Magnetism

The phenomenon of certain materials which attract

certain other materials e.g.. pieces of iron to themselves

S N S N
 Magnetism
Phenomenon discovered in the ancient Greek city of
Magnesia

Magnets utilised in navigation

Oersted discovered the link between electricity and

magnetism

Faraday revealed that electrical and magnetic energy could be

interchanged
 Magnetic Particle Testing
• Test method for the detection of surface and
slightly sub-surface indications in
ferromagnetic materials
 Magnetic Particle Testing
CANNOT BE
DETECTED BY
Magnetic Particle
MT MT Testing

Surface Defect Subsurface Internal

Ferromagnetic Material
 Materials Behaviours in Magnetic Field

Diamagnetic: Slightly repelled by magnetic

field
Examples Gold, Copper, Water
and most non-metal
Ф
DIAMAGNETIC

Unable to be Magnetically tested

 Materials Behaviours in Magnetic
Field
Paramagnetic: Weakly attracted by magnetic field
Examples Aluminium, Tungsten and
most metals

Ф
PARAMAGNETIC

Unable to be Magnetically tested

 Materials Behaviours in Magnetic
Field
Ferromagnetic: Strongly attracted by magnetic field
Examples Iron, Cobalt, Nickel and
their alloys
Ф

FERROMAGNETIC

Suitable to be Magnetically tested

 Magnetic Particle Testing
• Magnetic field induced
in component
• Defects disrupt the
magnetic flux
• Defects revealed by
applying ferromagnetic
particles
 UNMAGNETISED STATE
DOMAINS RANDOMLY
ORIENTATED

MAGNETIZED STATE.
DOMAINS ORIENTATED IN EXTERNAL
MAGNETIC FIELD

FIELD

SATURATED STATE
DOMAINS ORIENTATED IN STRONG
EXTERNAL FIELD

FIELD
 RESIDUAL STATE. DOMAIN REMAINING
ORIENTATED

DEMAGNETISED STATE.
DOMAINS RANDOMLY ORIENTATED IN
OPPOSING CURVE

FIELD
 Lines of force
• By convention they flow from North to South
outside and South to North inside
• Form closed loops
• Never cross
• Field is strongest where most numerous
• Follow path of least resistance
 Definitions
• Magnetic field :Region in which
magnetic forces exist

N S
 Definitions
• Flux : line of magnetic force existing
in a magnetic circuit

Ф
 Definitions
• Flux Density :Magnetic flux per unit
cross-section area (measured in Tesla)

Low Flux Density: Less

Flux per unit area

High Flux Density:

More Flux per unit
area
 Definitions
1 cm
1 line of force per 1
cm²
= 1 Gauss
1 cm

1 cm

3 line of force per 1 cm²

= 3 Gauss
1 cm
 Definitions
1 Tesla = 10 000 gauss
How many line of force are there in an 1 cm² area with a
Flux Density of 1 Tesla?

1 cm

10 000 = 10 lines
1 cm
 EN ISO 9934-1
• The FLUX DENSITY on the surface of the
component must be at lease 1 T

• Below that the indication will be too weak

Below 1 TESLA Above 1 TESLA

 Definitions
Magnetising Force: The force applied to
produce magnetic field to the material or component

Measured in Ampere per meter ( A/m)

In General:

Increasing the Magnetising Force will increase the Magnetic Field

 In General:

Increasing the Magnetising Force will

increase the Magnetic Field
0000
0500
0100 Measured in Ampere per meter ( A/m)
AMMETER

Ф
 Permeability
The ease with which a material can be magnetised
• Opposite of reluctance (difficulty with which a
material can be magnetised)
• Represented by the symbol µ
µ=B/H
B: Flux Density
H: Magnetising force
• Measured in Henries / metre
 Permeability
Magnetised using 100 amps Magnetised using 100 amps

Ф
Ф

A B
High Permeability: Low Permeability:
Easy to be magnetised Difficult to be magnetised
 Hard Vs Soft Ferromagnetics
Soft Hard
• Typically Low carbon • Typically high carbon
steel steel
• High permeability • Lower permeability
• Easy to magnetise • More difficult to
• Low residual magnetism magnetise
• High levels of residual
magnetism
 Permeability
• A unit of comparison: compared to free space
Examples:
• Air 1
• Steel 1000
• Paramagnetics Slightly > 1
• Diamagnetics Slightly < 1
• Ferromagnetics 240 +
 Principle of MT : Flux Leakage
Ferromagnetic
Particles

Flux
N Leakage

S Attracted
at poles

Ring Magnet Ring Magnet

Magnetic field is Fully Flux Leakage occurs:
contained: No Poles Poles created
 Principle of MPI : Flux Leakage
No Defect Defect

Flux Leakage
N S N S

The change in permeability causes flux leakage

 Principle of MPI : Flux Leakage

N S

STEEL µ= 1000

No Flux Leakage because No change in

permeability
 Principle of MPI : Flux Leakage

Flux Leakage
N AIR µ= 1 S

STEEL µ= 1000

The change in permeability causes flux leakage

 Factors Affecting Flux Leakage
• Depth of defect
• Orientation of defect shape of defect
• Size of defect
• Permeability of material
• Amount of flux available
 Depth below surface

N S N S
 Defect Orientation

Defect at 90 degrees to flux : maximum

indication
 Defect Orientation

>60 Degrees to Flux: Acceptable

indication
 Defect Orientation

<60 Degrees to Flux : Weak

indication
 Defect Orientation
Test 1 Test 2
Defects

FIELD Defects Defects

Defects

MPI requires minimum of 2 Directions of

Magnetic Fields at 90o to one another
 Defect Orientation

How to detect the ones missed?

 Indications

Relevant Indications - Indications due to

discontinuities or flaws

Non-Relevant Indications - Indications due

to flux leakage from design features

Spurious Indications - Indications due

incorrect inspection procedures
 All surface defects form indications
But not all indications are
caused by defects
Non-relevant indications
Due to flux leakage but arising
from design features or
geometry

• Changes in section Splines

• Changes in permeability
• Furring
Furring
Caused by:
Sharp change of contour

Furring Furring
Furring
Caused by:
Excessive flux on the surface or ends of
component

Furring
Magnetic Writing
Caused by:
Localised polarization when magnetised object
induced the magnetic field into another object
Spurious / False Indications
Indications caused by operator errors
Not due to flux leakage

• Lint
• Dirt
• Hairs
Relevant Indications
Indications caused by defects
 Magnetic Particle Testing
Cracks indications by Fluorescent Ink
Advantage of Magnetic Particle Testing

•Will detect some sub-surface defects

•Rapid and simple to understand
•Pre-cleaning not as critical as with DPI
•Will work through thin coatings
•Cheap rugged equipment
•Direct test method
 LIMITATIONS OF MPI
• MPI cannot be used on non-magnetic material
• The presence of surface coatings may reduce
the sensitivity of the test
• Defect that do not break the surface give
diffused indications
• Dimension, rough surfaces and certain types of
segregation or metallurgical changes associated
with test items may give rise to misleading
indications
 - RELATIONSHIP OF ALTERNATING MAGNETISING FORCE ( H),TO
THE VARIATION OF MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY (B), WHEN ITS
APPLIED IN THE FERROMAGNETIC MATERIAL

B+ (Flux density)
a
a
saturation
b

c f
0
H+(-magnetising force) H+(+magnetising force)

saturation
of opposite polarity
B- (Flux density)

TYPICAL HYSTERESTICS
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd LOOP Name
 B

H
0

Lines o-a :- 1) UNMAGNETISED FERROMAGNETIC MATERIAL IS EXPOSED TO

A GRADUALLY INCREASING MAGNETIC FORCE

Point a : - SATURATION POINT

-INCREASE THE MAGNETIC FORCE ; BUT THERE IS NO CHANGE IN
Copyright © 2004 WI LtdFLUX DENSITY. ( H <INCREASE> , B <MAINTAIN>) Name
 UNMAGNETISED STATE
DOMAINS RANDOMLY
ORIENTATED

MAGNETIZED STATE.
DOMAINS ORIENTATED IN EXTERNAL
MAGNETIC FIELD

FIELD

SATURATED STATE
DOMAINS ORIENTATED IN STRONG
EXTERNAL FIELD

FIELD
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name
 B

LINES a-b :- MAGNETIZING FORCE IS BEEN REDUCED, BUT THE FLUX

DENSITY DOES NOT FALL BACK TO ZERO BUT FOLLOWS
THE LINE a - b.

POINT B :- ZERO MAGNETISING FORCE (H=0), BUT A FLUX

DENSITY O-b REMAINS. THIS IS CALLED THE RESIDUAL
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd MAGNETIC FIELD Name
 B

c
H
0

LINE b-c :- Demagnetize process

- Negative magnetizing force is applied
- Force (O-C) which been applied to demagnetize is called the coercive force

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 RESIDUAL STATE. DOMAIN REMAINING
ORIENTATED

DEMAGNETISED STATE.
DOMAINS RANDOMLY ORIENTATED IN
OPPOSING CURVE

FIELD

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 B

c f
H
0

LINE c-d:- 1) RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN B AND H WHEN THE NEGATIVE

MAGNETIZING IS INCREASED
POINT d:- EXACTLY POINT “a” REPRESENT THE NEGATIVE SATURATION
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name
 B

c
H
0 f

LINES d-e :- 1) NEGATIVE FORCE IS REDUCED UNTIL POINT “e” IS

REACHED WHICH EXACTLY OPPOSITE POINT “b”.
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name
 B

c f
H

LINE e-f :- 1) REVERSAL THE MAGNETIC FORCE TO A POSITIVE

MAGNETIC FORCE ACHIEVES A ZERO FLUX DENSITY AT
POINT “f”
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name
 B

c
H
0 f

LINE f-a :- 1) MAGNETIZING FORCE IS INCREASED UNTIL THE LOOP

IS COMPLETED
NOTE:- ONCE THE VIRGIN CURVE IS PRODUCED, THE HYSTERESIS
LOOP IS NOT PASS TO ZERO.

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Hard v Soft Ferromagnetics
Soft Hard
• Typically Low carbon • Typically high carbon
steel steel
• High permeability • Lower permeability
• Easy to magnetise • More difficult to
• Low residual magnetism magnetise
• High levels of residual
magnetism

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 MPI Equipment
Portable Fixed
• Permanent magnet • Current flow
• Electromagnet • Magnetic flow
• Prods • Rigid coil
• Flexible coil • Induced current
• Flexible cable
• Clamps and leeches

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Other Forms of Magnet
Horseshoe
Magnet

N S Ring
Magnet

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Permanent Magnet
Advantages Disadvantages
• No power supply • Direct field only
• No electrical contact • Deteriorate over time
problems • No control over field
• Inexpensive strength
• No damage to test • Poles attract detecting
piece media
• Lightweight

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Magnetic Particle Testing
Usage of electromagnetic yoke with black ink on weld

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Electromagnets
Maximum sensitivity for defects orientated at 90º
to a line drawn between the poles

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Electromagnetic Yoke

A.C. ELECTROMAGNETIC YOKE Soft Iron laminates

within a coil

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Electromagnetic yokes
Area of Indications :- A rectangular between the
poles

d - Yoke spacing

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Electromagnets
Soft iron laminates within a coil.

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Electromagnets

Advantages Disadvantages
• AC,DC or rectified • Power supply required
• Controllable field • Longitudinal field only
strength • Carry mains supply
• No harm to test piece • Poles attract particles
• Can be used to • Legs must have area
demagnetise contact
• Easily removed

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Electromagnetism
The Right Hand Rule

The thumb represent the current

The fingers represent the

magnetic flux
Current flow is from positive to
negative

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Electromagnetism
electron The Left Hand Rule
The thumb represent the electron

The fingers represent the

magnetic flux

Electron flow from negative to

positive

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Electromagnetism
It was thought that the
direction of current and
electron are opposite
each other

The direction of the

magnetic flux is the same

electron

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Electromagnetism
• A current flows through a conductor and
sets up a magnetic field around it
• Field is at 90o to the direction of the
electrical current
Direction
of current
flow

Direction of magnetic field

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name
 Prods
• Current passed between 2 contacts.
• Defects detected parallel to contacts

Current

Defects

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Prods

Advantages Disadvantages
• AC,DC or rectified • Arcing / damage to work
• Controllable field piece
strength • Transformer required
• No poles attract • Current can be switched
particles on without creating field
• Control of amperage • Good contact required
• 2 man operation

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Current Flow
Current passed through sample
Head Shot

Defects

Current
Circular
Field
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name
 Coil Magnetisation

• Changes circular filed into longitudinal

• Increases the strength of the field
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name
 Coil Magnetisation

• Longitudinal Magnetic Field

• Detect transverse defects
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name
 Rigid Coil
Current passed through coil to generate a
longitudinal field
Defects

Magnetism

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Flexible Cable
• Flexible, current carrying cable
used as:
• Adjacent cable
• Threading cable
• Flexible coil

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Flexible Coil

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Flexible Cable

Advantages Disadvantages
• Simple to operate • Difficult to keep cables in
• No danger of burning place
• AC,DC or rectified • High currents required
• Current adjustable • Transformer required

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Threading Bar
• Current passed through brass bar placed
between heads of bench unit
• Circular field generated around bar
• Sample hung from bar

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

 Threading Bar
Component placed within field and rotated for
complete coverage

Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

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FLUX INDICATORS
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Check for adequate flux density
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and correct orientation with Flux
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(Do not use with permanent magnets

or DC electromagnets.)
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FLUX INDICATORS - COMMON TYPES
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• BURMAH CASTROL STRIPS

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ASME V MAGNETIC FLUX INDICATOR

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CONSISTS OF 8 STEEL
PIE SEGMENTS
BRAZED TOGETHER
WITH COPPER
FACEPLATE
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ASME V MAGNETIC FLUX INDICATOR

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Test Methods
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© • Continuous or Residual
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• Fluorescent or Visible
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W • Wet or Dry
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Continuous or Residual
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• Detecting media applied whilst current is
©

2
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Residual Method
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• Detecting media applied after the current
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• Requires high retentivity
• Less sensitive than continuous
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Detecting media
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2 Dry powder Inks

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4 • Iron particles or Iron Oxid
•Size between 1.5 m and 40 m
W • Size more than 40μm
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• Colour contrast or fluorescent
L • Colors vary for contrast
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against components • Water or kerosene based
• Applicable on • Concentration is specified by
welds,castings, weld root pass manufacturer (g/l). Overall
and hot components up to performance is checked using
300  c App. B
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Dry Magnetic Particles
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©
• Particles rounded and elongated shapes
2
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• Colours vary for contrast against component
4

W
• Can be used on hot surfaces
•
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Poor particle mobility, HWDC best, DC or permanent
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magnets must never be used
• Greater operator skill required
• Difficult to apply to overhead surfaces especially in field
conditions
• Generally less sensitive than wet particles
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Wet Magnetic Particles
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•Magnetic iron oxide (magnetite) or iron powder
2
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•Particles rounded and elongated shapes
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•Colour contrast or fluorescent
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•Water or kerosene based
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•Concentration important
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•Good particle mobility
d
•Easier to use
•More sensitive
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Control and Maintenance Checks
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• Ink settlement 100 ml
© 100

2
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4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0
1.0 ml
0.5

0.5 ml
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Fluorescent or Visible
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Fluorescent Visible
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2 • Detecting media • No special lighting

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dye coated required
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inspections
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Viewing Conditions
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Day light or artificial
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White Light
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ILLUMINATION:
4

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5 minutes minimum for operator’s Ambient
©
eyes become dark-adapted Background
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Lighting
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Maximum 20 lux
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UV-A IRRADIANCE
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1000µW / cm² Minimum
Or 1mW/cm²
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Fluorescent
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© Fluorescent : Material with the ability to convert

2 one wavelength to another.
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L UV Light Visible Light
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Fluorescent Dye
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Fluorescence and the Electromagnetic
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Spectrum
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© 365nm
570nm
2 Emits Dual
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Absorbs
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W Convert
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10 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 nm

ULTRAVIOLET VISIBLE

* Testing shall be carried out with UV-A radiation (315nm- 400nm) using a source with a
nominal maximum intensity at 365 nm
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Fluorescence
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UV-A Source:
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Mercury vapour arc
2 lamp
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+
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Precautions
• Avoid looking directly at the lamp (It can cause temporary
clouding of vision)

• Do not use if filter is cracked, damaged or incorrectly

fitted
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
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100 -280nm 280 – 315nm
©
A Damaged
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UV-C UV-B UV-A Black Light Emits
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315 - 400nm
10 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
ULTRAVIOLET VISIBLE
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Fluorescent v Colour Contrast
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© • Fluorescent more
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sensitive
• Fluorescent more
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expensive
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• Fluorescent requires UV
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lighting
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Current Types
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© • Direct current
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• Half wave rectified
W
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Direct Current
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Advantages Disadvantages
• Sub-surface defects • No agitation of particles
detectable • Less sensitive to surface
• Availability from batteries defects
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Direct Current: Field distribution
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Penetration of flux deeper

into the material

Ferromagnetic
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Alternating Current
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• Availability • Will not detect sub-
• Sensitivity to surface defects surface defects
• Agitation of particles
• Demagnetisation
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A.C. : Field distribution
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Concentration of flux on the surface

of material
Penetration 1 to 2 mm only

Ferromagnetic
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A.C. : Field distribution
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Eddy Current causes
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SKIN EFFECT
2 A.C. ELECTROMAGNETIC YOKE
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Skin effect reduces
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penetration of flux
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Only occurs with
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D.C. Electromagnet
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2 A.C. ELECTROMAGNETIC YOKE

0 Penetration is deeper
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No eddy current : No skin effect
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Half Wave Rectified Current
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• Penetration like DC • Sensitivity to surface
• Agitation defects lower than AC
• Ease of production
• High flux density for less
power
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Full Wave Rectified Current
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Advantages Disadvantages
• Penetration like DC • Sensitivity to surface
• Agitation defects lower than AC
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Single Phase Full Wave Rectified
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Full Wave Rectified Current
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Advantages Disadvantages
• Penetration like DC • Sensitivity to surface
• Agitation defects lower than AC
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3 Phase Full Wave Rectified
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Demagnetisation
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• Aircraft parts
• Rotating parts
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• Components to be welded,machined or
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electroplated
Check for removal with Field strength meter
(magnetometer)
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• A constantly reversing and reducing
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© magnetic field
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Flux
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Methods of Demagnetisation
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• Aperture type coil reversing stepped DC
• Aperture type coil reducing AC
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• AC or reversing DC aperture type coil, withdraw
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component along the coil axis
• AC electromagnet
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• Heating to above the Curie point (about 770C

for steel)
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Fluorescent v Colour Contrast
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• Fluorescent methods are more sensitive.
©

2 • Background lacquer is not required.

0
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4 • Fluorescent properties will degrade if exposed to
W
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UV light, acids, alkalis or high temperature.
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• Background fluorescence is a problem on rough
d surfaces.
• Some oils will produce strong background
fluorescence.
• Low background light levels are required.
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Fluorescent v Colour Contrast
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Black Particles Fluorescent Particles
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Ultraviolet light
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
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X-rays &
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Gamma
2 Electric
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Microwaves Waves
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Ultra Infra
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10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1cm 102 104 106 108

Wavelength
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
p
y
r
i
g
h
t

©
A Damaged
2
0
UV-C UV-B UV-A Black Light
0
4
UV-B&C
W
I

L
t
d

10 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

ULTRAVIOLET VISIBLE
LIGHT LIGHT
ame
C
o
p
y
r
i
g
Fluorescence
h
t

©
UV-A Source : Mercury vapour arc
2 lamp
0
0
4 +
W
I
Filter
L

Precautions
t
d

• Avoid looking directly at the lamp

• Do not use if filter is cracked,
damaged or incorrectly fitted
ame
C
o
p
y
r
i
Fluorescence and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
g
h
t

2 Absorbs Emits
0
0
4

W
I

L
t
d

10 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

ULTRAVIOLET VISIBLE
LIGHT LIGHT
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C
o
p
y
r
Equipment Performance Checks
i
g
h
t

2
0
0
4

W
I

L
t
d
ame
C
o
p
y
r
i
g
Equipment Performance Checks
h
t

2
0
0
4

W
I

L
t
d