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Theory Lesson
1 Importance of computer literacy
You have probably come into contact with automatic teller machines (ATMs), price scanners at the
supermarket or a voice on the telephone that tells you that you are second in the queue. These are all
part of a computer system. The average person interacts with a computer several times a day.

Computers are currently used in a wide variety of applications and professions. In today’s rapidly
changing business environment new applications are being developed everyday. Nowadays, knowing
how to use a computer, especially a personal computer, is a basic skill necessary to succeed in business
and function effectively in society. Given the increasing use and availability of computer systems, such
knowledge is considered to do so in future. Learning about computers and their applications will help
you function more effectively in the modern world.

You will probably need to use computers in your job as will as in the pursuit of private interests.
Although most employers do not expect job seekers to be computer experts, they do expect potential
employees to be prepared to use computers. You must have a basic understanding of what a computer
is and how it can be used as a resource before you can be considered computer literate.

A good analogy is the use of a motor car. Most people have little knowledge of the inner workings of a
car. Nevertheless, in order to function in modern society, you need to be a proficient driver. Computer
literacy refers to the effective use of a computer without necessarily being an expert on its inner
operations.

1.1 What is a computer?

A computer is an electronic information processor that is able to perform substantial
computation without intervention by human operators.
It is an electronic device that works under the control of stored programs accepting data,
processing it to produce information which is then stored for future reference.

Computers can accept data, process data, output information and store data / information.

1.2 Advantages of using computers

A few facts about computers:
 Computers are reliable.
 Computers can store massive amounts of data.
 Data can be moved quickly and easily from one point to another.
 Data can be collected easily.
 Data can be processed with great speed.
 Data can be manipulated over and over again with ease.
 Computers can perform calculations not only quickly, but usually with great accuracy.
 Output can be produced in more useable forms.

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1.3 ICT in everyday life

1.3.1 What is ICT?
ICT stands for Information and Communication Technology. ICT refers to the combination
of communication technology with information technology to provide a network of
connected computers or other electronic devices. Computer communication describes the
process whereby computers or devices directly transfer electronic information from one to
the other.

Example: You may transfer photos from your cellphone to your computer using Bluetooth.
Or download music from a server to your personal computer over the internet.

1.3.2 E-commerce
E-commerce refers to conducting business transactions and communication, and focusing on
financial transaction, online. It is the buying and selling of goods and services, and the
transfer of funds, using digital communication. Vendors thus make use of electronic
information technologies on the internet to sell directly to customers and process purchase
transactions automatically. E-commerce includes retail shopping, banking, share and bond
trading, auctions, airline booking and virtually any other imaginable form of trade.

Business -to-consumer transactions involve online selling. Amazon.com and Kalahari.net are
examples of online shops with electronic storefront where users purchase, using an
electronic shopping cart. A shopping cart on the internet is a virtual shopping cart that keeps
track of the items you have ordered from a particular site. It allows you to add and remove
items. After completing your shopping, you check out the cart. Details of all the items
contained in the cart are sent to the retailer who then prepares a sales invoice. You pay
online for the total value of your purchase by providing a credit card number. The physical
goods are then dispatched to you using postage or courier services eg be-forward

Consumer-to-consumer transactions are generally conducted via online auctions as, for
example, those performed on eBay and Bid-or-Buy.

The majority of online transactions occur between businesses referred to as business-to-

business transactions. Examples are technical support, marketing and market research.
Manufacturers can order raw materials and other components directly from suppliers using
electronic communications. Modern software designed for large organisations can automate
much of the process.

1.3.3 E-learning
E-learning referred to using the internet to facilitate learning through the online delivery of
learning objects.

Example: e-leaning for Kids e-learningforkids.org

This website covers some common languages, from early childhood and grade 1 to grade 6,
and 8 subjects such as maths, science, life skills and computer etc.

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Advantages of e-learning:

 Self-pace(flexible learning schedule)

 Flexible learning location
 Up-to-date material
 Immediate feedback
 With the various advances numerous multimedia elements
 Basically free
2 Types of computer
2.1 Personal computer (desktop)
A desk computer is a computer for use by an individual in an office or home. It runs on electrical
power from a wall outlet. A typical desktop computer consists of a system unit, monitor,
keyboard and mouse. Office and home workers are typical users of this type of computer.

Monitor

speakers
System Unit

Mouse

Keyboard
2.2 Laptop
A laptop is a small, lightweight computer that incorporates a system unit, screen, keyboard and
touchpad in a single portable unit. It can operate directly from electrical power or from a built-in
battery. Laptops are ideal for mobile use. Typical users are professionals and people who need to
work both at home and the office or who travel extensively.

Monitor

Keyboard
Touchpad

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Desktops Laptops
Cheaper more expensive
Higher specification lower specification
To repair the hardware easier very difficult to repair the hardware
To modify hardware easier difficult to modify hardware
Not portable portable
More comfortable to use small monitor, small keyboard
Electric supply source from outlet to have built-in battery
2.3 Mobile phone
A mobile phone or cellphone is a portable electronic device used primarily for mobile
communication via very high frequency radio waves. Current mobile phones can support many
additional services in addition to voice communication. Examples are text messaging (SMS), e-
mail, internet access, multimedia functions, built-in camera and even GPS (global positioning
system) services.

2.4 PDA (Personal Digital Assistant)

A PDA is a handheld device that typically offers an electronic diary (appointment book), calendar,
conducts address book, calculator and notepad. Nowadays you can use them to access the
internet, send e-mails, connect to wireless networks, use word processing and spreadsheet
software and so on. PDAs usually have touch screens.

2.5 Smartphone
A smartphone is a full-featured mobile phone that offers the functions of a mobile phone and
PDA in one device. A smartphone uses an operating system allowing you to install and remove
programmes.

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2.6 Multimedia player

A multimedia player is a portable device that focuses on storing, organising and playing audio and
video files. The best known and current top seller is the iPod range from Apple.

2.7 Mainframe computer (Super computer)

Mainframe computers are large, expensive, high-performance computers designed to meet a big
organisation’s computing needs. They are used for high-volume and processor-intensive tasks.
Mainframes are capable of supporting a large number of users and are often shared by multiple
users connected to the computer via terminals. Typical users are banks, governments and
multinational corporations. Mainframes are usually housed in large, air-conditioned rooms.

3 Input device and output device

3.1 Structure of computer
Computer consists of hardware and software.

3.1.1 Hardware
Hardware refers to the physical parts or components of the computer system that are used
for input, processing and output activities.

3.1.2 Software
Software is an inanimate device. The software refers to the instructions that enable the
hardware to function. The Programs stored electronically in the computer chips. They can

Be divided into two categories; system software and application software.

3.1.3 Construction of hardware

Hardware consists of:
Input devices, system unit, output devices, and secondary storage devices.

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Input
(Keyboard, mouse)

System Unit

Processing Storage
(CPU, memory) (Diskette, hard disk)

Output
(Monitor, printer, projector)

3.2 Input devices

Input devices are used to enter / capture data into a computer. The two devices most commonly
used are the keyboard and the mouse.

3.2.1 Mouse
A mouse is a pointing device that is used to select processing option or data displayed on the
screen. The mouse is used to move a cursor up and down the screen. The symbol, called a
mouse pointer. It generally has the shape of arrow. You move the mouse across a flat surface
such as a table or desk to control the movement of the pointer on your screen. At the
bottom of the mouse is a small ball or an optical instrument, which sense the movement of
the mouse. On top of the mouse are two or more buttons. You use the buttons to perform
actions such as selecting a menu option. If a mouse has a wheel, roll it to scroll up and down
in a document.

The left mouse

button A wheel

The right
mouse button

3.2.2 Keyboard
Users input data to a computer by pressing the keys on the keyboard. It has the
alphanumeric values; alphabetical letter and numerical digits

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Esc: The Escape key is used to cancel an instruction or exit from a situation.
Caps Lock: The Caps Lock key capitalises all the letters typed while it is on.
Shift: The Shift key capitalises letters while you are holding it down and enters the
top symbol on keys that contain two symbols.
Tab: The Tab key moves the insertion pointer to the next tab-stop.
Enter: The Enter key indicates that you have completed a command or want to
move the insertion pointer down.
Ctrl, Alt: The Ctrl and Alt keys are used in conjunction with other keys.
Del: The Delete key deletes the character to the right of the insertion pointer.
Backspace: The Backspace key deletes the character to the left of the insertion pointer.
F1 to F12: These Function keys are programmed by various software packages to give
specific instructions to a computer.
Insert: The Insert key switches you between insert and overtype modes.
Home: The Home key takes you to the beginning of a line.
End: The End key takes you to the end of a line.
←↑↓→: The Arrow keys move the insertion pointer in the indicated direction.
Page Up, Page Down: The Page Up and Page Down keys move the insertion pointer one
screen up or down.

The alphabetic keys are arranged like the keys on a typewriter.

The numeric keys are arranged like the keys on a calculator to facilitate entering numeric
data.

Some keyboards contain additional buttons to activate functions.

3.2.3 Scanner
A scanner converts information on paper into digital information that can be used by a
computer.

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3.2.4 Touchpad
A touchpad is a touch-sensitive surface on which you glide you fingers to move the on-screen
mouse pointer. The touchpad has sensors that respond to finger movements. Touchpads are
usually found on notebooks.

3.2.5 Digital camera

Digital cameras use digital technology to capture images and digitally store the captured
images on flash memory cards.

3.2.6 Web camera

A web camera is a camera that is connected to a computer in order to generate images that
can be displayed and accessed via the World Wide Web.

3.2.7 Joystick
A joystick is used primarily for computer games.

3.2.8 Others
Microphone and fingerprint reader etc. are also input devices.

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3.3 Output devices

Output refers to devices used to display results of processing to users, such as screens and
printers. Those devices that are used when retrieving or accessing data / information from the
computer system.

3.3.1 Screen / Monitor

A screen is a display device. Most computing devices have a screen.

LCD: liquid crystal display CRT: cathode ray tube

More expensive Less expensive

Consumes less power Consumes more power
Consumes less space Heavy and bulky

3.3.2 Printer
A printer produces the paper output of electronic data (hardcopy). It produces a printout.
Currently most printers are connected to computers via a USB port.

3.3.3 Speaker
A speaker is a sound output system.

Headphones are small speakers that are designed to fit into or on your ears.

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3.3.4 Projector (Beamer)

An image projector (Beamer) is an optical device that projects an image onto a surface. It is
for creating slides from computer for presentation. Its a display unit; by projecting onto the
wall or any white background upright object.

4 Processing and Storage

4.1 System unit
The system unit is the case within which you will find the central processing unit (CPU),
motherboard, expansion cards, storages (internal hard disk) and power supply etc ; as listed
below:

These are some of the internal components of the computer system unit.

Cmos Battery ( Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor).... storing motherboard settings

The expansion card can be inserted into an expansion slot of a motherboard to add functionality
to a computer system.
A power supply is a device that supplies electrical energy to a computer. It converts AC to DC
power. Regulates power supplied to the computer system.

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4.2 Processing devices

4.2.1 CPU(Central Processing Unit)
The CPU is the brain of the computer. In a personal computer, the CPU is contained on a
single integrated circuit called a microprocessor . An integrated circuit also called a chip or
IC. The microprocessor is located on the motherboard. The job of the CPU is to retrieve
instructions and data from main memory and to perform each operation.

When a computer operates, a CPU is heating so CPUs must be with a heat-sink and an
electric fan in the system unit. If a CPU doesn’t use any cooling systems, it must overheat
and the computer will shutdown.

The speed (operating frequency) of the CPU is measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz
(GHz). 1Hz represents 1pulse per second. 1MHz is equal to 1million pulse per second while
1GHz is 1billionpulse per second. These pulses act as triggers for the operation of the CPU. It
means the rate of the clock pulse directly affects the processor speed. The larger number
Hz’s CPU operates faster. CPUs in modern laptops and desktops operate at between 1.5GHz
and 4GHz.

4.2.2 Main memory / RAM

The main memory can load from a secondary storage device and store instructions that are
used by the CPU to perform some tasks. The computer cannot function without the main
memory. All data is transferred from the hard disk to the memory before being displayed on
the screen or stored on a hard disk. When you open a programme, all the instructions the
computer needs in order to run the programme are read into the memory. Stored data in
main memory is volatile, it means, when the computer is turned off the information in the
main memory disappears and the memory is released for other duties. Access to information
is random access.

The storage capacity measurements: bit, byte, KB, MB, GB and TB. The most fundamental
item of storage is the bit. This is short for binary digit. A bit can store only a 0 or 1. Other
storage units are sets of bits. The byte is a set of eight bits. The byte can be through of as the
basic unit of memory as it can store a single character or digit. Storage space on a
computer’s storage devices is measured in bytes.

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1,024 bytes = 1 kilobyte (KB)

220 or 10242 bytes = 1 megabyte (MB)
230 or 10243 bytes = 1 gigabyte (GB)
240 or 10244 bytes = 1 terabyte (TB)

At least 128MB main memory, 300MHz CPU is needed to run Windows XP and 512MB main
memory is recommended. At least 512MB main memory, 800MHz CPU is needed to run
Windows Vista efficiently. At least 1GB main memory, 1GHz CPU is needed to run for
Windows7.

SIMM - Single-Line Memory Modules: Used to store single row of chips which are soldered onto
Printed Circuit Board.

DIMM – Dual-Line Memory Modules: Used to store two rows of chips which are soldered onto
printed circuit board and enables to contain two times memory than SIMM

DRAM – Dynamic Random Access Memory: It holds data for short time period and will be
refreshed periodically.

SDRAM - Static RAM – Holds data and refreshing is not required. It is faster than DRAM.

Flash Memory: A non volatile, rewritable and solid state memory which performs the functions of
both RAM and hard disk combined. Data is retained in the memory, in case of power loss. It is ideal
for printers, cellular phones, digital cameras, pagers.

Shadow RAM: Allows the moving of selected parts of BIOS code that is available in ROM to the
faster RAM.

Types of Computer memory

Memory is an essential element of a computer. Without its memory, a computer is of hardly any use.
Memory plays an important role in saving and retrieving data. The performance of the computer system
depends upon the size of the memory. Memory is of following types

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1. Primary Memory / Volatile Memory.

2. Secondary Memory / Non Volatile Memory.

1. Primary Memory / Volatile Memory: Primary Memory is internal memory of the

computer. RAM AND ROM both form part of primary memory. The primary memory
provides main working space to the computer. The following terms comes under primary
memory of a computer :

2. Random Access Memory (RAM): The primary storage is referred to as random access
memory (RAM) because it is possible to randomly select and use any location of the memory
directly store and retrieve data. It takes same time to any address of the memory as the first
address. It is also called read/write memory. The storage of data and instructions inside the
primary storage is temporary. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer
is switched off. The memories, which lose their content on failure of power supply, are
known as volatile memories .So now we can say that RAM is volatile memory.

 Read Only Memory (ROM): There is another memory in computer, which is called Read
Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PC that form the ROM. The storage of
program and data in the ROM is permanent. The ROM stores some standard processing
programs supplied by the manufacturers to operate the personal computer. The ROM can
only be read by the CPU but it cannot be changed. The basic input/output program is stored
in the ROM that examines and initializes various equipment attached to the PC when the
power switch is ON. The memories, which do not lose their content on failure of power
supply, are known as non-volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory.

 PROM: There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to modify or
erase programs stored in ROM, but it is possible for you to store your program in PROM
chip. Once the program is written, it cannot be changed. It remains intact even if power is
switched off. Therefore programs or instructions written in PROM or ROM cannot be erased
or changed.

 EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which overcome the
problem of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed time and again by erasing the
information stored earlier in it. Information stored in EPROM exposing the chip for some
time ultraviolet light and it erases chip and can be reprogrammed using a special
programming facility. When the EPROM is in use information can only be read.

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 Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main
memory. Therefore the performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed of main
memory. To decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached
between CPU and Main memory whose access time is very close to the processing speed of
CPU. It is called CACHE memory. CACHE memories are accessed much faster than
conventional RAM. It is used to store programs or data currently being executed or
temporary data frequently used by the CPU. So each memory makes main memory to be
faster and larger than it really is. It is also very expensive to have bigger size of cache
memory and its size is normally kept small.

 Registers: The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed; there is also movement
of data between various units of computer. It is necessary to transfer the processed data with
high speed. So the computer uses a number of special memory units called registers. They are
not part of the main memory but they store data or information temporarily and pass it on as
directed by the control unit.

2. Secondary Memory / Non-Volatile Memory: Secondary memory is external and permanent in

nature. The secondary memory is concerned with magnetic memory. Secondary memory can be
stored on storage media like floppy disks, magnetic disks, magnetic tapes, This memory can also be
stored optically on Optical disks - CD-ROM. The following terms comes under secondary memory
of a computer:

 Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tapes are used for large computers like mainframe computers
where large volume of data is stored for a longer time. In PC also you can use tapes in the
form of cassettes. The cost of storing data in tapes is inexpensive. Tapes consist of magnetic
materials that store data permanently. It can be 12.5 mm to 25 mm wide plastic film-type and
500 meter to 1200 meter long which is coated with magnetic material. The deck is connected
to the central processor and information is fed into or read from the tape through the
processor. It’s similar to cassette tape recorder.

 Magnetic Disk: You might have seen the gramophone record, which is circular like a disk
and coated with magnetic material. Magnetic disks used in computer are made on the same
principle. It rotates with very high speed inside the computer drive. Data is stored on both the
surface of the disk. Magnetic disks are most popular for direct access storage device. Each
disk consists of a number of invisible concentric circles called tracks. Information is recorded
on tracks of a disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots. The presence of a magnetic
spot represents one bit and its absence represents zero bit. The information stored in a disk
can be read many times without affecting the stored data. So the reading operation is non-
destructive. But if you want to write a new data, then the existing data is erased from the disk
and new data is recorded. For Example-Floppy Disk.

 Optical Disk: With every new application and software there is greater demand for memory
capacity. It is the necessity to store large volume of data that has led to the development of
optical disk storage medium. Optical disks can be divided into the following categories:

1. Compact Disk/ Read Only Memory (CD-ROM

2. Write Once, Read Many (WORM)
3. Erasable Optical Disk

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4.3 Storages
4.3.1 Hard disk drive (HDD)
A hard disk drive is a non-volatile, random access device for digital data. The hard disk holds
the operating system, the basic software your computer requires for it to be functional. It
will also hold other programme applications such as your word processing programmes.
Hard disk drives record data by magnetizing material directionally. Nowadays the capacity of
HDD is commonly used 160GB to 1TB.
HDDs exist two types, internal and external. Internal HDD refers to any hard disk that fitted
inside the system unit. External HDD is not fitted inside the system unit. External HDDs are
mostly accessed via the USB ports on your computer, and are excellent for making backups
as they can be stored away from the computer.

CPU Main memory HDD

Access speed faster slower
Capacity smaller larger

4.3.2 CD/DVD/BD
CD (Compact Disc), DVD (Digital Versatile Disc) and BD (Blu-ray Disc) are optical disc storage. The
standard physical media are 12cm plastic optical discs.

Capacities Features
CD-ROM Pre-recorded
CD-R 650MB or 700MB Can be recorded once
CD-RW Can be recorded and erase multiple times
DVD-ROM SL,SS 4.7GB Pre-recorded
DVD-R/DVD+R DL,SS 8.5GB Can be recorded once
DVD-RW/DVD+RW SL, DS 9.4GB Can be recorded and erase multiple times
DVD-RAM DL, DS 17.0GB
BD-ROM SL 2.5GB Pre-recorded
BD-R DL 50GB Can be recorded once
BD-RW QL 100GB, and more Can be recorded and erase multiple times
-ROM Read Only Memory
-R Recordable
-RW ReWritable
-RAM Random Access Memory
SL : Single Layer, SS : Single Sided, DL : Double Layer, DS : Double Sided
QL: Quad Layer

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 CD/DVD/BD drives
CD drive can read only CDs (CD-ROM, CD-R and CD-RW). CD-RW drive can read, write and erase
CDs. DVD drive can read DVDs and it normally has CD-RW drive function. DVD-RW drive can read,
write and erase DVD- media and CDs but DVD-RW drive cannot write and erase DVD+ and DVD-
RAM, because DVD-, DVD+ and DVD-RAM are written different process and format. DVD super
multi drive can read, write and erase all DVDs. Accepting only single layer, If the DVD super multi
drive printed DL can accept Double Layer.
These CD/DVD/BD drives are same size and style. We can distinguish these drives by the logo
printed on the drive.
4.3.3 Floppy disk drive
A floppy disk is an old-fashioned magnetic disk. The capacity is only 1.44MB. Floppy disk
drives can access floppy disks to read and write.

4.3.4 USB flash memory

A USB flash memory can be stored just like on a normal hard disk. It is inexpensive, very portable and
can store a few GB commonly. It plugs into your computer through a USB port.

4.3.5 Memory card

There is a wide variety of memory cards (microSD, SDHC, XD and so on) on the market.
Nowadays, digital cameras tend to use a SD card and cellphones tend to use a microSD to
store data.

4.3.6 Online file storage

Online file storage is not on your computer, located on the server of an external storage
provider such as google. It can be accessed via the internet. Online file storage enables you
to access your files from any place where you have an internet connection. It also makes
easy to share files with colleagues and friends. It is also a handy way of keeping backups of
your files. Always keep confidentiality and security in mind when storing information online.
Example : MyDrive www.mydrive.ch

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Computer performance

is characterized by the amount of useful work accomplished by a computer system or computer network
compared to the time and resources used.

Depending on the context, good computer performance may involve one or more of the following:

 Short response time for a given piece of work

 High throughput (rate of processing work)
 Low utilization of computing resource(s)
 High availability of the computing system or application
 Fast (or highly compact) data compression and decompression
 High bandwidth / short data transmission time

Technical definitions

The performance of any computer system can be evaluated in measurable, technical terms, using one or
more of the metrics listed above. This way the performance can be

 Compared relative to other systems or the same system before/after changes

 In absolute terms, e.g. for fulfilling a contractual obligation

Aspects of performance

Computer performance metrics (things to measure) include availability, response time, channel capacity,
latency, completion time, service time, bandwidth, throughput, relative efficiency, scalability, performance per
watt, compression ratio, instruction path length and speed up. CPU benchmarks are available.[2]

Availability

Availability of a system is typically measured as a factor of its reliability - as reliability increases, so does
availability (that is, less downtime). Availability of a system may also be increased by the strategy of focusing
on increasing testability and maintainability and not on reliability. Improving maintainability is generally easier
than reliability. Maintainability estimates (Repair rates) are also generally more accurate. However, because
the uncertainties in the reliability estimates are in most cases very large, it is likely to dominate the availability
(prediction uncertainty) problem, even while maintainability levels are very high.

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Response time

Response time is the total amount of time it takes to respond to a request for service. In computing, that
service can be any unit of work from a simple disk IO to loading a complex web page. The response time is
the sum of three numbers.

 Service time - How long it takes to do the work requested.

 Wait time - How long the request has to wait for requests queued ahead of it before it gets to run.
 Transmission time – How long it takes to move the request to the computer doing the work and the
response back to the requestor.

Processing speed

Most consumers pick a computer architecture (normally Intel) to be able to run a large base of pre-existing,
pre-compiled software. Being relatively uninformed on computer benchmarks, some of them pick a particular
CPU based on operating frequency.

Some system designers building parallel computers pick CPUs based on the speed per dollar.

Channel capacity

Channel capacity is the tightest upper bound on the rate of information that can be reliably transmitted over a
communications channel, which can be achieved with arbitrarily small error probability.

Latency

Latency is a time delay between the cause and the effect of some physical change in the system being
observed. Latency is a result of the limited velocity with which any physical interaction can take place. This
velocity is always lower or equal to speed of light. Therefore every physical system that has spatial
dimensions different from zero will experience some sort of latency.

Computers run sets of instructions called a process. In operating systems, the execution of the process can
be postponed if other processes are also executing. In addition, the operating system can schedule when to
perform the action that the process is commanding. For example, suppose a process commands that a
computer card's voltage output be set high-low-high-low and so on at a rate of 1000 Hz. The operating system
may choose to adjust the scheduling of each transition (high-low or low-high) based on an internal clock. The
latency is the delay between the process instruction commanding the transition and the hardware actually
transitioning the voltage from high to low or low to high.

Bandwidth

Bandwidth sometimes defines the channel capacity, or the maximum throughput of a logical or physical
communication path in a digital communication system. For example, bandwidth tests measure the maximum
throughput of a computer network.. In computer networking, bandwidth is a measurement of bit-rate of
available or consumed data communication resources, expressed in bits per second or multiples of it (bit/s,
kbit/s, Mbit/s, Gbit/s, etc.).

Throughput

In general terms, throughput is the rate of production or the rate at which something can be processed. In
communication networks, throughput is essentially synonymous to digital bandwidth consumption. In wireless
networks or cellular systems

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Scalability

Scalability is the ability of a system, network, or process to handle a growing amount of work in a capable
manner or its ability to be enlarged to accommodate that growth

Power consumption

The amount of electricity used by the computer. This becomes especially important for systems with limited
power sources such as solar, batteries, human power.

Compression ratio

Compression is useful because it helps reduce resource usage, such as data storage space or transmission
capacity. Because compressed data must be decompressed to use, this extra processing imposes
computational or other costs through decompression; this situation is far from being a free lunch. Data
compression is subject to a space–time complexity trade-off.

Size and weight

This is an important performance feature of mobile systems, from the smart phones you keep in your pocket
to the portable embedded systems in a spacecraft.

Environmental impact

The effect of a computer or computers on the environment, during manufacturing and recycling as well as
during use. Measurements are taken with the objectives of reducing waste, reducing hazardous materials,
and minimizing a computer's ecological footprint.

Software performance testing

In software engineering, performance testing is in general testing performed to determine how a system
performs in terms of responsiveness and stability under a particular workload. It can also serve to investigate,
measure, validate or verify other quality attributes of the system, such as scalability, reliability and resource
usage.

Types of Computers

Computers can perform complex and repetitive procedures quickly, precisely and reliably. Modern
computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery (wires, transistors, and circuits) is called
hardware; the instructions and data are called software

Computer sizes and power

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is considerable
overlap:

 Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor.

 Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer,
but it has a more powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higher-quality monitor.

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 Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of users

simultaneously.
 Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously.
 Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of
instructions per second.

Supercomputer and Mainframe

Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers
are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of
mathematical calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of
supercomputers scientific simulations, graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research,
electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the
best known supercomputer manufacturer is Cray Research.

Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor unit or
"main frame" of a room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the emergence of smaller
"minicomputer" designs in the early 1970s, the traditional big iron machines were described as
"mainframe computers" and eventually just as mainframes. Nowadays a Mainframe is a very large
and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously.
The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all
its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to
execute many programs concurrently. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than
supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute
a single program faster than a mainframe. The distinction between small mainframes and
minicomputers is vague, depending really on how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.

Minicomputer

It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small
mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and
workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from
up to 200 users simultaneously.

Workstation

It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software
development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount of computing power
and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations generally come with a large, high-
resolution graphics screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user
interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type
of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive. The most common
operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like personal computers, most
workstations are single-user computers. However, workstations are typically linked together to form
a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

N.B.: In networking, workstation refers to any computer connected to a local-area network. It could
be a workstation or a personal computer.

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Personal computer:

It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. In
price, personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five thousand pounds.
All are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on
one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing,
and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use
for personal computers is for playing games and recently for surfing the Internet.

Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most popular personal
computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During the late 1970s and early
1980s, new models and competing operating systems seemed to appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM
entered the fray with its first personal computer, known as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly
became the personal computer of choice, and most other personal computer manufacturers fell by the
wayside. P.C. is short for personal computer or IBM PC. One of the few companies to survive IBM's
onslaught was Apple Computer, which remains a major player in the personal computer marketplace.
Other companies adjusted to IBM's dominance by building IBM clones, computers that were
internally almost the same as the IBM PC, but that cost less. Because IBM clones used the same
microprocessors as IBM PCs, they were capable of running the same software. Over the years, IBM
has lost much of its influence in directing the evolution of PCs. Therefore after the release of the first
PC by IBM the term PC increasingly came to mean IBM or IBM-compatible personal computers, to
the exclusion of other types of personal computers, such as Macintoshes. In recent years, the term PC
has become more and more difficult to pin down. In general, though, it applies to any personal
computer based on an Intel microprocessor, or on an Intel-compatible microprocessor. For nearly
every other component, including the operating system, there are several options, all of which fall
under the rubric of PC

Today, the world of personal computers is basically divided between Apple Macintoshes and PCs.
The principal characteristics of personal computers are that they are single-user systems and are
based on microprocessors. However, although personal computers are designed as single-user
systems, it is common to link them together to form a network. In terms of power, there is great
variety. At the high end, the distinction between personal computers and workstations has faded.
High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability
as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and DEC.

III, Personal Computer Types

Actual personal computers can be generally classified by size and chassis / case. The chassis or case
is the metal frame that serves as the structural support for electronic components. Every computer
system requires at least one chassis to house the circuit boards and wiring. The chassis also contains
slots for expansion boards. If you want to insert more boards than there are slots, you will need an
expansion chassis, which provides additional slots. There are two basic flavors of chassis designs–
desktop models and tower models–but there are many variations on these two basic types. Then
come the portable computers that are computers small enough to carry. Portable computers include
notebook and subnotebook computers, hand-held computers, palmtops, and PDAs.

Tower model

The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and mass storage devices are
stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast to desktop models, in which these

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components are housed in a more compact box. The main advantage of tower models is that there are
fewer space constraints, which makes installation of additional storage devices easier.

Desktop model

A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the monitor sitting on top of
the computer. Desktop model computers are broad and low, whereas tower model computers are
narrow and tall. Because of their shape, desktop model computers are generally limited to three
internal mass storage devices. Desktop models designed to be very small are sometimes referred to
as slimline models.

Notebook computer

An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6
pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size, the principal difference
between a notebook computer and a personal computer is the display screen. Notebook computers
use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel technologies, to produce a lightweight and non-
bulky display screen. The quality of notebook display screens varies considerably. In terms of
computing power, modern notebook computers are nearly equivalent to personal computers. They
have the same CPUs, memory capacity, and disk drives. However, all this power in a small package
is expensive. Notebook computers cost about twice as much as equivalent regular-sized computers.
Notebook computers come with battery packs that enable you to run them without plugging them in.
However, the batteries need to be recharged every few hours.

Laptop computer

A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap. Nowadays, laptop computers
are more frequently called notebook computers.

Subnotebook computer

A portable computer that is slightly lighter and smaller than a full-sized notebook computer.
Typically, subnotebook computers have a smaller keyboard and screen, but are otherwise equivalent
to notebook computers.

Hand-held computer

A portable computer that is small enough to be held in one’s hand. Although extremely convenient to
carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook computers because of their small keyboards
and screens. The most popular hand-held computers are those that are specifically designed to
provide PIM (personal information manager) functions, such as a calendar and address book. Some
manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard problem by replacing the keyboard with an
electronic pen. However, these pen-based devices rely on handwriting recognition technologies,
which are still in their infancy. Hand-held computers are also called PDAs, palmtops and pocket
computers.

Palmtop

A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size computers, palmtops are
severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions such as phone books and calendars.

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Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard for input are often called hand-held computers or
PDAs. Because of their small size, most palmtop computers do not include disk drives. However,
many contain PCMCIA slots in which you can insert disk drives, modems, memory, and other
devices. Palmtops are also called PDAs, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

PDA

Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines computing, telephone/fax, and
networking features. A typical PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax sender, and personal
organizer. Unlike portable computers, most PDAs are pen-based, using a stylus rather than a
keyboard for input. This means that they also incorporate handwriting recognition features. Some
PDAs can also react to voice input by using voice recognition technologies. The field of PDA was
pioneered by Apple Computer, which introduced the Newton MessagePad in 1993. Shortly
thereafter, several other manufacturers offered similar products. To date, PDAs have had only
modest success in the marketplace, due to their high price tags and limited applications. However,
many experts believe that PDAs will eventually become common gadgets.

PDAs are also called palmtops, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

COMPUTER ROOM ENVIRONMENT

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5 Software
There are two basic types of software: system software and application software. System software
controls the basic computer operations such as copying and the storage of data on secondary storage
devices. Application software is software written to accomplish certain specific tasks such as word
processing.

5.1 System software

5.1.1 Operating system
The most important part of the system software. Operating system controls all other
programmes. Operating system interacts with application software, device drivers and
hardware to manage computer resources. (Device drivers are computer programs that
control individual hardware components. For example, printer drivers enable a computer to
work with different printers. Each time you install a new printer, you need to install an
appropriate printer driver for that specific printer.)

Examples of operating systems are:

OS Version feature
MS-DOS CUI First OS of Microsoft.
Microsoft 95, 98, 2000, XP, GUI share More than 85% market share.
Windows Vista, 7 ware
Unix Solaris, Linux CUI/ freewa Open source.
GUI re

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Apple Mac OS 9, Mac OS GUI share Need special hardware produced by

Operating X (Leopard ets) ware Apple.
System Expensive.
CUI: Character User Interface
GUI: Graphical User Interface
Open source software makes the source code available to developers who want to modify
and improve on the code.

5.2 Application software

5.2.1 Word processing
Word processing software is one of the most widely used computer applications. It enables a
user to produce or modify documents that consist primarily of text. Million of people use
word processing software everyday to create letters, memos, reports and other documents.
Examples : Microsoft Office Word, Open Office Writer, Star Office Writer

Advantages of using electronic documents:

 One of the primary advantages of an electronic document over a manual is the capability
to easily change what has been done. Because the document has been stored
electronically, you can add, delete or rearrange words, sentences or entire sections.
 Electronic documents can be stored and retrieve instantaneously for repeated use.
Different versions of the same document can be stored and used for different purposes.
 The design and appearance of documents can be enhanced in many ways. You can
modify the appearance of the document by changing the type style and size and by
adding special effects such as bold, italics, boxes and shading.
 You can check the spelling and grammar in a document by using a spell checker and
grammar checker.
 The document can be printed as many times as you like.
 If computers are connected in a network, stored documents can be shared amongst
users.
 Electronic documents allow you to generate a table of contents and an index easily.

5.2.2 Spreadsheets
Spreadsheet has replaced calculators and long sheets of paper for performing numerical
calculations. Spreadsheets are used for budgets, data manipulation such as sorting and
filtering data, visualise data using dynamic graphs and calculations on data.
Examples : Microsoft Office Excel, Open Office Spreadsheet, Star Office Spreadsheet

Advantages of using spreadsheets:

 One of the primary advantages of an electronic spreadsheet over a manual worksheet is
the ease of performing a what-if analysis. The term what-if refers to the ability to
change a value in a spreadsheet and immediately see the effects one other values.

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 Electronic spreadsheets can be much larger that manual worksheets. Manual

worksheets are limited by paper size. A Microsoft Office Excel 2007 worksheet contains
1,046576 rows and 16,384 columns.
 Electronic spreadsheets can perform complex mathematical, statistical and financial
calculations quickly, accurately and repeatedly.
 The design and appearance of spreadsheets can be enhanced in many ways.
 Electronic spreadsheets allow you to easily represent data graphically by producing and
charts. Charts are linked to worksheet data from which they are created and are
automatically updated to reflect changes to worksheet data. It is even possible to embed
a spreadsheet chart in a word processing document.

5.2.3 Database
Database software allows you to create a database and to retrieve, manipulate and update
data you store in it. A database refers to a collection of data that is stored in a single file or
multiple files.
Example: Microsoft Office Access

Advantages of using Access electronic databases

 You can easily navigate between the various objects in the database using the
Navigation pane.
 You can create tables without worrying about database complexities. For example,
Access can automatically detect data types when you create a table.
 You can easily link tables/database that contains related information.
 The powerful AutoFilter allows you to focus quickly on the data that you want to work
with.

5.2.4 Presentation
Presentation software allows the user to create documents (slide shows), that are used to
make presentations.
Example : Microsoft Office PowerPoint

Advantages of using presentation software

 Themes, layouts and quick styles offer a wide range of options when you format you
presentations allowing you to create presentations that look professional with
consistent formatting across all slides and objects.
 You can easily:
- Add, edit and delete text in the presentation.
- Add and remove transitions and animations to/from your slides.
- Create and insert charts/graphs in your presentation.
- Create and insert tables in your presentation.
- Spell check your presentation.
- Rearrange slides in your presentation by moving them in Slide Sorter View.
- Copy parts of one presentation into another.
 You can create handouts for your audience.

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5.2.5 Desktop publishing (DTP)

Desktop publishing software is to create publication documents on a computer for either
large scale publishing or local multifunction peripheral output and distribution. Differing
from word processing software in that the emphasis is replaced on page layout and design
rather than text composition and proofing.
Example: Microsoft Office Publisher

5.2.6 Web browsing

Web browsers allow the user to access and view web pages on the internet.
Examples : Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, Safari

5.2.7 Painting
Painting software is a drawing tool you can use to create black-and-white or colour drawings
that you can save image files using different file formats.
Examples : Microsoft Paint, Adobe Illustrator

5.2.8 Computer games

Computer games are games written to be played on a computer.
Examples : Hearts card game, Minesweeper, Pinball

5.2.9 Media player

Media players allow the user to listen to audio files and watch video files.
Examples : Windows Media Player, iTune

5.2.10CD/DVD/BD burning
CD/DVD/BD burning software allows the user to burn(write) files to CD/DVD or BD.
Examples : BurnIn, Ashampoo

5.2.11PDF reader
PDF is very popular format for distributing documentation that does not need editing. PDF
reader software can read and open PDF files.
Example : Adobe Acrobat Reader

6 Network
6.1 What is network
Network connects computers and computer equipments in a building, around the countries and
across the works by wire cables, optical fibre cables, microwave links or satellite.

6.2 Advantages of using networks

 Hardware resource sharing
Each computer on the network to access devices would be too expensive to provide for each
user such as colour printers and the internet access.
 Software resource sharing

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Multiple users can access frequently used software which is stored on the hard disk of the
server. This is especially the case with database software that can be very expensive.
 Information resource sharing
Anyone using a personal computer on the network to access the data stored on any other
computer in the network. Files, calendars and address books can be stored on a central
computer generally known as a server. These can then be accessed by other computers
(called clients). Furthermore, several users can work together on a proposal, budget, or any
other document.
 Financial resources arrange efficient
Expensive high performance computers can be used only for processing and storage while
less-expensive personal computers can be used for data input and information.

6.3 LAN/WAN
There are two basic types of networks, LAN and WAN

6.3.1 LAN (Local Area Network)

A LAN is a privately owned communications network that covers a limited geographical area
such as a school computer laboratory, an office or a building. When only one user connects a
PC and peripheral devices (cellphone, printer, PDA), it is called a PAN (Personal Area
Network). If a LAN uses wireless transmission, it is called a WLAN (Wireless Local Area
Network)

- Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless network technology. Bluetooth is commonly used to
link cellphones to computers. Bluetooth transfers data at 1 Mbps and can connect
devices as far as 8m to 10m apart. When using infrared, devices must have “line-of-
sight”. The infrared parts must face each other. With Bluetooth the devices need only to
be in range of each other.

6.3.2 WAN (Wide Area Network)

If the network is over a wider geographical area, and the computers are remote from one
another, then it is called a WAN. The world’s largest WAN is the internet.
6.4 Network structure
Below is typical network structure.

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ISP (Internet Service Provider)

College
Router
(with modem,firewalling)

Web server Mail server

Network switch Network switch Network switch

Secretary database
Printer Access Point

Accountant Computer1

Computer1 Computer2

File server Computer2

Computer3 Computer4

Printer Printer

Admin Computer Lab

Library
Office

 ISP (Internet Service Provider)

An IPS is a company that provides access to the internet.
Examples : Econet, Zarnet
 Router/Network Switch
A router and a network switch are devices that forward data from one network to another. A
router has WAN interface.
 Server

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A server is a computer on a network that manages network resources to other computers

(client computers). Servers are often dedicated only their server tasks.
 Wireless Access Point (WAP)
A wireless access point is a device that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired
network.
 Modem
A modem is a device that converts between analog signals between digital data.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Topology refers to the way in which the network of computers is connected. It is the physical design
of computers or networking devices in a LAN. Each topology is suited to specific tasks and has its
own advantages and disadvantages.

The choice of topology is dependent upon

 type and number of equipment being used

 planned applications and rate of data transfers
 required response times
 cost

There are FOUR major competing topologies

 Bus
 Ring
 Star
 Tree
 Mesh

Most networking software support all topologies.

Bus Topology

Bus Network Topology

 all workstations connect to the same cable segment

 commonly used for implementing Ethernet at 10mbps
 the cable is terminated at each end
 wiring is normally done point to point
 a faulty cable or workstation will take the entire LAN down

The bus cable carries the transmitted message along the cable. As the message arrives at each
workstation, the workstation computer checks the destination address contained in the message to see
if it matches it's own. If the address does not match, the workstation does nothing more.

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If the workstation address matches that contained in the message, the workstation processes the
message. The message is transmitted along the cable and is visible to all computers connected to that
cable.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

This protocol is commonly used in bus (Ethernet) implementations.

Multiple access refers to the fact that in bus systems, each station has access to the common cable.

Carrier sense refers to the fact that each station listens to see if no other station is transmitting before
sending data.

Collision detection refers to the principle of listening to see if other stations are transmitting whilst
we are transmitting.

In bus systems, all stations have access to the same cable medium. It is therefore possible that a
station may already be transmitting when another station wants to transmit. Rule 1 is that a station
must listen to determine if another station is transmitting before initiating a transmission. If the
network is busy, then the station must back off and wait a random interval before trying again.

Rule 2 is that a station which is transmitting must monitor the network to see if another station has
begun transmission. This is a collision, and if this occurs, both stations must back off and retry after
a random time interval. As it takes a finite time for signals to travel down the cable, it is possible for
more than one station to think that the network is free and both grab it at the same time.

CSMA/CD models what happens in the real world. People involved in group conversation tend to
obey much the same behavior.

Advantages of Bus Topology

It is easy to handle and implement.
It is best suited for small networks.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
The cable length is limited. This limits the number of stations that can be connected.
This network topology can perform well only for a limited number of nodes.
Ring Topology

Ring Network Topology

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All
messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise").
A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.

To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, or Token Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in
some office buildings or school campuses.

Advantage of Ring Topology

The data being transmitted between two nodes passes through all the intermediate nodes. A central server

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is not required for the management of this topology.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology
The failure of a single node of the network can cause the entire network to fail.
The movement or changes made to network nodes affects the performance of the entire network.
Mesh Topology

Mesh Network Topology

Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a
mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring,
although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction.) Some WANs, most notably the
Internet, employ mesh routing.

A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As shown in the
illustration, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to others.

Advantage of Mesh Topology

The arrangement of the network nodes is such that it is possible to transmit data from one node to many
other nodes at the same time.

Disadvantage of Mesh Topology

The arrangement wherein every network node is connected to every other node of the network, many of
the connections serve no major purpose. This leads to the redundancy of many of the network connections.

Star Topology

Star Network Topology

Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point called a
"hub" that may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair
(UTP) Ethernet.

Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network
cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however,
the entire network also fails.)

Advantages of Star Topology

Due to its centralized nature, the topology offers simplicity of operation.
It also achieves an isolation of each device in the network.

Disadvantage of Star Topology

The network operation depends on the functioning of the central hub. Hence, the failure of the central hub
leads to the failure of the entire network.

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Summary
Topologies remain an important part of network design theory. You can probably build a home or small
business computer network without understanding the difference between a bus design and a star design,
but becoming familiar with the standard topologies gives you a better understanding of important
networking concepts like hubs, broadcasts, and routes.

6.5 Intranet/Extranet
6.5.1 Intranet
An intranet is a private computer network to securely share information within an
organization.

6.5.2 Extranet
An extranet is a computer network that allows controlled access from the outside, for
example, for specific business or educational purposes.

Extranet

Intranet Group Organization

Central Office

Client
Branch Office A Branch Office B

6.6 Internet connection services

6.6.1 Dial-up
Dial-up connection is using a phone and a modem. Modem is a device that modulates and
demodulates between analog signal and digital signal data. The maximum speed is 56kbps.

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6.6.2 Broadband
Broadband refers to any kind of fast internet connection.
 ISDN (Integrated Service Digital Network)
ISDN is one of the oldest broadband digital access methods using ordinary phone lines. ISDN
uses the dial-up connection. The maximum speed is 128kbps.
 ADSL (Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line)
ADSL provides high-speed networking over ordinary phone lines using digital modem
technology. The maximum speed is a few Mbps.

6.6.3 3G (3rd Generation)

3G is the cellular versions of ADSL. The maximum speed is 384kbps.

6.7 Options for connecting to the internet

Connect to the internet in the following ways:
 Mobile phone
You can use your mobile phone as a modem to connect your computer to the internet.
 Cable
You can connect to the internet using a twisted-pair, co-axial or optical fibre cable.
 Wireless
You can connect to the internet via a wireless network. You connect to the wireless network
and then access the internet via a router.
 Satellite
You can also connect to the internet via satellite. Satellite provides a way to connect people
in remote areas to the internet where other methods would be too expensive.

7 Internet and e-mail

7.1 Internet
The internet is a wide-area network that links millions of computers worldwide. Anyone
anywhere in the world who has a computer and a connection to the internet can communicate
with all the other people on the internet to gather information, market products, share insights,
and just have fun.

You can use the internet for the following:

 Browsing
Browse web pages on the WWW (World Wide Web: WWW is a system of interlinked
hypertext documents accessed via the internet). Web pages are created in a special format
know as html (HyperText Markup Languege). A browser is a type of reader that can interpret
this format and display it on-screen. Internet Explorer is an example.
 Searching
You can use an internet search engine to search for information on virtually any topic.
 E-mail
You can use the internet to write, send and receive e-mails.
 File transfer

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Use FTP (File Transfer Protocol) to transfer large files between users. Protocol is a technical
word for a rule or set of rules that control an aspect of communication.
 E-commerce
You can use the internet to purchase and sell products.

Other services the internet offers include newsgroups, chat rooms and internet telephony.

Every user who is connected to the internet has a unique address, similar to a postal address or
telephone number. It’s called web address. A web address will look something like this
www.google.co.zw

7.2 E-mail
E-mail is the transmission of messages over communications networks.

Advantages of the e-mail:

 It’s fast. Message can be sent anywhere around the world in an instant.
 It’s simple. Easy to use, after initial setup.
 It’s cheap. Transmission usually costs nothing.
 It’s efficient. Sending to a group can be done in one step.
 It’s versatile. Pictures, document files or other files can be sent, too.

Disadvantages of the e-mail:

 Lack of the computer knowledge among people might not to use e-mail system.
 Unwanted SPAM e-mails. SPAM e-mails refer to unsolicited bulk e-mail or junk e-mail.
 Illegal contents including VIRUS damages end user systems, data and reputation.
 E-mail might not send due to loss of connection to the internet.

Many companies provide free online e-mail services. For examples are Google provides gmail
service, Yahoo provides Yahoo! Mail service and Microsoft provides hotmail service etc.

The online e-mail services have 5 more advantages in addition to the advantages of e-mail that
are “It’s fast, simple, cheap, efficient and versatile.”
 These services have SPAM filter.
 You can use the e-mail any computers that are connected on the internet.
 You need not any initial setup.
 These services provide you a few GBytes free online storage for storing your messages.
Examples: Gmail service provides 7.5GB. Yahoo! Mail service provides 1GB. Hotmail service
provides 1GB.
 These services check viruses on the received mail.

Before you have an e-mail account, you need to know that

 You must not tell anybody your password.
 You must not open attached files sent from stranger and suspicious mail.
 You must sign out after using.
 You must not tell your any passwords on the e-mail.

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 When you have online e-mail account and don’t sign it in for a long time, your account will
be deleted or deactivated.
Examples: Gmail service automatically deletes your account after 9 months from the last
sign in, Yahoo! Mail service does after 3 months from the last sign in and Hotmail service
does after 1 month from the last sign in.

8 Security
Information is vital and therefore needs to be protected and kept secure. The data you gathered and
files you created may represent a large investment in terms of time. If your work is lost for any reason,
time and money are lost.

Data can be lost or damaged due to:

 Human error. For example, overwriting correct information with incorrect information.
 File being corrupted.
 Equipment failure.
 Theft.
 Fatality. For examples, power surges, lightning, floods, fire and natural disasters.

Important aspects in a computerised environment

 Confidentiality
Information should be available only to those who are supposed to have it, but there are risks if
other people may have access to it. This needs to be prevented.
 Integrity
Information stored for later use should be correct and complete for the purpose for which it was
obtained information but there are times when the information can be corrupted.
 Availability
Information stored for later use should be available when people entitled to it need it. This is not
always the case as information can be difficult to retrieve in case of power failure.

Computer Systems can be threatened in different ways.

 Hardware failure
The physical parts of a computer system may fail to work. For example the hard disk may crash or
the keyboard may fail to function.
 Software failure
The programmes that are used with the hardware to make a complete functional computer may be
damaged by a fatal programme known as a virus or cease to work in the intended way.
 The information itself can be damaged, deleted or lost in some way.

There are different threats that can attack computer system and it is necessary to know about them and
to know how to secure systems against these threats. When working in an office without a networked
computer it is relatively easy to attain a high level of security. All you need to do is lock the office each
time you leave and ensure that important documents are not left lying about for visitors to read.

8.1 Basic rules of computer security

 Use strong password protection on your system.

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 Change passwords regularly.

 Never share passwords.
 When working on sensitive topics, only use a computer in a secure environment such as the
office or home.
 Make regular back-ups of data and your system.
 Keep at least one back-up in a secure remote site.
 Be wary of e-mail from senders you do not know.
 Do not download from website that you are not sure you can trust.
 Never use pirated software.
 Make sure you have a good firewall, antivirus and anti spyware software installed.
 Update your security software on a regular basis.
 Before using any software or data on a disk, scan the disk with the security software.
 Always educate yourself on the latest security threats and protection.

8.2 Back-up
To guard against loss it is essential to back-up your file regularly. Back-up is the copying or saving
of data to a different location. If the data is lost or damaged you can restore the back-up copy to
recover the lost or damaged data. Different location can mean a different drive on your computer
or a totally different location geographically.

Good back-up policies

 Back-up on a regular basis such as daily.
 Store your back-ups off-site (in a different location from the computer).
 Make more than I copy and keep copies in separate locations.
 Protect your back-ups with a password when backing-up personal or sensitive information.
 Use of good quality media for backing-up. Avoid using cheap CDs.
 Consider the possibility of online storage with a reputable company.

8.3 Data theft

Data theft is the unauthorised removal of data from a computer. The data stolen usually have a
commercial value. Data most commonly stolen are e-mail address books, customer data bases
with contact details, presentations, proposals and other sensitive or valuable information such as
designs and software code.

How to prevent data theft

 Using a user ID and password will prevent people from getting unauthorised access to your
computer.
 Always log off when leaving your computer unattended for a while.
 You can disable drives to prevent people from copying sensitive information from your hard
disk to removable media such as external hard disks, USB memories, CDs and DVDs.
 Lock your computer and other hardware using security cables to prevent the theft of both the
computer and the data stored on it.
 Assign strong passwords to important documents.

8.4 Computer viruses

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A computer virus is a type of malicious programmes that can spread across computers and
networks by making copies of itself usually without the user’s knowledge. To be classified as a
virus it must be able to replicate itself.

How can a computer acquire a virus

 Using other people’s infected flash memories.
 Copying illegal software.
 Starting the computer with infected boot disc in the drives.
 Opening electronic mail messages or attachments which have been infected. Unless you
recognise the sender and the sender tell s you something is attached do not open it – just
delete it.
 Downloading infected software on the internet.

How to prevent computer virus infection

 Do not use other people’s flash memories unless you first check for viruses.
 Do not illegally copy software and use it with your machine.
 Beware of internet downloads. Some of them may have a virus.
 Ensure that there is no boot disc in the drive when you boot up the computer.
 Avoid opening SPAM electronic messages which advertise offers something good.
 Install anti-virus software and keep it up-to-date.

Examples of Anti-virus programmes are:

 AVG http://free.avg.com/
 Avast! http://www.avast.com/
 Avira http://www.avira.com/
 Nod32

What the anti-virus programme can do

 Attempt to repair the file by removing the virus from the file.
 Quarantine the file by making it inaccessible to other programmes so that the virus can no
longer spread.
 Delete the infected files.

8.4.1 Computers as research tools

 The World Wide Web
The World Wide Web is a massive information resource, offering a wide variety of
information to a host of users. A growing amount of this information is useful for
children at primary school level. Search engines like Yahoo, Alta Vista and Google
provide a route this information. In some cases, teachers and researchers are providing
access to such resources on their own web sites. The information in this case is a simple
click away.

 CD Rom based information

There is a wide variety of information on CD Rom.
These include

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- encyclopedias like Encarta,

- atlases like Encarta World Atlas
- Other information like Microsoft Oceans, Microsoft Dangerous Creatures, and
Microsoft Ancient Lands.
- Other vendors like Dorling Kindersley also provide information on CD Rom.

The advantage of using this kind of software is that:

- text, graphics and sound clips can be copied directly from them
- Making it unnecessary for children to rewrite and photo stat material.
- This allows them to concentrate on other important aspects of writing such as
design and layout, summarizing and synthesizing.

 Shared research
Electronic mail makes is easier than ever to share information and get involved in
collaborative research.
Several formal projects exist, which allow children to get involved in real research.
These could include shared projects of many types, including:
- Water pollution studies (cheap water pollution kits are readily available) whereby
schools across the world can compare water pollution data.
- Climate studies are also easy to do. Simply collect daily weather readings and share
them with a school inland in the northern hemisphere.
- Plotting the relevant information on a graph using a spreadsheet provides many
interesting talking points and a great deal of useful learning.
- Descriptions of the projects, together with discussion and findings, can be published
in a variety of ways (including the www) for all participants to share.

8.4.2 Computers as problem solving tools

A variety of software provides the opportunity for problem solving activities,
 spreadsheets for mathematical problem solving and investigations
 data base software for data manipulation and analysis,
These present a useful environment for children to work collaboratively in a problem-solving
mode.

8.4.3 Computers as creative tools

There are a growing number of programs that fit into this category.
Microsoft Movie Maker, which allows children to make their own movies, with action, sound
and story line, springs to mind.

8.4.4 Computers as presentation tools

 Word processors
- Word processors are powerful tools which allow one to create, edit and format text
in a variety of ways.
- They also allow one to present a clean and tidy final copy.
- An added advantage is that the information can be stored digitally more or less
forever, allowing one to revisit the information and change it, should one need to.

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This has a big advantage over traditional (pen and paper) methods of presenting
work.

 Presentation packages
Presentation packages like:
- Microsoft Power Point
- Corel Presentations and
- Lotus Freelance Graphics are widely used in many settings

They offer a variety of advantages over old methods of presenting information,

including:
- the ability to use pictures,
- tables,
- organizational charts,
- Video clips and sound.
- slide projectors

 The Webpage - a new creative canvas for presenting project work

Project work in schools is usually presented in a project book of sorts, or on a piece of
card which gets stuck onto the classroom wall. The webpage offers many advantages
over this method. It allows a high degree of manipulation with respect to images and
text, including sound and video. It also allows one to provide links to related
information - across the world in many cases. It is also easily updated, allowing the
project to become dynamic rather than static. It can also be seen by a far greater
number of people. School project work published on a web server is available
worldwide.

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