Unit 1: Units and

Practical Skills at AS
Part 1: Quantities and
Units

Quantities and Units

Physics investigates the relationships between
quantities.

Quantities numerically describe properties of the

Universe and its contents.

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 To measure a quantity, two things are usually required:

● A measuring device;

● A unit against which to compare the size of the

measurement.

All physical quantities are represented by a numerical

magnitude multiplied by a unit.

Système International d’Unités

SI standardises
measurements and
calculations worldwide.

It has seven base units:

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All other units are ‘built’ using one or more of the
base units.

EG:

Derived units are built using the equations that

define the quantity.

EG:

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Equations relating different quantities must have the same
base units on both sides.
EG:

When each term in an equation has the same base

units, the equation is homogeneous.

Units are manipulated in calculations in the same

way as the numerical part of the quantity.

EG: Volume, V, of a cube of side length, l :

V = l3

If l = 2 m, then V = (2 m)3 = 8 m3

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 Scientific Notation and Prefixes
Often in physics, quantities that are very large or very small must
be considered.
Scientific notation is generally used to represent such numbers:

EG:

1,000 = 1 × 103 37,400 = 3.74 × 104

0.001 = 1 × 10-3 0.000048 = 4.8 × 10-5

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Prefixes are also used as a
shorthand for common powers
of 10.

EG:
6.7 km = 6.7 × 103 m
= 6,700 m Make sure you learn all these prefixes!

9.21 μs = 9.21 × 10-6 s

= 0.00000921 s

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Converting Units
Non-SI units are often used - EG speed measured in km h-1.
Therefore it is necessary to convert between different units
for each quantity.

Because the unit is part of the quantity, we can construct

conversion factors.

EG 1 km = 1,000 m 1 hr = 3,600 s

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If 1 km = 1,000 m, then

So a quantity can be multiplied by a conversion

factor without changing its value, but changing its
units.

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EG

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More complex units can be converted by
multiplying by additional conversion factors.

EG

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 Unit 1: Units and
Practical Skills at AS
Part 2: Practical Skills

Using Measuring Devices

Knowledge in physics is gained by developing
theories, and testing them in experiments.

Experiments involve measuring quantities, using

appropriate measuring devices.

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 There are two types of measuring device.

Digital:
● Measurements are displayed
on a screen as numbers only.
● Measurements can take only
discrete values - the values on
the screen change in steps.
● The size of this step is the
precision of the device.

Analogue:
● Measurements are taken
from a continuous scale.
● Measurements can take
any value on the scale,
and must be rounded to
the nearest line on the
scale.

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 The degree of precision on an analogue device is
the interval between the smallest lines on its scale:

1 mm precision

Errors to watch out for

Parallax: a change in the
reading based on the
observer’s position.

Only affects analogue

devices.

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Parallax can be reduced
by:
● Placing the object or
pointer as close to the
scale as possible;
● Observing along a line
through the object or
pointer, perpendicular
to the scale.

Zero errors: the device

not reading zero when
nothing is being
measured.

Can affect both analogue

and digital devices.

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 High-Precision Measuring Devices for Length
Calipers:
● Jaws are used for
measuring external
lengths; prongs are used
for internal lengths.
● Measurement taken from
the fixed scale + the
reading on the dial.

EG:
Fixed scale:

12 mm

Dial: 25 × 0.01 mm
= 0.25 mm

∴ diameter = 12 mm + 0.25 mm
= 12.25 mm

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Some calipers have a vernier scale:

● Reading is taken from the

main scale first (1 mm
precision) as the line just
passed by 0 on the vernier
scale (28 mm in this
example).

● Then the line is found on

the vernier scale that
coincides with a line on the
main scale.

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● From 0 to 0 on the vernier

scale is the precision of the
main scale (1 mm here).
● The vernier scale has 50
small lines; so its precision
is 1/50 mm = 0.02 mm

● The line on the vernier scale

coinciding with the main
scale (0.62 mm here) is
added to the main scale
reading.

● So this reading is
28 mm + 0.62 mm = 28.62 mm

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Screw-gauge Micrometer:
● Jaws are tightened on the
object using the ratchet.
● Measurement is taken from
the main scale first (0.5 mm
precision).
● Then a measurement is taken
from the barrel scale (0.01 mm
precision), as the line that
coincides with the central line
on the main scale.
● The two readings are added
together to give the final
measurement.

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Gathering Evidence
Experiments are usually done to test the relationship between
two variables.

IE How does this (dependent) variable change, if we change this

(independent) variable?

The experiment must allow us to control the values of the

independent variable, and measure the values of the dependent
variable.

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 Choosing Values for the Independent Variable
● What is the maximum range of values?
+ minimum and maximum possible in the
experiment?

● How many different values do we want?

+ At least 5, but more is better.
+ Preferably evenly spaced over the range.

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Precision and Accuracy

To be meaningful, measurements should be as
accurate and as precise as possible.

Accurate: Close to the true value of the quantity.

Precise: Repeated measurements will have similar

values.

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The centre of each
target represents the
true value of a quantity.

The red crosses

represent measured
values of the quantity.

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Errors and Uncertainties

No measurement can be 100% accurate - there will
always be some uncertainty in the value.

Uncertainty: The possible difference between a

measurement and the true value of
a quantity.

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 Uncertainties are caused by ‘errors’.

There are two types of experimental error:

● systematic

● random

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Systematic Errors
Errors that make all the measurements wrong by the same amount
and in the same direction.

Usually caused by a problem with the equipment, or with how it is

being used.

Can usually be reduced or removed.

EG Zero errors.

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 Random Errors
Make individual measurements too large or too small, by
random amounts within a certain range.

The range of random errors in a measurement is called the

absolute uncertainty. It is usually determined by the precision of
the measuring device, but other factors can increase it.

Random errors can be reduced, but never completely removed.

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Absolute Uncertainties on Analogue Measuring

Devices
The position of the thing being
measured can usually be judged as
closest to one line on the scale.

The value of this line is the best

estimate for the measurement.

But this cannot be 100% accurate.

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Judging the closest line means
that the true value cannot be
more than half a division away
from the best estimate.

SO:
The minimum absolute
uncertainty on an analogue EG The measurement, x, above is
scale is ± half the smallest 323 mm ± 0.5 mm

division on that scale. IE The absolute uncertainty is:

Δx = 0.5 mm

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Some measurements require two positions on the scale to be

judged and compared - EG measuring the length of an object.

There will be uncertainty in the positions of both ends of the

object. These uncertainties must be added together.

SO:
When two readings on an
analogue scale must be
compared, the minimum
absolute uncertainty is ±
the smallest division on
the scale.

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EG
Measuring temperature on an analogue
thermometer uses the smaller
uncertainty. (The ‘zero’ value is not
variable.)

Measuring a change in temperature uses

the larger uncertainty, because both the
original and final temperatures must be
measured and compared.

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Absolute Uncertainties on Digital Measuring

Devices
The device itself rounds the
measurement to the nearest
whole number of the last
digit.

EG This mass could be

29.95 g ⩽ m ＜ 30.05 g

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BUT
There is always uncertainty in
the zero value on digital
devices.
SO:

On digital devices, the minimum

absolute uncertainty is ± 1 of the
last digit on the display. IE m = 30.0 g ± 0.1 g

Δm = 0.1 g

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Reducing the Effect of Random Uncertainties

Absolute uncertainty of a single measurement
cannot be reduced below the precision of the
measuring device.

The effect of random uncertainties (NOT

systematic errors) can be reduced by repeating
measurements and calculating an average.

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The mean of a set of data is calculated as:

On the A-level Physics course, the uncertainty in the

mean is calculated as:

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Other Ways of Representing Uncertainties

Fractional Uncertainty: States the uncertainty as a
fraction of the best estimate.

IE If a measurement gives a value x ± Δx ,

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Percentage Uncertainty: States the uncertainty as
a percentage of the best
estimate.

IE If the measurement is x ± Δx ,

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Combining Uncertainties
If measured values are used in calculations, the
uncertainties of calculated values must also be
found.

How uncertainties are combined in calculations

depends on the form of the equation being used.

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 If a = b + c : Δa = Δb + Δc

If a = b - c : Δa = Δb + Δc

IE Absolute uncertainties are added, for BOTH

addition and subtraction.

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IE Fractional uncertainties are added, for BOTH

multiplication and division.

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 (Raising a quantity to a power is repeated
multiplication, so requires repeated addition of the
fractional uncertainty.)

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These methods may be combined for more complex

formulae.

EG Using measurements of mass and speed to

calculate kinetic energy:

mass = m ± Δm speed = v ± Δv

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The formula involves multiplication and powers. So:

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So if m = (5.0 ± 0.1) kg and v = (10 ± 0.2) m s-1

IE EK = 250 J ± 15 J

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Significant Figures and Decimal Places in
Quantities with Uncertainties
Quantities are recorded to the same number of
decimal places as their uncertainties.

Uncertainties are recorded to 1 significant figure, or to

2 s. f. if the first significant figure is 1 or 2.

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EG 1:
If a time interval is measured as 12.36 s, and the absolute
uncertainty is 0.5 s, then the time should be recorded as
(12.4 ± 0.5) s.

EG 2:
An average acceleration is calculated as 15.346 m s-2 ; the
uncertainty in the mean is calculated to be 3.87 m s-2 .
Therefore the acceleration should be recorded as
a̅ = (15 ± 4) m s-2.

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EG 3:
An average mass is calculated to be 52.648 kg. The
uncertainty is calculated as 0.179 kg. Therefore the
mass is recorded as m̅ = (52.65 ± 0.18) kg.

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Recording Results
Numerical measurements should be recorded in
tables of results.

Tables must be clear and easy to read.

Each column on the table contains only one

quantity (measured or calculated).

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The header for each column should state:
● The quantity (word or symbol);
● The unit of measurement;
● The uncertainty in the quantity, if it is the same for all
measurements in the column.

The body of the table should not contain any units. It may contain
uncertainties, if they are different for different measurements.

All measurements in a column should be recorded to the same

precision - the same number of decimal places as the uncertainty.

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 Analysing Results
Analysis in the process by which we come to
understand what the measurements in our
experiments mean.

In physics, experimental data are usually analysed

by plotting them on an x-y scatter graph.

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● Independent
variable usually
goes on the
x-axis;
dependent
variable usually
on the y-axis.
● Both axes must
be labelled with
quantity and
unit.

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● Axis scales
chosen so that
the data points
fill at least half
the graph area.
● Data points
plotted as
small dots (< ½
small square)
or diagonal
crosses.

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● Uncertainties
may be plotted
as error bars or
error boxes
(not required
for AS, but will
be required for
A2).

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● Lines of best fit
may be either
straight or curved
(but more about
this later).
● They must be
smooth, thin and
neat.
● They should go
through all data
points, or through
all the error
bars/boxes.

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● Data points off

the line, or with
large
uncertainties,
may be
anomalies. They
should be
checked /
repeated.
● One anomaly is
usually allowed in
the exam, if it is
highlighted.

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 Graphs and Equations (for Paper 3, Question
1)
Equations show mathematically the relationships
between quantities.

A graph is a ‘picture’ of an equation.

So an equation connecting two quantities can be

deduced from a graph of those quantities.

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EG: A velocity-time graph

for an accelerating object.

Straight-line graphs have

the form:

y = mx+c

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Here,
y = v ; x = t

c = y-intercept = u

∴ v = at+u

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If the graph is not a

straight line, it may
be converted into a
straight-line form.

EG These data
produce a graph
that appears
parabolic. So we
guess

s ∝ t2

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We test this guess
by plotting a
graph of s
against t2.

If the guess is
correct, the line
will be straight.

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The graph now has the

form
y = mx+c

y = s ; x = t2
c = 0

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So the graph shows the
equation:

s = 1 m s-2 t2

But what does the

1 m s-2 represent?

The units suggest an

acceleration.

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We can calculate the

acceleration using

where v is the object’s

velocity after time Δt
(the gradient of the s-t
graph at that time).

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Performing the
calculation for these
data gives:

a = 2 m s-2

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So if the 1 m s-2 is related to the object’s acceleration,

then we can say that:
1 m s-2 = z a
where z = a possible ‘hidden constant’

⇒ 1 m s-2 = z × 2 m s-2

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 So if
s = 1 m s-2 t2

which is just the kinematic equation

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Testing a Relationship by Calculating

Uncertainties (for Paper 3, Question 2)
Experimental data are never perfect; so there is always
uncertainty in our conclusions.

We need a mathematical way to decide whether we are

confident enough to accept a conclusion as correct.

We do this by testing a relationship against a criterion.

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 Criterion: The maximum uncertainty in our
conclusion at which we can still accept it
as correct.
Two common criteria are:
● The largest of the percentage uncertainties in
the original data.
● An arbitrary (but reasonable) chosen value -
usually around 10% or 20%.

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Testing a relationship:
1. Process the data as previously described, to
produce a straight-line graph.

2. Use the data (not the graph) to calculate two

values for the gradient:

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3. Calculate the percentage difference between the
two gradients:

where mi = the smaller of m1 and m2

4. If the percentage difference is less than the

criterion, we can accept the relationship as
correct.

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Evaluating an Investigation
After performing an experiment, we should reflect on two
things:

● Were there any problems with the design or execution

of the experiment?

● Are there any ways these problems could be overcome,

if the experiment were performed again?

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Suggested improvements should:
● Address specific problems previously identified with
the experiment;
● Have a definite positive effect on the accuracy and
precision of the experiment.
● Not be vague.
● Not be things that the experimenter could have
done with the available equipment.

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Consider an experiment to
investigate how the
diameter, d, of a ball bearing
affects the depth, D, of the
crater produced when the
ball is dropped into sand.
The experiment is done with
two balls of different
diameters, dropped from
the same height. D is
measured using a 30 cm
rule.

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