An Internship Report

On

"220/132/33KV SUBSTATION GUNADALA"

Submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Submitted By
Medidi Vijaya Babu - 21PAIA0261
During AY: 2024-2025

Under the esteemed guidance of

Mr.P.Naveeen, Mr.P.G.T.Narayana,
Assistant/Associate Professor, Assistant Executive Engineer,
Department of EEE, Maintenance 220kv SS Gunadala,
Vishnu Institute of Technology APTRANSCO

VISHNU
UNIVERSAL LEARNING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

VISHNU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE; Accredited by NBA & NAAC; permanently Affiliated to JNTUK)
Vishnupur, Bhimavaram-534202, West Godavari Dist., A.P 2024-2025
 PROGRAM BOK FOR

SHORT-TERM INTERNSHIP
Offline

Name of the student MEDIDI VIJAYA BABU

Name of the Course : 220/132/33KV Subststion

:Vishnu Institute of Technology

Name of the College

21PAIA0261
Registration Number

6 weeks
Period of Internship

Name & and Address of :APTRANSCO,220/132/33KV

Intern organization Subststion,gunadala,Vijayawada
 STUDENT'S DECLARATION

1, MEDIDI VIJAYA BABU a student of IV B.Tech 1 Semester B.Tech Program,

Reg. No. 21PAlA0261 of the Department Of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Vishnu Institute of
Technology, do hereby declare that I have completed the mandatory internship Of 8 weeks in 22/132/33KV
Subststion Gunadala under the Faculty Guide ship of Mr. P.Naveen (Internal Guide), Department of
Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Vishnu Institute of Technology and Mr.P.G.T.Narayana (External Guide),
AEE 220KV SS Gunadala, APTRANSCO..

(Signature and Date)

 VISHNU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY(Autonomous)
(Approved by AICTE; Accredited by NBA & NAAC; permanently Affiliated to JNTUK) Vishnupur,
Bhimavaram-534202, West Godavari Dist., A.P

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

VISHNU
UNIVERSAL LEARNING

OFFICIAL CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that Medidi Vijaya Babu - 21PAIA0261 , of 1V B.Tech I sem, EEE has completed his Internship
on "220/132/33kv Subststion under my supervision as a part of partial fulfilment of the requirement for the
Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering (EEE) in Vishnu Institute of
Technology, Bhimavaram(Affiliated to JNTUK,Kakinada).
This is accepted for evaluation.

Mr.P.Naveen,
Assistant/Associate Professor, Department
of EEE,
Vishnu Institute of Technology

Dr.R.V.D.RAMA RAO, Ph.D.

EXTERNAL EXAMINER
(Professor & Head, EEE department)
Certificate from Industry
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful completion of any task would be incomplete
with the mentioning of the people who made it possible and whose guidance and encouragement crown all the
efforts with success. We would like to express our gratitude and respect to all those people behind the screen
who guided, inspired and helped us for completion of our project. We are profusely thankful to Dr. M.Venu, M.
Tech, Ph.D, Principal of Vishnu Institute of Technology for providing necessary infrastructure for carrying out the
internship successfully.
We wish to convey our sincere thanks to the Head of the Department Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, Dr. R.V.D.RAMA RAO, M. Tech, Ph.D who gave vital information which was necessary for this
internship.
We are thankful to our guide Mr.P.Naveen, M. Tech, who has spared his valuable time and append novel
ideas to guide us. We are indebted to him without whom we would not have culminated to pinnacle of the
internship.
We are also grateful to all the staff, librarian, parents and friends who directly or indirectly helped us in the
completion of the internship.

With Sincere Regards,

Medidi Vijaya Babu- 21PAIA0261

 ANDHRA PRADESH TRANSMISSION
CORPORATION LIMITED

After bifurcation of the erstwhile state of Andhra Pradesh, APTransco also was bifurcated into two
companies and the bifurcated company started operations in the new state of Andhra Pradesh from
2014 onwards with its head quarters located in Vijayawada. APTransco came into existence on 29th
December 1998 in the erstwhile state of Andhra Pradesh with Hyderabad as its head quarters. From
1999 to 2005 the company remained as single buyer of power from various power generators and
seller to Electricity Distribution companies. Subsequently, the power purchase function was taken
over by the Distribution companies.

From February 1999 to June 2005 APTRANSCO was the single buyer of electrical power in the state,
purchasing power from generators and selling it to DISCOMs in accordance with the terms and
conditions of the individual power purchase agreements (PPAs) at bulk supply tariff rates.
Subsequently, in accordance with the Third Transfer Scheme notified by Gov.AP, APTRANSCO has
ceased power trading but has retained control of power transmission system operations
 ABSTRACT

The report gives an overview of 220/132/33kv power substation. It includes electricity transmission
and distribution processes at AP TRANSCO, Gunadala substation. Its substation, an assembly of
apparatus which is installed to control transmission and distribution of electric power, it’s a outdoor
subststion . Different equipment used in substations, Bus-bar. surge arrestor, Isolator, Earth switches,
Current Transformers etc. Transformer which is being used here is core and shell type transformer for
stepping up and down purposes. Different Instruments transformers, voltage, Current and CV
transformers are also being used.
Finally, the CVT rating which gives a total output overview.
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION
• Types of substations
2. LAYOUT DIAGRAM
• Incoming feeders of Gunadala substation
•
Outgoing feeders of Gunadala substation
3. MAJOR EQUIPMENT IN A SUBSTATION
• Lightning Arresters
• Wave traps
• Capacitor voltage transformer
• Isolators
• Current transformer
• Circuit breakers
• Power transformer
• Potential transformer
• Capacitive tripping devices
•
Local breaker backup protection
4. STUDY OF BUS BARS
• Selection of bus bars
•
General bus bar arrangements
5. STUDY OF POWER TRANSFORMERS 6. PROTECTION
• Feeder protection
• Power transformer protection
•
Relays
6. SUPPLY SYSTEM TO CONTROL ROOM

7. Batteries

9. GENERAL INTERRUPTS OCCUR IN A SUBSTATION

10. CONCLUSION
 CHAPTER :1
INTRODUCTION

The 220/132/33 KV Gunadala Substation is one of the most important grid Substations in APTRANSCO. The
Substation is situated in Gunadala area Vijayawada, Krishna district. The Total area of the Substation land is an
extent of Ac32 of Gunadala area Vijayawada, Krishna District.
This Substation was sanctioned by APTRANSCO during 1952 under REC schemes voltages in Krishna Districts by
feeding 220KV Supply to 132/33KV Sub-stations Respectively. This Substation was sanctioned with 2nos 220KV
feeders and 4nos 132KV and10nos 33KV ICTs (Inter Connecting Transformers).

GENERAL INTRODUCTION:
A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system. Substations transform
voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of several other Important functions. Electric power may
flow through several substations between generating Plant and consumer, and its voltage may change in several
steps. Substations may be owned And operated by a transmission or generation electrical utility , or may be owned
by a large Industrial or commercial customer. Generally substations are un- attended, relying on remote Supervision
and control.

A substation may include transformers to change voltage levels between high Transmission voltages and lower
distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two different Transmission voltages. The word substation comes
from the days before the distribution system Became a grid. As central generation stations became larger, smaller
generating plants were Converted to distribution stations, receiving their energy supply from a larger plant instead
of Using their own generators. The first substations were connected to only one power station, Where the
generators were housed, and were subsidiaries of that power station. In between the Power house and the ultimate
consumer a number of transformation and switching stations have to be created which are generally known as
“SUB-STATIONS.”

1.1 TYPES OF SUB-STATIONS:

Depending on the purpose the sub-station may be classified as:

1.Step-up substations

2.Primary grid substations

3.Secondary substations

4.Distribution substations

5.Bulk supply and industrial substations

6.Mining substations

7.Mobile substations

8.Cinematograph substations
• The step-up substations are associated with the generating stations. The
• Generation voltage is limiting to a value and needs to be stepped up to the Primary transmission
voltage so that huge blocks of power can be carried Out over long distances to the load centers
economically.
• The primary grid substations are created at suitable load centres along the Primary transmission
lines. The primary transmission voltage is stepped Down to a number of suitable secondary
voltages here. From here secondary Transmission lines , secondary substations are created at
actual load points Where the voltage is further stepped down to sub transmission and primary
Distribution voltage.
• The distribution substations are created where the sub-transmission
• Voltage/primary distribution is stepped down to supply voltage. These Substations feed the actual
consumer through a network of distributors and Service lines.
• The bulk supply and industrial substations are generally distribution Substations with the
difference that the substations is created separately for A consumer and subsequent distribution
of the electric power is left to the Particular consumer of the large or medium supply group as
may be designed By the standards laid down by the electric supply undertaking

Layout Diagram
Fig :1.1 Layout Diagram of Gunadala Substation
2.1 Incoming Feeders of Gunadala substation:

There are two incoming 220KV feeders

1. VTPS(Main) 220KV
2. VTPS(Temporary) 220KV

2.2 Outgoing Feeders of Gunadala substation:

There are 21 outgoing feeders. In that six outgoing feeders are 132Kv and other 15 outgoing Feeders are of 33KV

1. Moghalrajpuram-1 132KV
2. Moghalrajpuram-2 132KV
3. Gangoor 132KV
4. Autonagar 132KV
5. Ramannagudem 132KV
6. Kanumolu 132KV
7. Gannavaram 33KV
8. Gunadala 33KV
9. Government hospital 33KV
10. Gudavalli 33KV
11. Chuttugunta 33KV
12. City (INDOOR SS) 33KV
13. Muthyalampadu 33KV
14. Madhuranagar 33KV
15. Machavaran 33KV
16. Seetharamapuram 33KV
17. SLDC 33KV
18. Jubliee 33KV
19. Polytechnic 33KV
20. Transco Nilayam 33KV
21. Enikepadu 33KV
 CHAPTER :3
MAJOR EQUIPMENT IN SUBSTATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION

There are different types of equipment used in substations and they are described As follows

1. Lightning arresters
2. Wave trap
3. CVT’s
4. Isolators
5. Current Transformers
6. Circuit Breakers
7. Transformers
8. Potential Transformers
9. Local breaker backup

3.1.1 LIGHTNING ARRESTERS (LAS)

A lightning arrester is a device arranged on electrical power systems and Telecommunication systems to
protect the insulation and conductors of the system from the Damaging effects of lightning. The typical
lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a Ground terminal. When a lightning surge travels along
the power line to the arrester, the current From the surge is diverted through the arrestor in most cases to
earth.
In telegraphy and telephony, a lightning arrestor is placed where wires enter a structure, Preventing damage
to electronic instruments within and ensuring the safety of individuals near Them. Smaller versions of
lightning arresters, also called surge protectors, are devices that are Connected between each electrical
conductor in power and communications systems and the Earth. Their purpose is to limit the rise in voltage
when a communications or power line is Struck by lightning or is near to a lightning strike If protection fails
or is absent, lightning that strikes the electrical system introduces Thousands of kilovolts that may damage
the transmission lines, and can also cause severe Damage to transformers and other electrical or electronic
devices. Lightning produce extreme Voltage spikes in incoming power lines which can damage electrical
home appliances.
 Fig :3.1 Lightening Arrestor at Gunadala 220KV Substation

COMPONENTS:

A lightning arrester may be a spark gap or may have a block of a semi-conducting Material such as silicon
carbide or zinc oxide. Some spark gaps are open to the air, but most Modern varieties are filled with a precision gas
mixture, and have a small amount of radioactive Material to encourage the gas to ionize when the voltage across
the gap reaches a specified Level. Other designs of lightning arresters use a glow-discharge tube (essentially like a
neon Glow lamp) connected between the protected conductor and ground, or voltage- activated solid state switches
called varistors. Lightning arresters built for power substation use are impressive Devices, consisting of a porcelain
tube several feet long and several inches in diameter, typically Filled with disks of zinc oxide. A safety port on the
side of the device vents the occasional Internal explosion without shattering the porcelain cylinder.
Lightning arresters are rated by the peak current they can withstand the amount of Energy they can absorb, and the
break over voltage that they require to begin conduction. They Are applied as part of a lightning protection system,
in combination with air terminals and Bonding.

Broadly, three types of over voltages occur in power systems:

• Temporary over-voltages
• Switching over voltages and
• Lightning over voltages.

The duration of these over voltages vary in the ranges of microseconds to sec depending Upon the type and nature
of over voltages. Hence, the power system calls for over voltage Protective devices to ensure the reliability.
conventionally, the over voltage protection is obtained by the use of lightning / surge Arresters. Under normal
operating voltages, the impedance of lightning arrester, placed in Parallel to the equipment to be protected, is very
high and allow the equipment to perform its Respective function. Whenever the over voltage appears across the
terminals, the impedance Of the arrester collapses in such a way that the power system equipment would not
experience The over voltage. As soon as the over voltage disappears, the arrester recovers its impedance back. Thus
the arrester protects the equipment from over voltages.

3.1.2 WAVE TRAP

A common problem encountered in electronic system design and measurement is the Leakage of strong undesired
signals into circuitry and test equipment. An example of this is the Appearance of the WVBU signal at 90.5 MHz on
oscilloscope traces in the electronics labs in The Dana Engineering Building. There are many ways to eliminate this
electromagnetic Interference (EMI). One approach is to use a tuned transmission line stub, sometimes called a
“wave trap,” to create a short at the interference frequency across the input terminals of the Affected equipment.
Line trap also is known as Wave trap.

Fig: 3.2 Wave trap at 220kv Gunadala Substation

This is relevant in Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems for Communication among various substations
without dependence on the telecom company Network. The signals are primarily tele protection signals and in
addition, voice and data Communication signals. Line trap also is known as Wave trap.

The Line trap offers high impedance to the high frequency communication signals Thus obstructs the flow of these
signals in to the substation bus bars. If there were not present, Then signal loss is more and communication will be
ineffective/probably impossible. A wave Trap is simply a short length of transmission line terminated at one end by
fixed or tuneable Impedance Output port.
Open circuit loads are almost universally avoided for the reactive termination of the wave Trap because the presence
of stray capacitance and leakage conductance makes it impossible to Achieve a true infinite-impedance
termination.Short circuit loads are also avoided if the circuit must operate at DC and/or low Frequencies, since the
short (and shorted) stub would short out the input port of the test Equipment at those frequencies.

Capacitors are therefore commonly used because they are easy To tune, are less likely to pick up stray signals than
inductors, and are open circuits at DC. An Example of a wave trap that uses a terminating capacitor.

3.1.3 CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CVTs) are common in high-voltage transmission line Applications. These same
applications require fast, yet secure protection. However, as the Requirement for faster protective relays grows, so
does the concern over the poor transient Response of some CVTs for certain system conditions.

For faults that cause very depressed phase voltages, the CVT output voltage may not Closely follow its input voltage
due to the internal CVT energy storage elements. Because these Elements take time to change their stored energy,
they introduce a transient to the CVT output Following a significant input voltage change. CVT transients reduce the
fundamental Component of the fault voltage. This decrease in the fundamental voltage component results in A
decrease in the calculated impedance. If the fundamental voltage reduction is great enough, Zone 1 distance
elements undesirably pick up for out-of-section faults.

If a fault is within that portion of line protected by a Zone 1 element, the resulting Distance calculation decrease
due to a CVT transient is tolerable; the protective relay should Operate. However, if the fault is located outside of
that portion of line protected by the Zone 1 Element and the CVT transient causes the Zone 1 element to pick up,
then this CVT transient Is not tolerable.

Fig:3.3 Capacitor Voltage Transformer at Gunadala 220KV Substation

 COMPONENTS

A CVT consists of the following components

1. Coupling capacitors (C1 and C2)

2. Compensating reactor (L)
3. Step-down transformer
4. Ferro resonance-suppression circuit.

When equipped with a communication carrier, the CVT has an additional drain coil, choke coil, And carrier switch
that are not shown in fig.

• The coupling capacitors of the CVT function as a voltage divider to step down the line Voltage to an
intermediate-Level voltage, typically 5 to 15KV. The compensating Reactor cancels the coupling capacitor
reactance at the system frequency The step Down transformer further reduces the intermediate-Level
voltage to the nominal Relaying voltage, typically 115/√3 volts.
• The compensating reactor and step-down transformer have iron cores. Besides
Introducing copper and core losses, the compensating reactor and step-down Transformer also produce
Ferro resonance due to the nonlinearity of the iron cores This Circuit is normally used on the secondary of
the step-down transformer Whether or not This suppression circuit aggravates the CVT transient depends
upon the suppression Circuit design.

When a fault suddenly reduces the line voltage, the CVT secondary output does not Instantaneously represent the
primary voltage. This is because the energy storage elements, Such as coupling capacitors and the compensating
reactor, cannot instantaneously change their Charge or flux. These energy storage elements cause the CVT transient
The CVT transients for Faults occurring at voltage peaks and voltage zeros are quite distinctive and different. Fig
show Two CVT transients for zero-crossing and peak POW fault initiations.

CVT BURDEN:

The CVT transient characteristic is influenced by the magnitude and angle of the Connected burden. One impedance
is a resistance (Rp), and the other impedance, (Rs and Xs), Has a lagging power factor of 0.5. The burden value is
100% or 25% of the CVT maximum Rated accuracy class volt amperes and has a power factor of 0.85.

Fig : 3.4 Burden For CVT Transient Testing

Fig: shows the maximum Zone 1 reach setting as a function of ANSI and resistive burdens for The CVT with a PFSC.
The ANSI loading increases the CVT transient and distance element Overreach as compared to the resistive
burden.

3.1.4 ISOLATORS

A disconnect or an isolator switch is used to make sure that an electrical circuit can be Completely de-energized for
service or maintenance. Such switches are often found in electrical Distribution and industrial applications where
machinery must have its source of driving power Removed for adjustment or repair. High-voltage isolation switches
are used in electrical Substations to allow isolation of apparatus such as circuit breakers and transformers, and
Transmission lines, for maintenance. Often the isolation switch is not intended for normal Control of the circuit and
is used only for isolation; in such a case, it functions as a second Usually physically distant master switch (wired in
series with the primary one) that can Independently disable the circuit even if the master switch used in everyday
operation is turned On.

Isolator switches have provisions for a padlock so that inadvertent operation is not Possible. In high voltage or
complex systems, these padlocks may be part of a trappedkey Interlock system to ensure proper sequence of
operation. In some designs the isolator switch Has the additional ability to earth the isolated circuit thereby
providing additional safety. Such An arrangement would apply to circuits which inter-connected power distribution
systems Where both ends of the circuit need to be isolated.

The major difference between an isolator and a circuit breaker is that an isolator is an Off-load device intended to
be opened only after current has been interrupted by some other Control device. Safety regulations of the utility
must prevent any attempt to open the Disconnect or while it supplies a circuit. Isolators are provided for isolation
from 0breaker. They Are operated under no load and do not have any rating for current breaking or current making.
In Gunadala substation the type of isolators used are

1. Line Isolators
2. Bus Isolators

Fig :3.5 Isolators at Gunadala Substation

 3.1.5 CURRENT TRANSFORMER
Current Transformers (CT’s) are instrument transformers that are used to supply a Reduced value of current to
meters, Protective relays and other instruments. CT’s provide Isolation from the high voltage primary, permit
Grounding of the secondary for safety, and Step-down the magnitude of the measured current to a value that can
be safely handled by the Instruments.

Fig:3.7 132/33KV PTR-I HV Current transformer

Current transformers are used to reduce the amount of amperage sent to the ammeter for Measurement. They are
available in several ratios such as 50:5, 100:5, 300:5, etc. What this means Is that if a conductor carrying 50 amps
passes through a 50:5 ratio CT, a 5-amp current flow is Produced in the CT leads. It is important that the CT leads be
connected to an ammeter or else Shorted together. If the leads are left unconnected, a high voltage will be produced
and the CT Will likely be destroyed.

Ammeters that are connected to CT’s normally have a 5-amp movement, meaning that A current of 5 amps will
move the needle to full scale. The scale markings will be different Depending on the CT ratio. So a 50:5 ratio CT
could be used with an ammeter having a 50-Amp scale and a 5-amp movement. A 50-amp load in the power
conductor would produce a 5-Amp current in the CT leads which would drive a meter with a 5-amp movement and
50-amp Scale to full scale. The current carrying conductor passes through an opening in the centre of The doughnut-
shaped CT there is no metallic connection between the power circuit and the Amperage measurement system.

Fig:3.8 Simple current transformer circuit

 CT WITH AMMETER CIRCUIT

Since there are three power conductors involved with three-phase circuits and it is Desirable to read the amperage
on each conductor separately, a 4-position switch is often Employed to switch between readings on each leg as well
as to turn the meter off. This requires A special switch since it must keep the unused CT’s shorted at all times to
prevent burn out of them.

Fig:3. 9 Ammeter circuit with selector switch

3.1.6 CIRCUIT BREAKER

A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an Electrical circuit from damage
caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect A fault condition and, by interrupting continuity,
to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit
breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in
Varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large Switchgear designed to
protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.

OPERATION
All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details vary Substantially depending on the
voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker. The Circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-
voltage circuit breakers this is usually Done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large currents or high
voltages are Usually arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening Mechanism.

The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized by a separate battery Although some high-voltage circuit
breakers are self-contained with current transformers Protection relays, and an internal control power source Once
a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the Circuit; some mechanically-stored
energy (using something such as springs or compressed air) Contained within the breaker is used to separate the
contacts, although some of the energy Required may be obtained from the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers
may be manually Operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore Energy
to the springs.

The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating And must also withstand the
heat of the arc produced when interrupting (opening) the circuit Contacts are made of copper or copper alloys,
silver alloys, and other highly conductive Materials. Service life of the contacts is limited by the erosion of contact
material due to arcing While interrupting the current. When a current is interrupted, an arc is generated This arc
must be contained, cooled, and extinguished in a controlled way, so that the Gap between the contacts can again
withstand the voltage in the circuit.

Fig:3. 10 circuit breaker and its mechanism box in Gunadala substation

Different circuit breakers use vacuum, air, insulating gas, or oil as the medium the arc forms In Different techniques
are used to extinguish the arc including:

• Lengthening / deflection of the arc

• Intensive cooling (in jet chambers)
• Division into partial arcs
• Zero point quenching (Contacts open at the zero current time crossing of the AC
Waveform, effectively breaking no load current at the time of opening. The zero Crossing occurs at twice
the line frequency i.e. 100 times per second for 50 Hz and 120 Times per second for 60 Hz AC)
• Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in DC circuits
 SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER

Current interruption in a high-voltage circuit-breaker is obtained by separating two Contacts in a medium, such as
sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), having excellent dielectric and arc Quenching properties. After contact separation,
current is carried through an arc and is Interrupted when this arc is cooled by a gas blast of sufficient intensity.

Several characteristics of SF6 circuit breakers can explain their success:

• Simplicity of the interrupting chamber which does not need an auxiliary breaking Chamber
• Autonomy provided by the puffer technique
• The possibility to obtain the highest performance, up to 63 kA, with a reduced number of interrupting
chambers
• Short break time of 2 to 2.5 cycles
• High electrical endurance, allowing at least 25 years of operation without Reconditioning
• Possible compact solutions when used for gas insulated switchgear or hybrid Switchgear
• Integrated closing resistors or synchronized operations to reduce switching over voltages
• Reliability and availability
• Low noise levels

Sulphur hexafluoride gas is prepared by burning coarsely crushed roll sulphur in the Fluorine gas, in a steel box,
provided with staggered horizontal shelves, each bearing about 4Kg of sulphur. The steel box is made gas tight. The
gas thus obtained contains other fluorides Such as S2F10, SF4 and must be purified further SF6 gas generally supplier
by chemical firms. The cost of gas is low if manufactured in large scale.

Fig: 3.11 circuit breaker operation Fig: 3.12 arc extinction

Sulphur hexafluoride gas is prepared by burning coarsely crushed roll sulphur in the Fluorine gas, in a steel box,
provided with staggered horizontal shelves, each bearing about 4Kg of sulphur. The steel box is made gas tight. The
gas thus obtained contains other fluorides Such as S2F10, SF4 and must be purified further SF6 gas generally supplier
by chemical firms.The cost of gas is low if manufactured in large scale.During the arcing period SF6 gas is blown
axially along the arc. The gas removes the Heat from the arc by axial convection and radial dissipation. As a result,
the arc diameter Reduces during the decreasing mode of the current wave. The diameter becomes small during The
current zero and the arc is extinguished. Due to its electro negativity, and low arc time Constant, the SF6 gas regains
its dielectric strength rapidly after the current zero, the rate of rise of dielectric strength is very high and the time
constant is very small. Types of SF6 Circuit Breaker systems

1. Pneumatic
2. Spring charge
3. Hydraulic

Fig :3.13 Pneumatic System Of C.

Fig: 3.14 Spring Charge System Of C.B Fig: 3.15 Hydraulic System Of C.B
 SF6 FIELD STUDY

The circuit breaker to 220KV Gunadala feeder is of HBB make.

Type – ELF SL4-1 stands for company specific notation which facilitates easy identification And universality of
components. In this specific case the type stands for the following:

E represents SF6 gas insulator

L represents Generator

F represents Outdoor design

SL represents Extinction chamber type (Tapered)

4 represent breaker construction code

1 represent no of chambers

3.1.6 POWER TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another Through inductively
coupled conductors—the transformer’s coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying
magnetic flux in the transformer’s core and thus a varying Magnetic field through the secondary winding. This
varying magnetic field induces a varying Electromotive force (EMF), or “voltage”, in the secondary winding.
given by the ratio of the number of turns In the secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as
follows

BASIC PRINCIPLES
The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can produce A magnetic field
(electromagnetism) and second that a changing magnetic field within a coil of Wire induces a voltage across
the ends of the coil
(electromagnetic induction). Changing the Current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is
developed. The changing magnetic Flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

An
ideal

Fig:3.16 Ideal transformer as circuit element

transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the primary coil Creates a magnetic field. The
primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that
most of the magnetic flux passes through both The primary and secondary coils. If a load is connected to the
secondary winding, the load Current and voltage will be in the directions indicated, given the primary current and
voltage in The directions indicated (each will be alternating current in practice).

TAP CHANGING OF TRANSFORMERS

There is some voltage drop in distribution system. To overcome this, tapings on the coil Are bought out to the
terminals, so that the number of turns on one winding usually the high Voltage winding can be changed to
compensate for the voltage drop.

Types of tap changing:

• Off load tap changing.

• On load tap changing.

OFF-Load tap changing:

In this method, tap changers are provided on the transformer secondary. In this system,Whenever a taping is to be
changed the transformer is to be disconnected from the load. By Varying the tapings on the secondary, the voltage
is varied as per the requirement. So voltage Drop in the line is constant and secondary voltage is maintained. So off-
load tap changing can Be used for changing the voltage ratio slightly for different load conditions only objection of
Interruption of supply.

ON-load tap changing:

In this method tap changing is possible with the transformer on load. Special arrangements are To be provided. One
way is to divide the secondary winding into parallel sections with identical Tap changing under normal working
conditions. Two sections are connected with same number Of tapings. So the two windings share the load.
 Fig:3.17 EMCO 100MVA power transformer

Fig: 3.18 ALSTOM 50MVA Power Transformers

FIG:3.19 TOSHIBA 160MVA Power Transformer

 3.1.7 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER
A Potential Transformer is a special type of transformer that allows meters to take Readings from electrical
service connections with higher voltage (potential) than the meter is Normally capable of handling without at
potential transformer. Potential Transformer is Designed for monitoring single-phase and three-phase power
line voltages in power metering Applications.

Potential transformers are used to measure and monitor the voltage of high voltage Lines by transforming the
line voltage to some easily measurable value, often 100V. Potential Transformers are instrument transformers.
They have a large number of primary turns and a few Numbers of secondary turns. It is used to control the large
value of voltage.

Fig: 3.20 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS

WORKING

The potential transformer works along the same principle of other transformers. It
Converts voltages from high to low. It will take the thousands of volts behind power Transmission systems and step
the voltage down to something that meters can handle. These Transformers work for single and three phase
systems, and are attached at a point where it is Convenient to measure the voltage.

3.1.8 CTD’S (capacitive tripping device)

Capacitor trip devices (CTDs) have been used with medium- voltage circuit breakers
 For decades. Even though CTDs are workhorse components in the switchgear, Siemens still Receives questions
about the basic function and need for them.A CTD is an energy storage device for “impulse” type loads, for
situations in which the normal Source of control power may not be present when action is required. The classic
application for A CTD is for tripping of a medium-voltage circuit breaker in installations that derive the control
Power from the ac primary system through a control power transformer (CPT). If a bolted fault Occurs on the
ac primary system (or any major fault on a weak power system), the voltage on The primary bus will be
depressed and the secondary voltage from the CPT will be at a low Value. An energy storage device is needed
so that the power to trip the medium-voltage circuit Breaker will be available even under fault conditions.

The most common use of CTDs is to trip medium-voltage circuit breakers. A secondary Application is for
actuation of lockout (device 86) relays powered from the ac supply of a CPT. A separate CTD is required for each
circuit breaker or lockout relay. A CTD must never be Connected to parallel (multiple) loads.

The principle of a basic capacitor trip device is very simple. A capacitor is connected To a half-wave rectifier or
a bridge rectifier, and charged from the normal ac control power Supply.

The charging time of the capacitor is typically in the vicinity of 10 cycles or so. The Charging current is limited
by a series resistor, both to protect the capacitor from excess current, And to protect the bridge rectifier. The
capacitor is isolated, with no continuous load connected To the capacitor output circuit. When a protective relay
or any other trip contact closes, the Capacitor output is connected to the circuit breaker trip coil circuit (or to
the solenoid circuit of A lockout relay), and the stored capacitive energy is released to trip the circuit breaker
or Lockout relay.When the ac supply is at rated voltage (240 Vac, for example), the capacitor will charge To the
peak of the ac voltage, or 339 Vdc. The capacitor stays at this voltage as long asthe Incoming supply voltage is
maintained.

When the ac voltage is lost, the capacitor begins to Discharge slowly. If a trip command is received, the charge
on the capacitor is released to trip The circuit breaker. The capacitor size is selected so that it has sufficient
energy to operatethe Trip coil of the circuit breaker. Ideally, the capacitor size and charge current magnitude
aretuned To the inductance and resistance of the tripping solenoid (an RLC series circuit). The objective Is to
produce a discharge current through the tripping solenoid that emulates the magnitude of Current and current
duration that the solenoid would experience if operated from a dc tripping Supply voltage.

Advantages

• Economic for small installations with only a few circuit breakers,Compared to use of a battery.

• Particularly suited to installations in isolated locations, or unattended Substations, where the user wishes
to avoid the initial cost and ongoing Maintenance of a station battery.

• Suitable for use in outdoor installations where battery capacity is reduced At low temperatures.

Disadvantages

• Capacitor trip devices cannot be used for continuous loads – thus, they Cannot be used with a red light in the
trip circuit to monitor trip coil Integrity, nor with a trip coil supervision circuit of microprocessor relays

• Use of ac control power precludes the use of communications devices (protective relays, power meters) that
require dc control power for Communications when the ac power is off (such as, immediately after a Fault).

• Uneconomic for large installations, compared to use of a battery.

• An electrolytic capacitor is used, which has limited life, particularly in High temperatures. The periodic
maintenance program must include Functional testing (annually) of the capacitor trip device.

3.1.9 LBB’S (LOCAL BREAKER BACKUP PROTECTION)

The most common and very expensive equipment in power generation plant, Transmission substation and
distribution substation is transformer. Therefore greater care is Given for the protection of transformer.
Different relay serves this purpose and will open the Circuit breaker in accordance with the electrical and
mechanical parameters LBB (Local Breaker Backup) protection formulated for the fault clearance of a system by
Tripping other circuit breakers when the appropriate circuit breaker fail to operate LBB (Local Breaker Backup)
protection provides an additional delay of 100 to 250 Milliseconds to the transformer Circuit Breaker and its
back up circuit breaker. The tripping Operation of LBB consist of two tripping sequence one with a delay of 100
milliseconds to The circuit breaker and second with delay of 250 milliseconds given to isolate upstream side
Feeders.
LBB protection in transformer panel
The transformer panel consists of a DC supply which also powers the LBB protection This should be avoided and
a separate DC source must be provided to LBB protection because On the failure of DC source may results in
malfunctioning of master trip relay and other circuit Breaker including the operation of LBB.The failure of the
DC supply in transformer panel is a frequent event in large Substations. So the NC contacts of DC supervision
relays of Breaker panels should be wired To energize LBB.

On programming the numerical relays like Area P642 for back up over Current and earth fault protection and
for mechanical protection like buchholz relay trip LBB Protection can be done in an effective manner.Install an
electro mechanical over current and earth fault relay like CDG 31to isolate The upstream side of feeder breakers
since these relays does not need any power supply.LBB is initiated with the help of lock out relay or trip relay
(86) and a failure in this Relay may affect the LBB protection, so individual relay contacts are wired to LBB.

CHAPTER:4
BUS BARS

In electrical power distribution, a Bus bar is a strip of copper or aluminum that conducts Electricity within a
switchboard, distribution board, substation or other electrical apparatus. The Size of the Bus bar determines the
maximum amount of current that can be safely carried. Bus Bars can have a cross-sectional area of as little as 10
mm2 But electrical substations may use Metal tubes of 50 mm in diameter (1,963 mm2) or more as Bus bars. An
aluminium smelter Will have very large Bus bars used to carry tens of thousands of amperesto the electrochemical
Cells that produce aluminium from molten salts.

Design and placement Bus bars are typically either flat strips or hollow tubes as these Shapes allow heat to dissipate
more efficiently due to their high surface area to crosssectional Area ratio. The skin effect makes 50–60 Hz AC Bus
bars more than about 8 mm
(1/3 in) thick Inefficient, so hollow or flat shapes are prevalent in higher current applications. A hollow Section has
higher stiffness than a solid rod of equivalent current-carrying capacity, which Allows a greater span between Bus
bar supports in outdoor switch yards.Bus bars are typically contained inside switchgear, panel boards, or bus way.
Bus ways, or bus Ducts, are long bus bars with a protective cover Bus bar acts as nodal point in the substation Which
connects different incoming and outgoing circuits.
Etymology: The word “bus” comes from a shortened version of “omnibus”, the Latin word That roughly means “all
in one”.

SELECTION OF BUS BARS

Different types of bus bar arrangements are employed based on the voltage, reliability Of the supply, flexibility in
transmitting power and cost. The materials in common use for strain Type Bus bars are ACSR conductors. Bundled
conductors (two or four) are used where high Ratings for Bus bars are required. The other aspects considering in
designing the bus bars Arrangements are:

• Simplicity in the design

• Maintenance of different elements without interruption in the power supply
• Future expansion feasibility
• Economical in cost of installation and operation

Points to be taken care while terminating a Bus bar

➢ The thinner the Bus bar the greater is the current loading because of its larger surface
Area for heat dissipation.Fig: 1 copper buses

➢ Due to skin effect, the current in a Bus bar has auto tendency to flow along the outer Skin and not in the
central core.Fig: 2 skin effect

➢ Due to proximity effect, the current distribution in a no. Of parallel Bus bars is not Uniform, more in the
outer and less in the inner.Fig: 3 proximity effect

➢ Vertical formation of Bus bars has larger current carrying capacity than horizontal Ones because of better
circulation of air and hence, cooling effect. Fig: 4 vertical arrangements of Bus bars.

Fig: 4.1 Fig:4. 2 Fig:4.3 Fig:4.4

 GENERAL BUS BAR ARRANGEMENTS

1. SINGLE BUS BAR SCHEME:

This is the simplest Bus bar scheme available which consists of single set of Bus bars Connected to the
generators, transformers and load feeders. All the feeders are connected by Circuit breaker and set of isolators.
This arrangement helps to remove the connecting elements For maintenance by opening the circuit breaker
contacts and further opening the isolators.

2. DOUBLE MAIN BUS BAR SCHEME:

Normally in double main Bus bar scheme each circuit is connected to both the buses. In Some cases half of the
circuits can be connected and operated on each bus, in these cases bus Or circuit breaker failure would cause
loss to half of the circuits. In double main Bus bar Arrangement one or two breakers can be provided for each
circuit. Double main Bus bar and Double breaker scheme provides high reliability in the case of fault or outage
of one of the Breaker. (fig shown below)

3. MAIN AND TRANSFER BUS BAR SCHEME:

Main and Transfer Bus bar scheme is similar to single Bus bar arrangement with additional Transfer bus
connected. Tie circuit breaker is provided to tie both the main and transfer bus. During normal operation all the
circuits are connected to the main bus. When circuit breaker Connected to the circuit (transmission line) is
required to trip for maintenance, tie circuit Breaker connecting the main and transfer bus is closed. The relay
protection for the circuits Connected to the transfer bus is taken care by the tie circuit breaker.(fig shown below)

4. ONE AND HALF BUS BAR SCHEME:

In One and half breaker scheme, two circuits are connected between the three circuit Breakers. Hence One and
Half breaker name was coined for this type of arrangement. Under Normal operating conditions all the breakers
are closed and both the Bus bars are energized.Any Circuit fault will trip two circuit breakers and no other circuit
will be affected in this Arrangement. When a Bus bar fault occur only breakers adjacent to Bus bars trips and
no circuit Will loose power. Two Bus bars can also be taken out of service without affecting the power Flow if
the power source circuit (alternator circuit) and receiving circuit (transmission line) Available in the same bay.
(fig shown below)
 Fig :4.5 Double main Bus bar. Fig:4.6 Single Bus bar

Fig :4.7Main and transfer Bus bar. Fig: 4.8 One and half Bus bar

TRANSFER BUS:
This is essentially a single bus scheme with bus section breaker and an extra bus Coupler breaker with bypass
disconnects switch facilities. When circuit breakers are under Maintenance the protection is arranged to trip the
bus-coupler breaker. Failure of bus or any Circuit breaker results in shutdown of half of the substation. Any breaker
can be taken out of Service for maintenance. The use of circuit breaker bypass isolator facilities is not considered To
offer substantial benefits since modern circuit breaker maintenance times are short and in Highly interconnected
systems alternative feeder arrangements are normally possible. The System is considered to offer less flexibility than
the duplicate bus scheme. Potential devices may Be used on the main bus for relaying.

DUPLICATE BUS:
The duplicate bus scheme has the flexibility to allow the grouping of circuits onto Separate Bus bars with facilities
for transfer from one Bus bar to another for maintenance or Operational reasons. Each circuit may be connected to
either Bus bar using the Bus bar selector Disconnect switches. On-load Bus bar selection may be made using the
bus-coupler circuit Breaker. Feeder breaker failure takes all circuits connected to that bus section out of service.
Bus-tie breaker failure takes entire substation out of service. One extra breaker is required for The bus tie on the
duplicate bus. Either main bus may be isolated for maintenance. It permits Some flexibility with two operating
buses. Circuit can be transferred readily from one bus to The other by use of bus coupler breaker and bus selector
disconnects switches.
 CHAPTER :5
POWER TRANSFORMER

4.1 TYPES

Transformers are of the dry type or oil filled. From 2% to 5% of the electrical energy is Lost in a transformer,
mostly due to the resistance of the windings. Large trans- formers circulate Oil through the windings to remove
the heat. Dry transformers use air for cooling. Heat is Moved from the windings to the case by conduction in
smaller sizes of the dry type.Large dry-type transformers actually allow air to circulate through the windings,.
Oil-filled Transformers are used by the electric utility, and for industrial or large commercial applications.

An autotransformer has its windings interconnected so that the primary and theSecondary share the same
windings. Autotransformers, therefore, have an electrically Connected primary and secondary. A major
advantage of autotransformers over the insulating Types is their lighter weight and compact size.
Autotransformers are used for electric- discharge Lighting ballasts.

Control transformers are special insulating transformers commonly used to supply Power for control of
appliances, equipment, and motor starters. A control transformer is Required when the control circuit voltage
is different from the line voltage supplied. Common Control circuit voltages are 24 V and 120 V. A 120-V control
circuit to a start -stop push- button Station may be desirable for a 125-hp, 480-V, 3-phase motor powering an
irrigation pump. The Control transformer would step down the 480 V to 120 V for the control circuit.

4.2 OLTC (on load tap changing)

Power transformers equipped with on-load tap- changers (OLTCs) have been the main Components of electrical
networks and industrial applications for nearly 90 years. OLTCs Enable voltage regulation and/or phase shifting
by varying the transformer ratio under load Without interruption.From the start of tap-changer development,
two switching principles have been used for Load transfer operation – the high-speed resistor-type OLTCs and
the reactor-type OLTCs.Over the decades both principles have been developed into reliable transformer
components Which
are available in a broad range of current and voltage applications. These components Cover the needs of today’s
network and industrial process transformers andensure optimalsystem and process control The majority of
resistortype OLTCs are installed inside the transformer tank (in-tankOLTCs) whereas the reactor-type OLTCs are
in a separate compartment which is normally Welded to the transformer tank This paper mainly refers to OLTCs
immersed in trans- former mineral oil.

CHAPTER :6
PROTECTION

6.1. FEEDER PROTECTION

As the length of electrical power transmission line is generally long enough and it runs Through open atmosphere,
the probability of occurring fault in electrical power transmission Line is much higher than that of electrical power
transformers and alternators. That is why a Transmission line requires much more protective schemes than a
transformer and an alternator. Protection of line should have some special features, such as- During fault,the only
circuit Breaker closest to the fault point should be tripped. If the circuit breaker closest the faulty Point, fails to trip
the circuit breaker just next to this breaker will trip as back up.

The operating time of relay associated with protection of line should be as minimumAs possible in order to prevent
unnecessary tripping of circuit breakers associated with other Healthy parts of power system.These above
mentioned requirements cause protection of transmission line much different

From protection of transformer and other equipment of power systems. The main three methods Of transmission
line protection are –

1. Time graded over current protection.

2. Differential protection.
3. Distance protection.
4. Time Graded Over Current Protection

This may also be referred simply as over-current protection of electrical power transmission line.

6.2. POWER TRANSFORMER PROTECTION

The most commonly used schemes for the protection of transformers are:

1. BUCHHOLZ RELAY
2. PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE (PRV)
3. OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATOR
4. WINDING TEMPRATURE INDICATOR
5. MAGNETIC OIL LEVEL GAUGE
6. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

1. BUCHHOLZ RELAY

Buchholz relay is very sensitive, gas and oil operated instrument which detects low oil Level, formation
of gas or development of sudden pressure inside the oil filled Transformer. It Has to be connected to
protection circuit to give an early audible alarm in case of low oil Level/gas collection and to disconnect
the Transformer from supply in case of severe fault inside The Transformer. When mounted on the pipe
work, the correct direction is maintained with the Help of arrow provided.

The relay operates on the fact that almost every type of electric fault in oil filed Transformer Gives rise
to gas. This gas is collected in the body of the relay and is used in some way or other To cause the alarm
or the tripping circuit to operate. The relay is capable toindicate incipient Fault thereby preventing
further spreading of the fault and extensive damageand thus saving Expensive and protracted repairs.
 2. PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE (PRV)

The purpose of the pressure relief valve isto prevent mechanical damage to the Transformer Tank by
releasing any excess pressure over the set limit. This valve is basically a spring loaded Devise which
close automatically when the pressure inside the tank drops to theset limit after Venting excess
pressure over the set limit. The PRV is designed to be used on power Transformer. When the pressure
in the tank rise above the predetermined safe limit, this valve Operates and allows the pressure to drop
by instantaneously opening a port of about 150mm Diameter & give valve & operation by raising a flag
and also operates a switch, which has 1 NO and 1 NC contacts.

3. OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATOR

Oil temperature indicator consists of direct reading dial gauge and servesfor monitoring The oil
temperature of the Transformer. The dial gauge of the Transformer can be fixed away From the point of
temperature measurement on the top of the Transformer becausethe active Gas bulb element is
connected to the mechanism by a long capillary tube. The length of capillary Does not influence the
accuracy of measurement.The liquid inside the bulb in contact with the hot oil in the thermometer
pocket expands and the pressure of the vapour inside the system increases. This increases in
pressureresults in Movement of the bellow. A link and lever mechanism amplifies this movement to
the disc Carrying pointer and switches, which indicates the temperature on the dial of the thermometer.

4. WINDING TEMPRATURE INDICATOR

For oil immersed Transformer operating under varying loads, measuring the winding Temperature is of
great importance. The use of winding temperature indicator permits the Winding temperature to be
constantly monitored and harmful over loads can be avoided. The Instrument indicates the
temperature rise of the Transformer winding over, the top oil temp for Any specified load current.

5. MAGNETIC OIL LEVEL GAUGE

This is direct oil level indicator devise provided on conservator. This protection Prevents the damages
of the Transformer from damages due to loss of oil for any reason. It can Also be used where level of
liquid inside the tank is required to be indicated continuously on a Dial. The low oil contacts provided
on the magnetic oil level indicator can be used for automatic Alarm when the oil level in the conservator
falls to a low level. During dispatch, the indicator And the arm and float are detached to prevent damage
to the bevel gear and mercury switch. The mercury switch operating arm and bevel gear are also locked
in position.A float is used as Sensor of liquid level inside the conservator tank. Circular Movement of
float due to change in Liquid level is utilized to indicate level on a calibrated dial and also to operate a
switch for External alarm unit when necessary.

6. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

The differential protection is used for transformers is based on the principle of current Circulation. This
type of protection is mostly used for transformers as this responds not only To inter turn fault but also
provides protection against phase-to-phase faults.Under normal working conditions the circulating
currents caused by the primary and Secondary load current in the relay circuit will balance; but under
fault conditions the balance Will no longer be there and the relay will be energized to trip the circuit
breakers on the primary And secondary side. Differential relays are set to operate at a relative high
degree of unbalance. This method decreases the sensitivity of the relays.

6.3 RELAYS:
A protective relay is an electromechanical apparatus, often with more than one coil,Designed to
calculate operating conditions on an electrical circuit and trip circuit breakers when A fault is detected.
Unlike switching type relays with fixed and usually ill-defined operating Voltage thresholds and
operating times, protective relays have well-established, selectable, Time/current (or other operating
parameter) operating characteristics. Protection relays may use Arrays of induction disks, shaded-pole
magnets, operating and restraint coils, solenoid-type Operators, telephone-relay contacts, and phase-
shifting networks. Protection relays respond to Such conditions as over-current, overvoltage, reverse
power flow, over- and under- frequency. Distance relays trip for faults up to a certain distance away
from a substation but not beyond That point. An important transmission line or generator unit will have
cubicles dedicated to Protection, with many individual electromechanical devices.

OPERATING PRINCIPLE:
Electromechanical protective relays operate by either magnetic attraction, or magnetic Induction.
“Armature”-type relays have a pivoted lever supported on a hinge or knifeedge pivot,Which carries a
moving contact. These relays may work on either alternating or direct current,But for alternating
current, a shading coil on the pole is used to maintain contact force Throughout the alternating current
cycle. Because the air gap between the fixed coil and the Moving armature becomes much smaller
when the relay has operated, the current required to Maintain the relay closed is much smaller than
the current to first operate it. The “returning Ratio” or “differential” is the measure of how much the
current must be reduced to reset the Relay.A variant application of the attraction principle is the
plunger-type orsolenoid operator. A Reed relay is another example of the attraction principle.
“Moving coil” meters use a loop of wire turns in a stationary magnet, similar to a Galvanometer but
with a contact lever instead of a pointer. These can be made with very high Sensitivity. Another type of
moving coilsuspends the coil from two conductive ligaments, Allowing very long travel of the
coil.”Induction” disk meters work by inducing currents in a disk
That is free torotate; the rotary motion of the disk operates a contact. Induction relays require
Alternating current; if two or more coils are used, they must be at the same frequency otherwise No
net operating force is produced.
 Protective relays can also be classified by the type of measurement they make. AProtective relay may
respond to the magnitude of a quantity such as voltage or current.Induction types of relay can respond
to the product of two quantities in two field coils, which Could for example represent the power in a
circuit. Although an electromechanical relay Calculating the ratio of two quantities is not practical, the
same effect can be obtained by a Balance between two operating coils, which can be arranged to
effectively give the same result.Several operating coils can be used to provide “bias” to the relay,
allowing the Sensitivity of response in one circuit to be controlled by another. Various combinations of
“operate torque” and “restraint torque” can be produced in the relay.

By use of a permanent magnetic in the magnetic circuit, a relay can be made to respond Differently to
current in one direction than in another. Such polarized relays are used on directcurrent circuits to
detect, for example, reverse current into a generator. These relayscan be Made bistable, maintaining a
contact closed with no coil current and requiring reverse current To reset. For AC circuits, the principle
is extended with a polarizing winding connected to a Reference voltage source.

Fig: 6.1 relay control room of the gunadala substation

TYPES OF RELAYS

1. Over current relay

An “over current relay” is a type of protective relay which operates when the load current Exceeds a preset
value. In a typical application the over current relay is connected to a current Transformer and calibrated to
operate at or above a specific current level. When the relay Operates, one or more contacts will operate and
energize to trip (open) a circuit breaker.

2. .Distance relay

The most common form of protection on high voltage transmission systems is distance Relay protection. Power
lines have set impedance per kilometer and using this value and Comparing voltage and current the distance to
a fault can be determined.
 3. Static relays

Application of electronic amplifiers to protective relays was described as early as 1928, using Vacuum tube
amplifiers. Devices using electron tubes were studied but never applied as Commercial products, because of
the limitations of vacuum tube amplifiers. A relatively large Standby current is required to maintain the tube
filament temperature; inconvenient high Voltages are required for the circuits, and vacuum tube amplifiers had
difficulty with incorrect Operation due to noise disturbances.

Static relays with no or few moving parts became practical with the introduction of the Transistor. Static relays
offer the advantage of higher sensitivity than purely electromechanical Relays, because power to operate
output contacts is derived from a separate supply, not from The signal circuits. Static relays eliminated or
reduced contact bounce, and could provide fast Operation, long life and low maintenance.

4. Digital protective relays

The functions of electromechanical protection systems are now being replaced by Microprocessor-based digital
protective relays, sometimes called “numeric relays”.A microprocessor-based digital protection relay can
replace the functions of many discrete Electromechanical instruments These convert voltage and currents to
digital form and process the resulting measurements Using a microprocessor. The digital relay can emulate
functions of many discrete Electromechanical relays in one device, simplifying protection design and
maintenance. Each digital relay can run self-test routines to confirm its readiness and alarm if a fault is detected.

5. Restricted earth fault relay

For external fault on star side, say in R phase the affected current flows in R phase and Neutral CTs and hence
the resultant current through stabilising resistance is zero and hence the Relay is stable. During an internal fault,
the line current on the line CT gets reversed and hence Resultant current flows through the relay and it operates.
Fig: 6.2 Gunadala feeder’s control and relay panels in the sub station
 Fig: 6.2 Gunadala feeder’s control and relay panels in the substation

CHAPTER :7
SUPPLY SYSTEM TO CONTROL ROOM

7.1 BATTERIES:

Generally we gave dc supply to the all protective equipment like relays ,indicators And for all controlling devices
through batteries in substation .Battery Chargers are basically
Automatically Stabilised D.C. Power Sources meant to feed the connected load and
Simultaneously trickle (float) charge the connected Battery, thereby maintaining it
(Battery) Continuously healthy & ready to feed the load in an emergency situation of A.C. Supply failure. This
arrangement ensures an uninterrupted D.C. Supply to the connected load at all times – by The Battery Charger in
case of A.C. Power Supply availability or by the Battery in case of Failure of A.C. Power Supply.

Fig:7.1 Battery used for auxiliary power supply substations and power plants

In Industrial or substation applications mainly three types of batteries are used namely:

1. Vented / Flooded Lead Acid batteries

2. Sealed maintenance free batteries/Valve Regulated Lead Acid
3. Nickel Cadmium (Ni-cd) batteries
For UPS applications batteries are the most popular and hence are widely used. Hence, in this Detailing, mainly
emphasize has been put on these type of batteries

1. Vented / Flooded Lead Acid batteries:

There are two types for vented or flooded lead acid batteries namely tubular and Plante.The difference between
the two is the construction. For tubular battery normal life is 8-10 years. The Plante battery is both mechanically
and electrically more durable. The normal life for Plante batteries is 15-20 years. Because this type of battery
generates corrosive fumes when Charging and because the sulfuric acid electrolyte does evaporate to some extent,
these batteries Must be used in a special room, which is well ventilated to the outside and kept away fromDelicate
electronic equipments.

It needs separate room/racks with acid proof tiles for installation. Because of evaporation, It needs regular
maintenance to check specific gravity, to add water and acid. These batteries Can withstand high temperature,
voltage, and deep discharge with minimum damage to itself. A notice should be exhibited in the battery room
prohibiting smoking and use of naked flames. These batteries cannot be transported in charged condition and
thereforeneed charging at site. Typical initial charging of the battery will take about 55 to 90 hours. Nominal cell
voltage is 2V/cell. The charger for this battery should be able to provide the firstcharge at 2.6 to 2.7 V/cell.These
types of batteries are typically used for UPS Systems of very high rated capacity,Typically engaged for plant
application, wherein maintenance and space is not really an issue.

Fig:7.2 Vented / Flooded Lead Acid Batteries & Tubular Type Lead acid battery

2. Sealed Maintenance Free batteries (SMF):

Fig:7.3 VRLA/SMF type Lead Acid Battery

These are also known as Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) batteries. These Batteries are the most popular for usage
with UPS systems for computer or commercial Application. Being sealed, these batteries do not emit any fumes and
hence can be very well Installed next to electronic equipment. These batteries also can be housed in a close
enclosure If necessary. These batteries are also maintenance free and avoid any hassles of checking Specific gravity,
adding water or acid, etc.

These batteries have a relatively lesser life of approx. 3-5 years. The life expectancy typically Depends on the number
of charge/discharge cycle experienced by the batteries and the ambient Temperature in which the batteries are
used. These batteries are primarily the most popular for Commercial applications due to “Install and forget”
approach.

ADVANTAGES:

• VRLA batteries do not produce acid fumes on charge.

• Being compact they occupy very little floor area.

• They posses high discharge performance and hence a smaller capacity battery can do The same job that of a
large capacity tubular battery.

DISADVANTAGES:

• VRLA batteries need controlled temperature for proper operations.

• Their useful life is halved by every 80C increase in temperature.

CHAPTER :8
GENERAL INTERRUPTS OCCURRED IN SUBSTATION:

The following are the some of the general interrupts observed in Gunadala substationin The month of may-June.
Due to these factors the supply is interrupted for some time in those Particular buses. The general causes we
observed in the month of May-June are due to

1. LG faults at different locations on bus bars and feeders.

2. Erection of multi circuit towers.
3. Flashes occurred on discs due to over voltages.
4. Hot spot work and general maintenance work.
5. Sparks occurred on CT stud and replacement of CT.
6. Erection of new components in substations.
7. Hot spot work at different locations in substations.
8. Conductors snatched some time due to wind pressure, unexpected rated values Occurred in to
substation.
9. Due to low load and high voltages on buses.
10. Power transformer interruption work also causes for interruption of supply.
11. Replacement of LV&HV isolator mechanism boxes.
 12. Failing of Incoming supply feeding.
13. CT blast due to internal faults in tank
14. Due to erection of new 50MVA transformer instead of 31.5MVA transformer in Ganguru substation
causes for interruption on the Ganguru feeder.

1. Jumper replacement works.

2. Line stringing works
3. Tree cutting works also causes of interruption of power supply.
4. Transformers tripped without relay indication due to failure of DC power supply to The panel board’s.

The above mentioned are the interrupts and corresponding interrupt works that have done in This substation in the
month of May.

CHAPTER :9

CONCLUSIONS:
The protection of entire 220/132/33kv substation includes protection schemes for 220kv feeder and ICT1, ICT2.
220KV and 132KV feeders have two protective schemes.
One Is Main-1 protective scheme with P444 Scheme of Schneider make, other one is Main –II with REL67O Scheme
of ABB make. Transformer protection scheme covers differential protection,Directional over current and earth fault
protection on HV and LV sides.

Expansion of 220KV bus bay is under construction. At present power is being Transferred on double circuit line
220KV system. In future it may be expanded to triple circuit Line to fulfil the load demand.