust Act (1914), which clarified the
earlier Sherman Antitrust Act by specifically naming business
tactics that were illegal
 Important vocabulary:
o Loans: empréstimos
o Income: receita (fiscal)

SECTION B:
 After the WW1, people in the US were weary (tired). Therefore, a new
wave of nativism swept the nation. The communist was also spreading
 Red Scare: the communists were known as the Red Scare. They were
combated by the Palmer Raids (1919). The Palmer Raids permitted
government agents to chase anyone who was suspected to be a
communist, as well as anyone who was an anarchist. Eventually, Palmer
Raids was discredited when his claim of a communist plot to overthrow
the government failed to happen. . President Woodrow Wilson
 During WW1, workers weren´t allowed to strike. Therefore, after WW1,
the frustration increased. In 1919, there were many strikes, which
claimed for shorter work hours, a living wage (salário digno), and
collective bargains rights (direitos de negociação coletiva). In the end of
1920, the movement lost its forces, mainly due to:
o Immigrants, who were part of a significant percentage of the
workers and willed to work in poor conditions
o Immigrants spoke multiple languages, making it difficult to
organize them into unions
o Farmers who migrated to cities didn’t think the labor union
(sindicatos) were useful
o Most unions excluded African-Americans
 Nolmacy: term used by candidate Harding to evoke thoughts of the
simpler days before the Progressive Era and World War I. Harding is
considered one of the most unsuccessful presidents. His gabinet was
made primarly by poker-players (who were his friends) and were related
to lots of scandals. One example is the Teapot Dome Scandal, in which a
Secretary of Interior managed to get all the oil reserves transferred from
the US Navy to the Interior Department
o Candidate Harding used the phrase “return to normalcy” to evoke
an image of an era when life was simple and calm. Yet the 1920s
was anything but simple and calm. The Roaring Twenties was a
decade of incredible economic growth that ended with an
economic crash. It was a decade of intense social change,
particularly for women. The affordability of the automobile altered
lifestyles for many.
 President Hoover used the slogan “a chicken for every pot”, promising
prosperity. However, he won the election in 1929 and ended up presiding
the worst economic depression ever.
 Rugged individualism: Hoover supported the belief that people should
better themselves with minimal government intervention. However,
during Great Depression, he expanded government intervention, creating
RFC.

SECTION C:
 New Deal: created by Franklin D. Roosevelt (president in 1932). Its
outline was: relief, recovery and reform. The government would have
more intervention, including direct relief to citizens in the areas of
agriculture, baking, and other social programs
o Relief: immediate action taken to help the economy.
 Created a “bank holiday” that temporarily closed banks and
stopped the panic.
 Emergency Banking Act--Closed the insolvent banks and
only reopened the solvent ones.
 Federal Emergency Relief Act (FERA)--Gave immediate
help to those that needed it in the form of cash payments.
 Civil Works Administration (CWA)--Provided temporary jobs
repairing roads and bridges.
 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)--Temporary jobs to
unmarried single adults filling sandbags and helping out in
disaster situations. Participants lived in barracks type
housing.
o Recovery: temporary programs to restart the flow of consumer
demand
 Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA)--Taxed food processors
and gave the money directly to farmers as a payment for
not growing food. This action decreased supply so price
would go up.
 National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA)--Created the
National Recovery Administration (NRA), a consortium of
businesses organized by the government and given the
power to set rules and regulations for the economy.
 Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC)--Gave loans to
homeowners so they could pay their mortgages. This action
prevented people from becoming homeless and banks from
going under.
 Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)--Agency created to build
dams in the Tennessee river valley. These dams provided
more stable irrigation and cheap hydroelectric power.
 Works Progress Administration (WPA)--Provided long-term
government jobs building schools and other public works
projects.
 National Youth Administration (NYA)--Helped young people
by providing aid and employment to high school and
college students in exchange for work. Secondly, for young
people who were both unemployed and not in school, the
NYA combined economic relief with on-the-job training in
federally funded work projects designed to provide youth
with marketable skills for the future.
o Reform: permanent programs to avoid another depression and
ensure citizens against economic disasters
  Securities & Exchange Commission (SEC)--Permanent
agency set up to monitor stock market activity and ensure
that no fraud or insider trading was taking place.
 Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)--Permanent
agency designed to insure depositors’ money in savings
banks. Originally insured up to $5,000 per depositor today it
has increased to $250,000.
 Social Security Act (SSA)--Aimed to provide some financial
security to older Americans, as well as unemployed
workers, those with disabilities, and impoverished children.
Roosevelt wanted the program to be self-sustaining, not
dependent on government revenues.
 National Labor Relations Act (NLRA)--Otherwise known as
the Wagner Act, gave employees the right to form and join
unions, obligated employers to bargain collectively, as well
as created the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB)
which enforced labor laws and made sure that fair business
practices were upheld.
 Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) of 1938--Set minimum
wages, ensured better working conditions, and placed limits
on minors in the workplace.
 Soil Conservation Act--Mandated proper soil maintenance
to make sure that another dust bowl was avoided.
 Obs: women could work in workplaces, but still faced discrimination and
unfair employment rights
 Some new deal programs discriminated against African americans in
providing direct relief and wages to workers. But most African americans
still supported the FDR
 The group that received more help from the FDR was the Native
Americans, since it helped place reservation lands back into the hands of
tribal leaders
 The Supreme Court appointed some of the programs of the New Deal as
unconstitutional. 6 judges died, so Roosevelt chose 7 from 9 of the
judges that acted on the court
 The Roosevelt administration was responsible for expanding the power
of the federal government (especially that of the president) in shaping the
nation’s economy.
 One of the new deal programs that still exist is the Social Security
(previdencia social), which provides financial security to elderly
Americans, unemployed workers, the disabled, and dependent children

SECTION D:
 Brown v. Board Education: happened during Eisenhower´s mandate.
For the first time, the Supreme Court support African-american demands
for equal treatment. It eliminated the decision of “separate but equal”
 o Many schools desegregated peacefully, but not all. Governor
Orville Faubus of Arkansas sent the National Guard to Little
Rock’s Central High School to prevent the enrollment of Black
students. When the Governor refused to comply with the
President’s request to back down, Eisenhower federalized the
National Guard, thus placing it under his command. Additional
Federal troops were sent in as well, this time to enforce
desegregation.
 With the end of “separate but equal”, lots of groups started to take
initiative, asking for equal rights on other spaces (workplace, careers,
and all other spheres of life)
 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
 National Organization for Women: “Glass Ceiling” – the idea that women
could only rise so far in any organizational structure, even though they
could look up at the “glass ceiling” and see the unachievable top of the
hierarchy


BOOK SUMARY
L6 Vocabulary and Key Concepts

Vocabulary
Progressive Movement: A movement seeking political and social reforms in the early
20th century.
Monopoly: Occurs when a single owner controls all production of a good or service.
Rebating: A practice in which a company returns a part of the fee paid to it by another
company.
Price-Fixing: A practice in which different companies in the same field work together
to set the price of a good or service.
Isolationism: The idea that a nation can exist mainly by itself, without major
relationships with other nations.
Red Scare: In 1920, this was the fear that Communism was threatening to take over
and dominate the U.S.
Normalcy: A word coined by the Harding campaign that signified a return to a simpler
era.
Rugged Individualism: Hoover’s idea that the American people were strong and
resourceful and thus did not need handouts to recover from the Depression.
Dust Bowl: As a result of an extended drought, midwestern farmland turned to dust.
New Deal: Franklin D. Roosevelt’s plan to address the Great Depression.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka: Supreme Court decision ordering the
desegregation of public schools.

Summarize Key Concepts

Section A: The Progressives
The Progressive Era occurred between 1890 and 1920. During these decades a lot of
energy went into reforms at all levels of government as well as society. One new factor
in the movement was that Progressives expanded their focus beyond white men.
Reforms benefitting women and children were among those advocated by Progressive
activists.

 Local government reforms: These reforms included the council-manager

form of government as well as encouraging the election of competent
mayors.
 State-level reforms: These included the secret ballot, initiative, referendum
and recall.
 National-level reforms: These included amendments to establish an
income tax and women’s suffrage.
 Theodore Roosevelt: He advocated for control of corporations, consumer
protection and conservation of natural resources.
 William Howard Taft: His administration initiated numerous antitrust law
suits.
 Woodrow Wilson: He attacked the “Triple Wall of Privilege;” the tariff, the
banks, and the trusts.
Section B: A Roar and a Crash
The 1920s began on a high note. The economy was growing and many people were
living better than ever before.. Despite major scandals in the Harding administration,
President Coolidge was able to restore confidence in the government. The wave of
growth and prosperity aided the election of Herbert Hoover. However, the stock market
crash in 1929 plus the natural disaster of the Dust Bowl resulted in great hardship for
many Americans.

 Post-War Era: Many people were tired after the War, and feared the rise of
Communism. Nativism and isolationism began to rise.
 Labor: Government had restricted strikes during the War, thus labor sought
increased wages and benefits, which employers refused.
 Corruption and Scandal: President Harding’s administration was tainted
by corruption.
 End of the Twenties: Herbert Hoover inherited a strong economy only to
have it crash around him.

Section C: The Nation Recovers

The 1932 election resulted in a landslide victory for the Democratic candidate, Franklin
D. Roosevelt. His attitude gave the country hope, as he promised a New Deal for the
American people. His emphasis first was on relief, followed by recovery and reform.
Everyone benefitted from the New Deal, although less so for minorities. The Supreme
Court initially ruled against a number of key New Deal programs. Enough justices
retired to enable Roosevelt to appoint a majority of the Court, thus the rulings changes.

 Relief: These were programs designed to provide immediate aid to those in

need, including food stamps and public works programs.
 Recovery: These were programs aimed at getting people back to work and
thus stimulating demand.
 Reform: These were programs designed to prevent another Great
Depression.
 Minorities: African Americans and Mexican Americans did not receive as
much support as others. Native Americans did see their lands returned to
tribal control.
 Role of Government: The New Deal changed the role played by
government in the economy.

Section D: Movements for Equality Gain Momentum

The post World War II era saw the beginnings of several major movements for equality.
New groups arose to join the NAACP in their struggle for equal rights for African
Americans. The Women’s Liberation Movement became stronger and more vocal.
Native Americans continued to seek equal rights. By the last quarter of the
20th century, LGBTQ activists, spurred by the AIDS crisis, were becoming more
involved.

 Desegregation/Integration: The Brown v. Board of Education decision

provided the legal basis for equal rights for African Americans.
 Civil Rights groups: More groups developed to fight for equality for
LESSON 7
SECTION A:

 The US adopted a position of neutrality, avoiding WW1. However, some

events interrupted this neutrality:
o British blockage: threatened freedom of the seas and prevented U.S.
goods from reaching German ports, including food and medicine.
o The Zimmermann Telegram was intercepted. It proposed an alliance
between Germany and Mexico and promised that if war with the United
States broke out, Germany would support Mexico in recovering “lost
territory in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.” This presented a direct
threat to the nation itself.
o President Wilson had been reelected in 1916 with the slogan, “He Kept
Us Out of War.” However, the sequence of events described led, on
April 6, 1917, to a Congressional declaration of war on Germany.
 Germany signs the armistice that gives end to the war
 Wilson advocated for equal trade conditions, arms reduction, and naval
sovereignty for former colonies of Europe’s weakening empires.
 More importantly, Wilson pushed for the establishment of an international
governing body for the purpose of guaranteeing political independence and
territorial integrity to great and small countries alike. His idea gave birth to the
short-lived League of Nations.
 In June 1918, the Allies signed the Treaty of Versailles. Negotiations were led
by the so-called “Big Three”--Georges Clemenceau, the Prime Minister of
France; David Lloyd George, the Prime Minister of Britain; and Woodrow
Wilson, President of the United States. Germany was not invited. Over 100
pages long, the treaty had three key points:

 territorial–Germany had to give up some of its lands.

 military–Germany was required to disarm.
 financial/economic–Germany had to pay reparations to the Allied powers in
the staggering amount of $5 billion.

 In addition, the War Guilt Clause explicitly and directly blamed Germany for the
outbreak of hostilities.

SECTION B:

 New waves of nativism and isolationism swept the nation. Many felt threatened
by the spread of communism and the rise of the Communist Party. In addition, a
“Keep America for Americans” sentiment became the prevailing attitude. Groups
opposed to immigrants, such as the Ku Klux Klan, saw membership and
political power increase.
 the Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, thus the U.S. never
entered the League of Nations. Then, Congress established the Emergency
Quota Act (1921), which limited the maximum number of people who could
enter the U.S. from each foreign country. (The quota system did not apply to
countries in the Western Hemisphere.)
 These Congress acts were the basis of the US foreign policy after ww1
  The 1920s and 1930s were characterized by the rise
of totalitarian dictatorships.
 As for the coming of World War II, the greatest threat–by far–would
be Fascism. Fascism is characterized by extreme nationalism, militarism,
anticommunism, and denial of individual rights. It was practiced in the
totalitarian political movements of Germany and Italy.

After World War I, the League of Nations was created to avoid future wars through a
“general association of nations,” where both big and small countries could gather and
peacefully resolve international disputes. By pursuing policies related to disarmament
and the principle of collective security, war (at least in theory) could be rendered
obsolete. Unfortunately, the League of Nations was weak from the start.

 Several powerful countries were initially left out of the formation of the
League, including Germany and Russia.
 The United States failed to join, for fear that the country would be under
obligation to enter yet another horrendous foreign conflict.
 Without a military or even the full cooperation of member nations, the
League lacked the power to effectively carry out its rulings.

Overall, the League was weak and ineffective in halting acts of aggression committed
by larger countries seeking to expand territory, restore national honor, and overcome
the humiliations handed out at Versailles following the war.

 the U.S. Congress decided to pass a series of Neutrality Acts in 1935, 1936,
and 1937. The acts essentially prohibited Americans from selling arms,
providing loans, or traveling on ships of any foreign nation at war with another.
 In the summer of 1937, Japanese troops poured across the border into China,
intent on capturing Chinese markets. President Roosevelt responded by calling
for an economic “quarantine” of aggressor nations, arguing that peace-loving
nations had a responsibility to oppose the “reign of terror and international
lawlessness” that was spreading like a disease across the globe. Though
isolationists criticized the president for steering the U.S. away from neutrality,
Roosevelt was hoping to issue a wake-up call to the public regarding the
inevitability of involvement in the coming war.
 Hitler began to pursue reuniting German-speaking peoples by regaining
German lands held before World War I. In March of 1938, as the Western
powers and the League of Nations were refusing to take a stand, Hitler
marched troops into Austria and announced the forming of Anschluss, or
“union,” with Germany. In September, Hitler annexed the German-speaking
population of Sudetenland in western Czechoslovakia. British and French
officials met with Hitler in Munich to attempt to avoid war using a policy
of appeasement. They agreed to let Hitler take Sudetenland in return for
Hitler’s promise that he wanted nothing else. British Prime Minister Neville
Chamberlain returned to London, declaring there would be “peace for our time.”
Future Prime Minister Winston Churchill commented: “You were given the
choice between war and dishonour. You chose dishonour and you will have
war.” Six months later, Hitler seized the rest of Czechoslovakia, while Mussolini
invaded Albania.
 The U.S. did try to remain neutral. But on December 7, 1941, Japan launched
a surprise attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. Neutrality
was no longer an option. The U.S. declared war on Japan. Germany and Italy
declared war on the U.S. World War I, the war to end war, had not succeeded.
The U.S. was now a part of World War II.
  In order to resist communist threats, the United States-supported Marshall
Plan offered generous funding to European nations, including the Soviet Union,
to rebuild their economies as long as the money was spent on goods made in
the United States. In addition, all countries accepting aid would hold free and
open democratic elections. The plan would reinforce the Truman Doctrine’s
policy of containment and further boost the economy of the U.S. Worried that
the U.S. was trying to create an U.S. sphere of influence in Europe, the Soviet
Union refused to participate in the plan and pressured its satellite states to do
the same. In a competitive move, the Soviets created the Molotov Plan, which
was designed to aid the economic recovery in Eastern Europe.

L7 Vocabulary and Key Concepts

Vocabulary
Nationalism: This refers to love of your country.
Imperialism: The economic, political, or military domination of another country.
Militarism: The concept that a strong military is necessary as part of international
relations.
Neutrality: Not taking sides in international disputes.
Blockade: The prevention of goods flowing into or out of a country.
Zimmermann Telegram: Telegram to Mexico from the German foreign minister
proposing an alliance between the two nations. It held out the possibility of Mexico
recovering land taken from it by the U.S.
Communist: A totalitarian socialist system based on the philosophy of Karl Marx.
Nativism: The belief that your country should exist only for its own citizens.
Isolationism: Reducing interactions with other countries to a minimum.
Totalitarian: A form of government led by a dictator.
Collective Security: These are alliances. The idea is that nations can better protect
themselves by working together.
Cash and Carry: The idea that warring nations could buy non-military goods by paying
for them when they pick them up.
Appeasement: Keeping someone happy by giving them what they want. In this case, it
refers to giving in to Hitler’s demands for territory.
Nonaggression Pact: Refers to the agreement between Germany and the Soviet
Union not to attack each other.
Blitzkrieg: Lightening war. The idea was to strike hard and fast.
Capitalism: The market economic system of the United States and most of Western
Europe.
Satellite Nations: Refers to the Eastern European nations dominated by the Soviet
Union after World War II.
Cold War: A war of words.
Iron Curtain: The idea that the Soviet Union closed the borders of its satellite nations,
not letting anyone out.
Policy of Containment: The idea that Communism should be restricted to the territory
where it existed.
Truman Doctrine: The U.S. would aid any nation resisting Communist aggression.
Marshall Plan: U.S. program to aid in the rebuilding of Europe after World War II.

Summarize Key Concepts

Section A: Isolationism is Challenged
There is rarely a single cause for a war. There may certainly be an incident or event
that actually gets the fighting started. For World War I, the incident that started the
conflict was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. But there were other
forces at work as well. For the U.S. neutrality was challenged by a number of events
until the nation was pushed to declare war on Germany. The results of the conflict
changed the map of Europe. It also changed the relationships among the major nations
of the world.

 Causes of the War: Nationalism, imperialism and militarism planted the

seeds of World War I. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand got it
started.
 First World War: The conflict grew to involve many nations and became
the first worldwide war.
 American Neutrality: The U.S. tried to not take sides in the conflict, but
events made it impossible.
 Zimmermann Telegram: The proposed alliance between Germany and
Mexico posed a direct threat to the nation that could not be ignored.
 Treaty of Versailles: Germany lost territory, was required to disarm, and
ordered to pay heavy reparations.

Section B: The Post-War Era and the Road to WW II.

The American public was weary after World War I. Nativism and isolationism were on
the rise again. People were afraid of Communism. The nation did maintain a level of
involvement in world affairs, but had rejected both the Treaty of Versailles and the
League of Nations. Economic problems grew. The Great Depression was a world-
wide event that helped fuel the growth of totalitarian governments. No nation stood up
to German, Italian or Japanese expansion. The U.S. became more isolationist while
European nations sought to appease the dictators.

 Nationalism and Isolationism: These led to restrictive immigration policies

in the U.S., as well as reduced relations with the rest of the world.
 International Relations: The U.S. did sign the Kellogg-Briand Pact
renouncing war as an instrument of diplomacy. At the same time the U.S.
increased import tariffs, thus causing problems for foreign trade.
 Rise of Totalitarianism: The post-World War I era saw the rise of
totalitarian and Fascist governments in Italy, Germany, the Soviet Union,
Japan and Spain.
  Expansion: The U.S. Great Britain and France did nothing as Germany,
Italy and Japan expanded their territorial control.
 War: Despite efforts to remain neutral, the U.S. was brought into World War
II following the surprise Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

Section C: The World Is Not The Same

The end of World War II saw yet another change in the map of Europe. In an effort to
create a protective buffer zone to its west, the Soviet Union installed Communist
governments in many Eastern European nations. International cooperation further
broke down after the Nuremberg Trials when the Soviets refused to permit the
reunification of Germany. Despite the establishment of the United Nations, conflict
continued in the form of a “Cold War.” The U.S. attempted to limit the spread of Soviet
influence with the policy of containment, the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was formed for protection against possible
Soviet aggression.

 The end of the War: The Nuremberg Trials were held to try Nazi officials
for crimes against humanity.
 The United Nations: The U.N. was formed as an international organization
to promote peace and cooperation.
 Ideological differences: The U.S. and the Soviet Union held conflicting
beliefs which resulted in a Cold War between the East and the West.
 Iron Curtain: This referred to the closed borders of the Eastern European
nations controlled by the Soviet Union.
 U.S. Policies: The United States attempted to limit the spread of
Communism through the policy of Containment, the Truman Doctrine, and
the Marshall plan.
LESSON 8
 Using atomic bombs to end World War II started the nuclear age. Despite
attempts by the U.S. to maintain exclusive control and possession of nuclear
arms, the Soviet Union was able to develop nuclear weapons. Faced with the
threat of nuclear war and the prospect of complete destruction, the government
developed a policy of brinkmanship (the art or practice of pursuing a
dangerous policy to the limits of safety before stopping). In other words, the
United States would have to appear ready to go to war in order to maintain
peace.
 After successfully testing hydrogen bombs, both the U.S. and the Soviets
continued to develop nuclear weapons, including nuclear missiles and
submarines. In addition, both nations built intercontinental ballistic missiles
(ICBMs) that would be able to deliver nuclear warheads to distant
countries. Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD), meaning that either side would
respond to a nuclear attack by launching its own missiles, became an
increasing concern. Fear of these devastating results would hopefully make the
United States and Soviet Union more likely to step back from all-out war.

 In April 1961, President Kennedy approved the attempted overthrow of the

communist dictator Fidel Castro in the Bay of Pigs invasion. The entire
operation was a catastrophic failure. Upon landing at the Bay of Pigs, a radio
broadcast aired every move of the 1,400 Cuban exiles, and the U.S.-supported
airstrike was not successful. As Castro triumphed publicly, President Kennedy
privately asked how the CIA and the Pentagon could have been so
misinformed. Publicly, he accepted the blame for the failed mission while
negotiating with Castro for the release of the surviving commandos.
 For six days, the world watched with fear as the situation continued to play out.
Aerial photographs showed that intermediate-range and medium-range ballistic
nuclear missiles had been placed on the island. Additional surveillance showed
a convoy of Soviet ships heading toward Cuba, a number of which clearly had
missiles on their decks. The U.S. chose to respond with a quarantine, or
blockade, announcing that any ship containing offensive weapons would be
stopped. Before any confrontation between vessels could occur, Soviet Premier
Khrushchev agreed to remove all missiles from Cuba, and ordered the ships to
turn around. In return, President Kennedy agreed not to invade Cuba, and to
secretly remove missiles from Turkey.
 Kennedy’s successor, Lyndon Johnson, feared that a takeover of South
Vietnam by Communist forces would be disastrous, and he did not want to
appear weak on communism. In August of 1964, President Johnson presented
the nation with a reason to escalate U.S. involvement in Vietnam. In the Gulf of
Tonkin near the North Vietnamese coast, the USS Maddox ( a naval destroyer)
was allegedly attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats. Another alleged
attack on a U.S. warship followed. In response, Congress passed the Gulf of
Tonkin Resolution, which gave the Johnson administration nearly a “blank
check” and almost unlimited power to fight the North Vietnamese and the
Vietcong (guerrilla members of the South Vietnamese Communist movement).
 Vietnamization called for U.S. troops to gradually withdraw in order for the
South Vietnamese to take on a more active combat role in the war. But as
troops were being pulled out of Vietnam, the U.S. began to secretly extend the
war into the countries of Cambodia and Laos, bombing North Vietnamese
sanctuaries, including the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Nixon continued the war in
Vietnam, attempting to achieve what he called “peace with honor.” In other
words, maintain U.S. dignity as troops continued to return home while still
preserving clout at the negotiation table in Paris.
  Nixon also supported the philosophy known as realpolitik, from the German
term meaning “political realism.” According to this theory, foreign policy should
be based solely on consideration of power, not moral principles. If a nation was
weak, it was often more practical to ignore that country, even if it was
communist. This policy was a marked departure from the policy of containment.
 In 1972, Nixon met with China’s communist leader, Chairman Mao Zedong,
hoping that China’s bitter rival, the Soviet Union, would seek a more productive
relationship with the U.S. At the same time, the Soviet Union would be
restrained from making advances in Asia. In the end, the U.S. and China
promised to work towards establishing trade between the two nations and
eventually establishing full diplomatic relations with each other.
 Following the strategy of pitting one Communist nation against another, Nixon
traveled to Moscow to meet with the Soviet leader, Leonid Brezhnev. The two
discussed a policy of detente, a relaxation of tensions between their nations.

L8 Vocabulary and Key Concepts

Vocabulary
Brinksmanship: a method of gaining political advantage by pretending that you are
willing to do something very dangerous, such as go to war
Vietnamization Policy: U.S. troops to gradually withdraw in order for the South
Vietnamese to take on a more active combat role
Nixon Doctrine: a policy whereby the United States would continue to assist its allies
but would not assume the responsibility of defending the entire non-Communist world
Realpolitik: a system of politics or principles based on practical rather than moral or
ideological considerations
Détente: a time or situation in which two countries that are not friendly toward each
other agree to behave in a more friendly way
Dissident: someone who publicly criticizes the government in a country where this is
punished
Glasnost: Refers to an openness in Soviet society.
Perestroika: Refers to a restructuring of Soviet society.

Summarize Key Concepts

Section A: The Post-War Issues
The end of World War II marked the beginning of the era known as the Cold War. This
was an ideological war of words, with the United States and its Western Bloc allies on
one side. The other side consisted of the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc allies. The
Cold War turned hot in Korea, although the U.S. and the Soviets did not directly
engage each other. The conflict ended in a stalemate, but not before causing a rise in
the fear of nuclear conflict between the East and the West. The rivalry continued with
the space race and conflict in the Middle East.

 China: Mao Zedong led a Communist takeover of mainland China. The

U.S. backed the Nationalists led by Chiang Kai-Shek, who fled to the island
of Taiwan.
  Korean War: The conflict between North Korea and its Chinese Communist
allies versus South Korea and the United Nations.
 Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD): Meaning that either side would
respond to a nuclear attack by launching its own missiles.
 Space: The Soviet Union launched the first man-made satellite into orbit,
thus starting the space race.
 Middle East: Conflict arose over the Suez Canal when Egypt took control
from Britain.

Section B: An Unsettled World

John F. Kennedy won the Presidency in 1960. At that time he was the youngest
individual to win the office. He was also the first Roman Catholic. He inherited several
major foreign policy issues, including Cuba and Vietnam. Despite two major domestic
issues–civil rights and women’s liberation–the war in Vietnam would dominate the
news, politics and people’s lives. The issue would not be settled until early 1970.

 Bay of Pigs Invasion: Bay of Pigs was an attempt to overthrow the

Communist dictator Fidel Castro.
 Cuban Missile Crisis: Occurred when Soviets placed intermediate-range
ballistic nuclear missiles on the island.
 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty: Agreement started between the U.S. and the
Soviets to limit nuclear testing in the atmosphere.
 Tonkin Gulf Resolution: Congressional authorization permitting President
Johnson to escalate involvement in Vietnam.
 Television War: Easy access to what was happening in real time helped
turn public opinion against the War.
 End of the War: The Vietnam War had ended, but the divisions in the
country had not. Veterans of the war experienced psychological problems
along with other health-related issues.

Section C: The Post-Vietnam World

The Vietnam War dominated the news, often crowding out other international issues.
Nixon believed in Realpolitik, the idea that foreign policy should be based on power,
not morality. Nixon was the first President to meet with MaoZedong, beginning the
process of recognizing Communist China.He also met with Soviet leader Brezhnev,
working to ease tensions through the policy of detente. President Ford essentially
continued Nixon’s policies, while President Carter shifted to an emphasis on human
rights. Carter was successful in negotiating peace between Egypt and Israel. He was
not successful in resolving the Iran hostage crisis.

 Nixon Doctrine: Other nations needed to step up and contribute to their

own defense.
 Detente: An easing of tensions between the U.S. and the Soviets, resulting
in arms limitations as well as pledges of cooperation in science, technology
and space exploration.
 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT): limited each side to deploying
two antiballistic missile systems and defined the number of nuclear missiles
maintained by each country.
 Camp David Accords: The Camp David Accords brought peace between
Egypt and Israel.
Section D: Foreign Policy Under Reagan and Bush
The Reagan Administration saw several significant foreign policy issues. President
Reagan challenged Soviet Premier Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall. Gorbachev
did in fact introduce democratic reforms. The Soviet Union dissolved, the Berlin Wall
came down, and the Cold War ended. However, the end of the Reagan years were
dominated by the Iran-Contra Scandal, with some administration officials going to jail.

 Soviet Union: Premier Gorbachev’s reforms led to an open election, with

Boris Yeltsin chosen as his successor.
 Cold War: Improved relations between the U.S. and the Soviets brought
about the end of the Cold War.
 Iran-Contra Scandal: Administration officials secretly sold arms to Iran
and transferred some of the money to the Contra rebels in
Nicaragua.

LESSON 9
  Great Society program. This plan was to improve the lives of Americans,
specifically the poor, by improving the environment, the education system, and
the urban centers. Perhaps the best known law from the Great Society program
was the Civil Rights Act of 1964, followed by the Voting Rights Act and the
Medicare Act, both in 1965. These were laws that fundamentally changed the
role of government in the lives of U.S. citizens.
 Richard M. Nixon won the 1968 presidential election after successfully
campaigning for votes from both the working and middle-class white Americans.
Once elected, he began to pursue a policy of deliberate neglect of the civil
rights movement and the needs to ethnic minorities. However, he did
expand affirmative action, a program that began during the Johnson
administration to improve employment and educational opportunities for racial
minorities.
 On the morning of June 17, 1972, several intruders were arrested in the office
of the Democratic National Committee, located in the Watergate complex in
Washington, D.C. This was no ordinary burglary. The prowlers were connected
to President Nixon’s reelection campaign and had been caught wiretapping
phones and stealing documents. In August, Nixon swore that his White House
staff was not involved in the break-in. Most voters believed him and he won the
election in a landslide.
 In reality, Nixon had taken aggressive steps to cover up the crimes. For
example, a few days after the break-in, he arranged to provide hundreds of
thousands of dollars in “hush money” to the burglars. In addition, the Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA) was told to stop the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s
(FBI) investigation. This action was actually a more serious crime, since it
suggested an abuse of presidential power and a deliberate obstruction of
justice.
 In July, 1974, the U.S. Supreme Court ordered Nixon to turn over the tapes.
While the president dragged his feet, the House Judiciary Committee voted to
impeach Nixon for obstruction of justice, abuse of power, criminal cover-up, and
several other Constitutional violations. Nixon released the tapes on August 5,
providing undeniable evidence of his complicity in the Watergate crimes. In the
face of almost certain impeachment and conviction, Nixon resigned in disgrace.
 Iran and Iraq had fought a prolonged war. Iraq’s leader, Saddam Hussein,
found himself with an enormous amount of war debt. In 1990, after claiming that
Kuwait was really part of Iraq, he invaded the oil-rich nation. After looting
Kuwait, Iraqi troops headed toward Saudi Arabia. If Iraq conquered Saudi
Arabia, it would control over one-half of the world’s known oil reserves and
severely threaten the U.S. and western Europe.
 With the support of both Congress and the United Nations, President Bush
authorized Operation Desert Storm to liberate Kuwait from Iraqi control.
Beginning in January 1991 the U.S. and its allies staged a massive air assault
against Iraq. This action was followed by a successful ground offensive
originating from Saudi Arabia. By the end of February, Kuwait had been
liberated.
Bush’s administration was focused on “compassionate conservatism,” which
embraced excellence in education, tax relief, and volunteerism among faith-based and
community organizations. Compassionate conservatism is described in the following
chart:

George W. Bush’s “Compassionate Conservatism”

 By the time Bush left office, he had signed several different bills intended to cut taxes. The
third one was a $350 billion tax-cut package, the third-largest in history, and was intended to
Tax Relief strengthen the U.S. economy and reverse a trend of increasing unemployment.
Congressional Democrats opposed the bill, and argued it was skewed toward the wealthy.
However, the bill was not enough to completely stop the downhill slide of the economy.

Even though President Bush was a member of the Republican party, he signed an education
reform bill with bipartisan support, which effectively reauthorized the Johnson-era Elementary
Education and Secondary Education Act of 1965. Known as the No Child Left Behind Act, it offered local
authorities greater flexibility in spending federal dollars, but required standardized math and
reading tests.

In addition to influencing the passage of law, changes were made in both the executive and
Other judicial branches. In response to the events of 9/11 (see below), Bush formed a new cabinet-
Issues level Department of Homeland Security. He also appointed two new politically conservative
Supreme Court justices.

 The Iraq war and a weak economy were key issues in the 2008 presidential
election. The Republicans nominated veteran Senator John McCain. The
Democrats chose Senator Barack Obama, who went on to become the first
African-American president of the United States.
 One significant piece of the opposition to President Obama was political, and
rooted in the conservative swing of opinion that started with the election of
Ronald Reagan. A conservative group known as the “Tea Party” took aim at
Obama’s agenda. (The moniker “Tea Party” came from the colonial protestors
who executed the Boston Tea Party.) Most members opposed both Bush’s and
Obama’s economic stimulus plans, high taxes, and “big government” programs,
such as the Affordable Care Act.
 The Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) initiative provided protection
from deportation and work authorization to certain undocumented immigrants
brought to the U.S. as children. Even though these young people had been
raised and educated in the U.S. they faced enormous obstacles and lived under
the constant threat of deportation. The DACA initiative changed that.
 During Obama’s second term, a new threat emerged. The Islamic State of Iraq
and Syria (ISIS) killed thousands and seized control of several major Iraqi cities,
towns, and oil fields. ISIS’s goal was to create an Islamic state ruled by Sunni
Muslims. As a result, the organization targeted Christians, non-Sunni Muslims
and religious minorities. In the summer of ,U.S. airstrikes were authorized
against ISIS forces in Iraq and Syria, support was given to the pro-American
Iraqi army, and humanitarian assistance was provided to civilians.
 During his term in office, President Trump signed several executive orders
aimed at blocking immigration. The first order blocked entry visas into the U.S.
for citizens from seven countries (Iran, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria and
Yemen) for 90 days. Later orders added travelers from North Korea and certain
government officials from Venezuela. According to President Trump the bans
were needed since the countries had significant terrorist presence within their
own territory. Legal challenges to these orders made their way through the
courts, with the Supreme Court ultimately upholding their constitutionality.
 For only the third time in U.S. history, a president was impeached by the House
of Representatives but not removed from office by the Senate.
 The problem began when President Trump sought assistance from Ukraine’s
government to get reelected in November 2020 by holding back millions of
 dollars of military aid. Before he would make the aid available, Trump wanted
the Ukrainian government to publicly announce an investigation into Joe Biden,
the man who was leading the Democratic ticket to challenge him in the election.
Polls had suggested that Biden would win. In exchange Trump would make the
funds available and meet with the Ukrainian president. During the
impeachment hearings, Trump refused to allow his executive staff to testify
about the incident. The president was charged on two counts: abuse of power
and obstruction of Congress. However, the Senate voted for an acquittal and
he remained in office.
 Over his four years in office, President Trump’s administration focused on
security by strengthening border defenses and immigration controls, expanding
the U.S. military, taking an “America First” approach to trade, and looking at
diplomacy whereby “old enemies become friends.”
 Perhaps the most controversial foreign policy has been the U.S.-Mexico Border
Wall. During his 2016 presidential campaign, Trump promised to build a “big,
beautiful wall” along the 1,954-mile border and make Mexico pay for it.
Naturally Mexico declined.The Trump administration spent more than $15
billion on the portion of the wall that it managed to build during the Trump
presidency.
 Where was this money coming from? The vast majority of the money came
from the U.S. Department of Defense, specifically from counter-drug operations
and military infrastructure projects. Trump declared the immigration problem a
national emergency and was thus able to redirect these funds. In addition, the
Department of Homeland Security waived a series of federal laws in order to
speed up construction.
 Of course, the funding of the wall caused a struggle with Congress, who is
given the power to budget federal money by the U.S. Constitution. Early in 2019
Trump responded to Congress’s denial of wall funds with the longest
government shutdown in U.S. history. For 35 days ordinary government
operations ceased. Even though the government eventually reopened,
challenges to the wall continued to be heard in the courts. In one case, the U.S.
Supreme Court allowed the Trump administration to begin construction of the
border wall using military funds that Congress had denied.

L9 Vocabulary and Key Concepts

Vocabulary
New Frontier: President Kennedy’s domestic program.
Great Society: President Johnson’s program to improve people’s lives, especially the
poor.
Affirmative Action: Program designed to improve opportunities for minorities.
Hush Money: Payments made to the Watergate burglars in return for their silence.
Deregulate: Reagan’s policy of reducing government regulations on business.

Summarize Key Concepts

Section A: The End of the Century
The inauguration of John F. Kennedy did represent the transfer of power to a new
generation of leaders, as all presidents from that point were born in the 20th century.
The political spectrum shifted from liberal to conservative and back again. But
regardless of which philosophy was dominant, programs and policies were created that
benefitted large sections of the public. Serious scandals hit both Nixon and Clinton, but
the country survived.

 New Frontier: The name given to Kennedy’s domestic agenda.

 Great Society: Lyndon Johnson’s program to improve the lives of
Americans.
 Supreme Court: A series of decisions by the Warren Court expanded civil
rights and civil liberties.
 Nixon’s Domestic Policy: Despite Nixon’s neglect of the needs of
minorities, numerous policies including affirmative action and assistance
programs were improved.
 Watergate: Nixon’s attempt to cover up illegal campaign activities of his
aides and re-election committee.
 Deregulation: Efforts under Reagan to loosen federal regulation of
business.
 Operation Desert Storm: The military removal of Iraqi forces from the
nation of Kuwait.
 Middle East: President Clinton facilitated improved relations between Israel
and the Palestinian Liberation Organization.

Section B: A New Century Presents New Challenges

George W. Bush became the first president elected in the 21st century. His policy was
to implement “compassionate conservatism” as his domestic agenda. However the
terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, dominated his presidency. In 2008 the nation
elected Barack Obama. The country’s first African American president faced opposition
from conservatives as well as racist groups.

 Compassionate Conservatism: Bush’s program centered around tax relief

and education.
 9/11: The terrorist attack on the U.S. in September of 2001.
 Tea Party: A conservative group that actively opposed Obama’s agenda.
 DACA: Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals, a program to protect those
brought to the U.S. as children.
 ISIS: Obama continued to pursue action in Iraq, Syria and Afghanistan
against terrorists.
 Paris Climate Agreement: International agreement to reduce carbon
emissions.

Section C: The Trump and Biden Administrations

Donald Trump lost the 2016 popular vote, but won a majority of the Electoral College
votes, thus becoming president. This alone made the start of his term controversial. As
president Trump worked to reduce immigration and secure the borders. He was
impeached for his efforts to use aid for Ukraine to get that nation to investigate his rival
Joe Biden. Although Trump was dismissive of the coronavirus threat, his program
Operation Warp Speed produced a vaccine quickly. Still, Trump lost reelection, while
claiming he actually won. Joseph R. Biden took office with the responsibility of leading
the nation into economic recovery.

 Immigration: Trump advocated for reduced immigration and increased

deportations.
 Border Security: Trump proposed building a wall along the southern
border with Mexico.
 Coronavirus: This deadly virus shut down much of the country by the
spring of 2020.
 January 6, 2021: Supporters of President Trump, claiming he had actually
won the 2020 election,rioted and stormed the U.S. capitol.
 Ukraine: President Biden has has to work to maintain support for Ukraine’s
resistance to Russian invasion.