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What is the Role of HCI Within the Automotive Industry?

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 What is the Role of HCI Within the Automotive Industry?
by
Robin Tepe

A Dissertation
Submitted to the Department of Digital Arts, Newcastle College University Centre
In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts Honours
June 2020

10,974 Words
Copyright © 2020, Robin Tepe.
Robin Tepe 01 - 06 - 20 Research & Dissemination

Abstract
This dissertation describes the rising role of HCI within the automotive industry. It covers the

history of automotive human-machine interfaces from the first dashboard design and the discovery

of user experience, up to the introduction of the in-car radio, phone, navigation system, and

infotainment system. Moreover, it explains contemporary human-computer interactions like

touchscreens, head-up displays, augmented reality, artificial intelligence, smartphone integration,

gesture controls, and voice user interface; together with its advantages and disadvantages from user

experience perspectives. The dissertation also explains why and how digital user experience within

cars are different and how automotive manufactures benefit and archive emotional design. Lastly,

the predicted future of the automotive industry is discussed, which includes generational

preferences of generation Z and generation alpha, vehicle connectivity, vehicular automation, and

shared mobility with city efficiency.

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Contents Page
List of Figures 4
Glossary 7
Introduction 8
1. The History of Automotive Human-Machine Interfaces 10
1.1 Evolution of Dashboard Design 10
1.2 Core Instrument Clusters on a Dashboard Layout 10
1.3 Development of Interactive In-Car Functionalities 11
1.4 Development of Infotainment Systems 13
1.5 Increased Importance of In-Car Usability 14
1.6 Evolution of User Experience Design 15
2. Contemporary HCI Within the Automotive Industry 18
2.1 Contemporary Automotive Dashboard Technologies 18
2.2 The Difference Within Automotive HMI 25
2.3 Emotional Design 29
2.4 Climate and City 31
3. The Predicted Future of the Automotive Industry 34
3.1 Generational Preferences 34
3.2 Vehicle Connectivity 35
3.3 Vehicular Automation 37
3.4 Shared Mobility and City Efficiency 43
Conclusion 45
Bibliography 47
Reading List 57

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List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Benz Patent Motor Car 1885 - 1886
• Daimler (n.d.). Benz Patent Motor Car: The First Automobile (1885-1886). [online]
Available at: https://www.daimler.com/company/tradition/company-history/
1885-1886.html [Accessed 15 Jan. 2020].

Fig. 1.2 BMW 1500 B 1962 - 1977 Interior

• Driven To Write (2014). BMW 1500 B. [online] Available at: https://driventowrite.com/
2014/12/04/rover-p6-dashboard/bmw-1500-b/ [Accessed 15 Jan. 2020].

Fig. 1.3 BMW 320i 2019 - Present Interior

• Saundersm M. (2019). BMW 3 Series Ride & Handling. [online] Autocar. Available at:
https:// www.autocar.co.uk/car-review/bmw/3-series/ride [Accessed 15 Jan. 2020].

Fig. 2.1 Porsche Taycan Interior

• Gitlin, J. M. (2019). Porsche Finally Shows the Interior of Its New Electric Car. [online]
Ars Technica. Available at: https://arstechnica.com/cars/2019/08/porsche-finally-shows-
the-interior-ofits-new-electric-car/ [Accessed 25 Feb. 2020].

Fig. 2.2 Head-Up Display on Transport Aircraft

• Writers, S. (2014). 100 Things That Make Safer Skies: 51-60 [online] Flight Safety
Australia. Available at: https://www.flightsafetyaustralia.com/2014/08/100-things-that-
make-safer-skies- 51-60/ [Accessed 1 Feb. 2020].

Fig. 2.3 Head-Up Display on Mercedes-Benz GLC

• Mercedes-Benz (n.d.). Head-Up Display [online] Available at: https://www.la.mercedes-
benz.com/ en/passengercars/mercedes-benz-cars/models/glc/glc-suv/explore.pi.html/
mercedes-benz-cars/ models/glc/glc-suv/explore/intelligent-technologies/head-up-display
[Accessed 31 Jan. 2020].

Fig. 2.4 AR Implementation in MBUX

• Scooter, N. (2018). Mercedes Benz MBUX 2018 A Class Detailed Walk Through. [online]
MobileGeeks. Available at: https://www.mobilegeeks.com/review/mercedes-benz-
mbux-2018- class-detailed-walk/ [Accessed 1 Feb. 2020].

Fig. 2.5 Audi’s AR Users’ Manual App

• Spring Wise (2013). Audi’s AR Users’ Manual App Can Identify 300 Car Parts. [online].
Available at: https://www.springwise.com/audis-ar-users-manual-app-identify-300-car-
parts/ [Accessed 1 Feb. 2020].

Fig. 2.6 MINI Yours Custom Dashboard Trim

• MINI (n.d.). MINI Yours | Customisable Accessories. [online] Available at: https://
www.mini.co.uk/en_GB/home/accessories/customisable-accessories.html [Accessed 2
Feb. 2020].

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Fig. 2.7 MINI Yours Custom Entry Strips

• MINI (n.d.). MINI Yours | Customisable Accessories. [online] Available at: https://
www.mini.co.uk/en_GB/home/accessories/customisable-accessories.html [Accessed 2
Feb. 2020].

Fig. 2.8 BMW Gesture Control Camera

• Goreham, J. (2017). Tech: What Are Vehicle Gesture Controls and How Do They Work?
[online] BestRide.com. Available at: http://bestride.com/news/technology/tech-what-are-
vehicle-gesture-controlsand-how-do-they-work [Accessed 3 Feb. 2020].

Fig. 2.9 Mercedes-Benz Attention Assist

• Mercedes-Benz USA (2012). Attention Assist Vehicle Safety Technology - Mercedes-
Benz 2013 ML-Class. Available at: https://youtu.be/A66zgJ4Oj8o [Accessed 21 Feb.
2020].

Fig. 2.10 BMW 1-Series Saloon

• Padeanu, A. (2018). BMW 1 Series Sedan No Longer China-Exclusive; Launched In
Mexico. [online] Motor 1. Available at: https://www.motor1.com/news/250345/bmw-1-
series-sedan-mexico/ [Accessed 19 Feb. 2020].

Fig. 2.11 Tesla Mario Kart Rainbow Road

• Tyler, J. (2018). Tesla’s Cars are Full of Hidden Easter eggs - Here the Coolest Ones.
[online] Business Insider. Available at: https://www.businessinsider.com/tesla-secret-
easter-eggs-revealed- 2018-3 [Accessed 21 Feb. 2020].

Fig. 2.12 Tesla James Bond Lotus Submarine

• Tyler, J. (2018). Tesla’s Cars are Full of Hidden Easter Eggs - Here the Coolest Ones.
[online] Business Insider. Available at: https://www.businessinsider.com/tesla-secret-
easter-eggs-revealed- 2018-3 [Accessed 21 Feb. 2020].

Fig. 2.13 Audi RS 7 Digital Dashboard Mode

• Gitlin, J. M. (2019). The 2020 Audi RS7 - Our All-Time Favorite Fastback Just Got Even
Better. [online] Ars Technica. Available at: https://arstechnica.com/cars/2019/09/
the-2020-audi-rs7-our-alltime-favorite-fastback-just-got-even-better/ [Accessed 21 Feb.
2020].

Fig. 2.14 BMW M340i Welcome Screen

• NewCarCars (n.d.). 2020 BMW M340i Sedan. [online] Available at: http://
www.newcarcars.com/ zc28533_dp28531/ [Accessed 21 Feb. 2020].

Fig. 3.1 ‘Local Dynamic Map’

• Hartwig, M. (2020). Self-Driving and Cooperative Cars. Munich: Bayerische Motoren
Werke AG. Available at: https://www.bmw.com/content/dam/bmw/marketBMWCOM/
bmw_com/categories/ Innovation/ebook-self-driving-cars/pdf/e-book-self-driving-
cars_en.pdf [Accessed 7 Mar. 2020].

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Fig. 3.2 Dashboard of BMW Vision Next 100

• BMW Group (n.d.). Brand Visions. [online]. Available at: https://www.bmwgroup.com/en/
next100/brandvisions.html [Accessed 7 Mar. 2020].

Fig. 3.3 San Fransisco Smart City Proposal

• SFMTA (2016). City of San Francisco: Meeting the Smart City Challenge. Available at:
https:// www.sfmta.com/sites/default/files/projects/2016/
SF%20Smart%20City%20Challenge_Final.pdf [Accessed 9 Mar. 2020].

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Glossary
Term Definition
The interrelated conditions in which
Context something exists or occurs (Tscheligi,
2012).
The communication between a computer
Input/Output (I/O) Interface and the outside world, triggered by input
data.
A chain of interdependent actions and
reactions
Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)
between a user and a system (Tscheligi,
2012).
A group of devices or artificial objects that
System (Product/Service) are organised for a purpose (Tscheligi,
2012).
Someone who uses or employs something,
i.e. the role of a user is defined by the
User
process of interacting with a system
(Tscheligi, 2012).
A person’s perceptions and responses that
User Experience (UX) arise from the usage or anticipated use of a
system.
The space where a user will perform
User Interface (UI) /
interactions, mostly to control a computer or
Human-Machine Interface (HMI)
machine.
A human-computer interaction, based on
Voice User Interface (VUI)
the understanding of spoken commands.

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Introduction
The automotive industry is currently drastically changing. Not only have cars become more digital,

but the digital user experience (UX) and in-car usability also have never been more considered.

Together with autonomous driving vehicles and emission concerns, the future is more substantial to

change.

This dissertation starts with the history of dashboard design from 1900 BC (Tarr, 1969) and

the foundation of user experience design, approximately 4000 BC (Stevens, 2019). The history of

the automotive Human-Machine Interface (HMI) development starts with the introduction of in-

vehicle entertainment with the use of the radio, telephone, and GPS navigation. To reduce the

complexity of all these different user interactions, the infotainment was introduced where in-car

usability interplayed an essential role.

In the second chapter, the dissertation covers the following contemporary dashboard

technologies: touchscreens, head-up displays, augmented reality, artificial intelligence, smartphone

integration, gesture controls, and voice user interface; together with its advantages and

disadvantages from a UX perspective. Because of limited human cognitive load, together with

safety consideration, the human-computer interaction (HCI) is substantially different within cars

than it is on other devices. Moreover, because vehicle manufacturers sell their products in a wide

range of countries, they have to define and adjust their HMI, based on cultural preferences and

because their product is mostly expensive, emotional design is essential and can be achieved within

their HMI too. Lastly, car manufacturing is under pressure because of emission concerns and to find

alternatives like non-fuel vehicles and car-sharing, which also require a pleasant UX to persuade

their customers.

The last chapter entirely focuses on the predicted future of the automotive industry. Because

this is highly influenced by the generations who are the most prosperous, this dissertation covers the

preferences of generation Z and generation alpha. Vehicle connectivity is currently one of the most

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researched technologies within the industry (Auto Connected Car News, 2014) and is covered by its

benefits, defined levels and challenges. Another essential future prediction is the development of

autonomous driving vehicles. It describes how autonomous driving is divided into six levels and

what technology is required to accomplish vehicular automation. Moreover, it is stated up to what

extent and how to gain the trust and acceptance of users. Together with the predicted digital UX

required within these vehicles and the legal constraints, the dissertation concludes with the

perspectives of full vehicle overtake and the prediction of shared mobility in cities.

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1. The History of Automotive Human-Machine Interfaces

1.1 Evolution of Dashboard Design
The history of dashboards is almost as old as the invention of the horse-drawn carriage,

approximately 1900 BC (Tarr, 1969). It was a barrier created with wood or leather, fixed at the front

to shield the driver from mud thrown-up by horses’ hooves. When the first modern and publicly

available automobile was revealed in 1886 by

German inventor Karl Benz, the invention did

not contain a dashboard. The user sat in open

appearance on a single-person chair holding a

stick used for steering movements, as seen on

Fig. 1.1. When automobiles developed further,

Fig. 1.1
the engines were located beneath the driver

(Fears, 2017). The wheels in front provided the same effect as the horse hooves with throw ups and

were therefore retained. Another main reason to retain the dashboard was because of safety reasons.

As the engine moved from the back to the front, it functioned as a boundary, separating the warmth

and oil of the cars’ motor. In 1948, the issue of safety importance shifted more prominent because

cars could drive faster, and Tucker became the first automobile with a padded dashboard. Twenty

years later, padded dashboard became the norm (Fears, 2017). The next significant move within the

area of safety was in the early 1990s, with the introduction of the airbag. Depending on

geographical location, they soon became legally required for contemporary cars.

1.2 Core Instrument Clusters on a Dashboard Layout

The automotive industry evaluated rapidly, and the engines became more complex over time.

According to Paul Fears (2017), the dashboard eventually was found to be the ideal location to

display system statuses and controls. Instrument clusters in a modern car convey vital information

while driving. Most instruments are gauge cluster and are located behind and around the steering

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wheel. It contains a speedometer which monitors the speed of the vehicle. These speedometers do

play a more prominent role since the introduction of speed limits. Moreover, it contains a fuel gauge

by the use of a floater-type mechanism. This mechanism changes position depending on the level of

gas in the tank. The tachometer, the most crucial equipment in the racing industry, measures the

revolutions of the engine per minute (rpm). These tachometers are mostly located in a dominant

area of the dashboard because ignoring the rpm can cause significant engine damage. Another

instrument is the Odometer. This meter keeps track of the mileage of the vehicle. They used to be a

rolling-odometer display, similar to an older alarm clock with rolling numbers. Modern vehicles

have these digitally, mostly on a screen which can also display other information such as mileage

per trip, tire pressure, fuel economy, oil life percentage and the time. The instrument panel on the

dashboard also displays warning and information lights. These are incredibly important as they can

prevent early damage or unwanted situations such as a flat tyre or dis-functional airbags. The

temperature gauge and voltmeter used to be in a more prominent position than nowadays as many

technological systems can prevent overheating, which used to be a common issue. As time evolves,

the modern dashboard contains more information and functionalities.

1.3 Development of Interactive in-Car Functionalities

The history of the automotive Human-Machine Interface (HMI) development reveals that

interactive in-car functionalities are profoundly affected by new technologies that users got used to

in their everyday lives.

1.3.1 In-Car Sound Entertainment

One of those technologies is the radio system. The first long-distance wireless radio was invented in

1901 by Italian inventor and engineer Guglielmo Marconi, and the first automotive suitable radio

was introduced in 1922. Although the dashboard instruments always had the task to provide

information, the radio was the first step towards the entertainment of the driver. Following Gerrit
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Meixner and Christian Müllers (2017), the adoption of the in-car radio still procrastinated slowly. In

1954, radios were accessories only optional for some premium cars. Nevertheless, Mark Dressekie

(2019) stated that the significance of in-car amusement grew undeviatingly. The popularity

increased in 1960, probably because there was no other way to listen to media than broadcasting.

This situation changed eight years later, in 1968, when Philips created the first cassette player who

could be used within the car. The follow-up, the in-car CD player in 1983, can still be found in

recent car models.

1.3.2 In-Car Telephone Adoption

Something that also can still be found but took longer to adopt is the in-car telephone, invented in

1876 by Alexander Graham Bell. The long adoption time was because the original invention

required the use of wires rather than service networks to operate. Nearly a century later in the

1970s, the service network became more prevalent and therefore became the automotive phone

service more mainstream. Although, the car phones lost popularity in the 1990s because mobile

cellphones became more affordable than a separate car phone (Meixner and Müllers, 2017). A

solution was brought by company Bluetooth which enables users to connect their mobile cellphones

wirelessly to their car and call hands-free, something which is required in Europe and many other

countries today because it leads to dangerous distraction (Jeanne Breen Consulting, 2009).

1.3.3 On-Board GPS Navigation

“With increasing number of vehicles on the road, traffic information became more and more

important” (Meixner and Müllers, 2017). The solution was in the hands of the US military with the

invention of the Global Positioning System in the 1970s. According to Mark Dressekie (2019) with

the use of a satellite, the geolocation and time information could be received from everywhere. Not

much later, in 1981, Toyota was the first car manufacturer who delivered in-vehicle navigation on

its Celica model (Toyota, 2015). A microcomputer displayed graphs of direction to a pre-coded
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destination continuously to guide the user. The database of the road is a vector map and human-

known information like street names, house numbers and waypoints are encoded as geographic

coordinates. This encoding is an excellent example of enhancing the user experience; because

manufacturers of these devices like Philips, Microsoft and Pioneer understood that it would be

impossible for the user to remember coordinates (ex: 54.966889, -1.627682) to navigate, they

created a decoding system to input recognised information. The technology improved the years

after with an essential step in 2004 when the Navigation Data Standard (NDS) initiative arrived.

Manufacturers of cars and navigation systems came together with map data suppliers to standardise

the data format and update capability. After the NDS became a registered association in 2009, over

twenty manufacturers had the same navigation maps and improved interoperability (Navigation

Data Standard, 2019).

1.4 Development of Infotainment Systems

The progressive movement of radio, phone and navigation integration led to an increment in the

complexity of automotive HMI. This complexity was especially the case when various

functionalities required different hardware products from multiple companies. Automobile

manufacturers came up with the solution to develop a single graphic user interface (GUI) to reduce

complexity and enhance user experience. These functionalities within a single GUI have become as

it is now known, the infotainment system. This system combines the provision of erudition with

entertainment functionalities. The kind of information provided to the driver is also improved. So it

shows not only crucial car system information as discussed earlier, but also information about

traffic business and internet connectivity has been integrated as well because of car connectivity.

1.4.1 Foundation of Vehicle Connectivity

The expansion of the infotainment system functionalities develops mostly because of vehicle

connectivity features. The first car manufacturer that introduced connected car features in 1996 was
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General Motors (GM) with its subsidiary company OnStar (Shar, 2015). The connectivity was

highly focussed on safety features; it provided the possibility to let users get emergency help after a

car accident. The human-computer interaction (HCI) was quite futuristic: users could get help with

the use of voice user interface (VUI), and the GPS location was sent to the call centre. The OnStar

system was qualified as a success, and many other manufacturers followed with similar

implementations. Nowadays, vehicle connectivity relates more towards the communication between

the vehicle and others such as infrastructures, other vehicles and a cloud systems as further

explained in [3.2, p. 37].

1.5 Increased Importance of In-Car Usability

Fig. 1.2 is an example of an initial infotainment system. This particular interior is from a BMW

1500 B, produced between 1962 and 1977. This model would later become the BMW 3-Series,

which its interior is displayed in Fig. 1.3. In almost sixty years, it is clear that the infotainment

system and digitalisation have taken up a large part of the interior attention. Mainly because of the

diversity of various input and output interfaces (I/O interfaces), the complexity of HMI increased.

In-car usability became, therefore, even more relevant.

Fig. 1.2 Fig. 1.3

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1.6 Evolution of User Experience Design

User experience (UX) is the person’s perceptions and responses that arise from the usage or

anticipated use of a system (Derome, 2015). Since the complexity of HMI increased for machines

which can be used by uneducated users, it has become a more important discipline in the last

decades (Faller, 2017).

Although, the more fundamental approach to UX was highlighted by the Chinese

philosopher Feng Shui in 4000 BC. Shui described how the spatial arrangement of objects

concerned the flow of energy and how the arrangement of surroundings is the most optimal,

harmonious and user-friendly, considering everything from materials and colours to layout and

framework (Stevens, 2019). Another origin can be found later around 500 BC when the Ancient

Greeks designed their workspaces and materials to increase efficiency and comfort. Principles such

as correct lighting and good standing or sitting were described as well as the position of tools to

make them easily reachable (National Technical University of Athens, n.d.). These principles can

directly refer to contemporary dashboard design, where the position of screens, buttons and usage

of materials is highly considered in interior design.

By the 1940s, UX design became aware in the business world, specifically within the

production system of Toyota. To respect factory workers, they enhanced the environment with

human-focussed design. Workers could stop the production line if they had any feedback or

suggestion to improve the process (Stevens, 2019). This was unique within this period because

engineers used to develop such environments without communicating or reflecting with the people

who use their product. Nowadays, UX designers are aware that talking, reflecting and observing

users is necessary to create a better product. Shortly after in 1955, Henry Dreyfuss published the

book ‘Designing for People’ about his work, containing the improvement of usability with everyday

consumer products like telephones, vacuum cleaners, typewriters, and locomotives. His philosophy

was based on scientific approaches and common sense. Dreyfuss explained the core of UX clearly:

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“If the point of contact between the product and the people becomes a point of friction, then the

industrial designer has failed. If, on the other hand, people are made safer, more comfortable, more

eager to purchase, more efficient - or, just plain happier - the industrial designer has succeeded.”

(1995, pp. 21).

Not an engineer, but often hailed as one of the first UX designers is Walter Disney

(Dickerson, 2013). “Disney was obsessed with creating magical, immersive, near-perfect user

experiences, and the way he set about building Disney World was a true stroke of UX genius.”

(Vieira, 2020). The park focusses on creating a special and unique positive experience and is

carefully designed by ‘Imagineers’, as Disney called his engineers. They designed down to the

exact details rather than adding more attributes, like training the cast members how to treat the

customers and providing instructions on how to wave and smile. The Imagineers also tested the

loudness of sound effects and redesigning the queue so that people have extra shade and fans. He

described the park as a place where “the latest technology can be used to improve the lives of

people.” (Walter Disney, 1966). Essentially, that is the goal of contemporary UX designers through

all industries and also within the automotive industry where brands differentiate each other with

new technologies.

At the point where HMI is finding its way as GUI on personal computers, UX was

happening, and some revolutionary companies were aware of the importance but did not have a

name for it. This situation changed when Don Norman, an American cognitive scientist, started

working as User Experience Architect at Apple, inc. in the early 90s, making him the first person

with UX in the job title. He describes UX as the complete experience of any product, from the first

impression in the store up to bringing it home and using the product. In 1988, he published ‘The

Design of Everyday Things’ which made him famous within his discipline. In 2016, Norman

explained how the term UX is often misused nowadays. Website and app designers call themselves

UX designer. However, they have no clue that user experience stretches towards how users
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experience the world, their lives and the complete service of a product, rather than just a website or

an app.

Concluding; although the dashboard was initially developed as a barrier to protect the driver

from mud thrown-up, it was soon after used as a cluster where feedback of the advanced machine

was shown. Because in-car functionalities are affected by technologies of everyday lives, in-car

entertainment, telephone adoption, GPS navigation, and vehicle connectivity found their ways on

the dashboard. Therefore, UX and usability became a more crucial asset and can be seen directly

while comparing dashboards over time. Another important highlight is how the evolution of UX

occurred and what persons interplayed an essential role within this advancement.

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2. Contemporary HCI Within the Automotive Industry

2.1 Contemporary Automotive Dashboard Technologies
Technology is growing exponentially (Berman and Dorrier, 2016). Therefore, contemporary

automotive dashboard technology has a lot to offer, especially in comparison with the

procrastination of earlier bespoken history. Car manufacturers focus more on user experience and

safety than before. The attention on these two factors is mainly because Generation Z (late-1990s -

early-2010s) seems to value these factors stronger than previous generations like Millennials,

Generation X and Baby boomers (Cox Automotive, 2016).

2.1.1 Touchscreens
The revolution of touchscreen devices has also

found its way into the automotive industry.

Mainly on the infotainment systems, the knobs

and buttons are replaced by screens. More

often, touchscreens can also be found in

Fig. 2.1
vehicle settings like climate controls and the

instrument cluster. An example of this is the Porsche Taycan interior in Fig. 2.1, where four

touchscreens are present. Touchscreens allow the car manufacturers to add more functionalities

without too much clutter as vehicles are becoming more technical, sophisticated and with many

functionalities.

A problem with touchscreens is that these can be distracting and take eyes away from the

road. A study by Benjamin Wolfe et al. (2019) states that vision is the distracting factor, more than

the brain is. Because HCI with touchscreens requires visual engagement, it causes cognitive

overload and danger, even more when the interface does lack haptic feedback (Gitlin, 2019).

Although Mark Webster, Director of Product at Adobe, concluded that “If you use a touchscreen in

a complicated interface, it is distracting and not a good experience. However, something like Apple
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CarPlay, or Android Auto, that is bringing in an interface that you’re familiar with, that feels

natural, intuitive, that you’re used to dealing with on your phone all the time. That’s actually a place

where I think the design of that interface in a touchscreen works really well for that.” (Webster,

2019). More about smartphone integration can be found on [2.1.5, p. 25].

2.1.2 Head-Up Display (HUD)

The head-up display (HUD) can be found

optionally in many cars nowadays. It projects

information like measured speed and

navigational directions on the windshield, as

seen in Fig. 2.2. Initially, the technology comes

Fig. 2.2
from the British Royal Air Force to improve

the flying and target performance in fighter

jets. Its added value is mostly within the

reduction of the time necessary to perceive and

respond based on the given information. This

time reduction can be achieved because the

Fig. 2.3
user does not have to move its point of focus

from the road to their instrumental cluster or infotainment system.

Several design factors interplay in the HUD design. One of the most important ones is the

Field of View (FOV) which indicates the angle(s) subtended at the eye of the user. On cars, the

FOV is currently quite small in proportion with the size of the windshield (Fig. 2.1) so that the user

can keep most attention to the road. On fighter jets and transport aircrafts, the HUD is much larger

and covers more of the windshield as seen on Fig. 2.3. The FOV might increase on cars when

Augmented Reality (AR) is implemented, as further explained in [2.1.3, p. 23].

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The second design factor does not apply to all HUD’s but can be found on more valuable

models and professional equipment. The collimation is the technology which enables the HUB to

make the light rays parallel. Therefore, the images displayed on the HUB can be seen with the same

eye focus point as the outside world. This means that the eye does not have to refocus, and the user

can participate faster, based on the provided information. Perceiving the information without

disruption, and therefore providing a pleasant UX, is also related to the eye box. This stands for the

optical collimator that produces a cylinder of parallel light which can be viewed when the eyes are

some whence in that cylinder. This allows head movement by the user. Luminance or contrast is, as

on every HMI, substantial together witch scaling and compatibility with other displays.

Although HUDs are developed to reduce the distraction of the driver, a study by the

University of Toronto announces that HUDs can have the reverse outcome. Professor Spence (2015)

conducted the research and stated that the multiple sources of information from both the road and

the HUD, harms the concentration of the driver. “Not only will drivers, as they always did, have to

concentrate on what is happening on the road, but they will have to attend to whatever information

pops up on the windshield in front of them” (Spence, 2015). Therefore, in real-world driving, a

HUD increases the visual information and users experience this as extra stressful. Moreover, drivers

experience it challenging to differentiate warnings and recommendations. “These competing

warnings may be more dangerous than no warning at all” (Spence, 2015). Simplifying HMI does

not mean removing all the driver input. Tejas Desai (2013) suggest that the flow of information

need to be balanced at all times: plenty to keep the driver involved, but not so abundant that it

creates overwhelm.

2.1.3 Augmented Reality (AR)

Augmented Reality (AR) is a technology which adds computer-generated perceptual information on

top of the real-world environment and therefore creates an interactive experience. From an

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interaction design perspective, it is essential to avoid alienating or confusion by organising the

present information. Also, it is essential to reduce the cognitive load by structuring the user maps

and information flow to reduce the learning curve. Especially within the automotive design, where

cognitive load interplays an indispensable role while creating in-car HMI’s.

AR can increase the safety and clarity

of information within the automotive industry.

An excellent example of contemporary car AR

implementation can be found at the

infotainment system of Mercedes-Benz:

Fig. 2.4
MBUX, Fig. 2.4. When setting a destination,

the system adds information on top of the real-world environment, filmed with the car’s front

camera. This functionality adds clarity to the given information (directions). AR can also be

implemented within the earlier described HUD [2.1.2, p. 21]. Some implementation examples by

Bernard Marr (2019) on this HMI are projecting navigational directions, data from gauges, road

conditions, emergency notifications, etcetera.

A completely different way car manufacturers can take advantage of AR is by replacing the

hundreds of pages of owner manuals by an app which allows users to film a part they are unfamiliar

with. The app provides instructions on how to

use that part. Audi’s AR users’ manual app, as

seen on Fig. 2.5, could identify over 300 car

parts in 2013 on its A1 and A3 models (Spring

Wise, 2013).
Fig. 2.5

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2.1.4 Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is an intelligence demonstrated by machines. It uses algorithms to be

able to perform reasoning (problem-solving), knowledge, planning, learning, natural language

processing, perception, motion, manipulation, social intelligence and general intelligence. It can be

applied to everything which uses computers, such as cars.

An interesting field where AI can benefit from the car industry is within safety and self-

driving capabilities [3.3, p. 39]. Following Rilind Elezaj (2019), AI can be beneficial with analysing

data from vehicle sensors and can predict whenever human errors are going to be made. Therefore,

it can take over the action and improve SAE autonomous driving level 3, 4, and 5 [3.3.1, p. 40]. For

example, it can control the vehicle in emergencies, detect cross-traffic, synchronise with traffic

signals, brake in case of emergency and actively monitor the blind spots of the vehicle

Besides validating the car’s surrounding, it can also validate the vehicles’ physical

condition. By its self-learning capability, data from usage can be processed for predictive and

prescriptive maintenance. This same data sources can be used for insurance companies. Based on

behaviour, a better driver risk assessment can be created, and the costs of insurance could be

adjusted based on this information. A current example of this is the sale which the Dutch car insurer

Royal Dutch Touring Club (ANWB) offers when their customers use their app and car beacon

which can detect their driving style. It measures the users’ speed, corner taking, braking,

acceleration and use of phone while driving. Every ten days, the user receives feedback to improve

their driving behaviour. The apps create a score from 0 to 100 and award the user with sale up to

30% (ANWB, n.d.).

Most cars are created to serve the majority of their target audience, although personal

customisation can be fulfilled more often nowadays, offering add-on options like colours, materials

and certain functionalities. Some car brands take this a step further, by letting the customers

personalise up until the smallest details like BMW Group invested in recently with MINI Yours

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Fig. 2.6 Fig. 2.7

(Fig. 2.6 and Fig. 2.7), BMW Individual, and Rolls-Roys Bespoke. Elezaj (2019) stated that AI

could develop this further by monitoring the driver and user behaviour. For example, AI can provide

customised entertainment during travel based on earlier collected data. It can also predict

preferences based on current user behaviour, like adjusting the seat position and mirrors, regulating

the climate-control and playing certain songs. These adjustments all together can create the perfect

personalised experience which complements the car customisations and enhances the user

experience and emotional design [2.3, p. 31].

2.1.5 Smartphone Integration

The influence of mobile phones in cars is partly described on [1.3.2, p. 14] and continues in modern

cars. Not only is it possible to connect the (smart) phone with or without a wire, but also to use the

manufacturers GUI associated with the smartphone Operating System (OS). Following Statista

(2019), the smartphone OS worldwide market share has never been less divided. Only two OS’s

play a role in December 2019: Android (74.13%) and iOS (24.79%). It is therefore very likely

(almost 99%) that a car customer does have a smartphone running one of the two. These OS’s also

have two car integration softwares: Android Auto (2015) and Apple CarPlay (2014), which has been

rapidly adopted and are ‘must-haves’ for many new-vehicle owners (JD Power, 2018). Kristin

Kolodge, Executive Director of Driver Interaction & HMI Research at JD Power stated that users

consider phone systems better in navigation and VUI. Furthermore, the services are free in

comparison with buying new maps or having a subscription plan at their car manufacturer. Kolodge
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added: “consumers are challenging the level of usefulness that some automotive technology

provides, including whether it is needed at all. For example, although automakers’ built-in

navigation systems are appreciated for image quality, owners often prefer using smartphone-based

navigation because they consider it more accurate.” (JD Power, 2018).

2.1.6 Gesture Recognition

Gesture Recognition stands for the ability to recognise and interpret human body movements. A

user can, therefore, interact with a computer system without direct physical contact. Touch-less

interfaces are also called Natural User Interface (NUI). Within the automotive industry, there are

currently two ways gesture recognition is being used: To open/close the boot and to interact with the

infotainment system.

Ford launched the first handsfree boot opening in 2013 (Dow, 2017). With the combination

of keyless entry and gesture control, the boot can be opened when the user swings a foot under the

rear bumper.

Cat Dow (2017) also states that the Jaguar XF Sportbrake is the first production vehicle

which supports cabin gesture recognition in 2014. This is used not to operate the infotainment

system, but to open and close the sunroof when the user waves a hand. BMW followed in 2016 with

its top-of-the-line 7-series which supports gesture control technology to operate parts of the

infotainment system, such as adjusting the volume, responding to incoming calls and viewing

around parking functionality. The car detects

hand movements with the use of a camera,

attached to the headliner, as shown in Fig. 2.8.

The advantage of these small technical

implementations might seem small and

unnecessary, classified as gimmicks. Although Fig. 2.8

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Pankaj Singh (2019) states that NUI within cars does highly contribute to the next level of road

safety, gesture controls improve the overall driving experience and minimise the distraction, which

would occur with the use of buttons or touchscreens. It also makes it less attractive to have people

use their phone while driving to skip or rewind songs.

2.1.7 In-Car Voice User Interface (VUI)

Another recent technology with the same driving experience and safety purposes as gesture

recognition are in-car voice user interfaces (VUI) or speech recognition. Although users seem to

prefer the voice assistant on their phone (J.D. Power, 2018), the in-car VUI's are becoming more

advanced. They can easily be used to perform simple interactions like cooling the cabins’

temperature down and adjusting infotainment settings.

VUI, regardless of platform, ultimately comes with a substantial number of design

challenges. For example, users suffer from weak discoverability. It is challenging to understand the

capabilities of the system without a GUI. It would need to enumerate the available options so users

will not report confusions over what they can say and if the system would understand them.

Moreover, systems still have difficulties with recognising words and sentence differentiation,

leading to transcription errors (Clark et al., 2018, p. 269-276).

2.2 The Difference Within Automotive HMI

HMI within an in-car environment is substantially different from HMI’s on other devices. This, is

because the primary user task in a car is driving instead of interacting with a system. People have a

limited amount of brain processing capacity, comprehended as cognitive workload within the UX

professionalism. By providing information or having a driver performing interaction, the cognitive

load increases, raising the drivers’ stress level and inattention towards the road (Laubheimer, 2018).

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2.2.1 Distractions
The infotainment system is the largest distractor within the car interior, particularly when visual

commands are required, such as interaction with touchscreens. An experiment of Tuoma Kujala and

Pertty Saariluoma (2011) concluded that all the visual-manual assignments led to distraction.

Especially hand- and keyboard text entry and scrolling is significantly more distracting than voice

commands. Although, these results depend on the user-friendliness of the voice recognition system

as they might cause more distraction when they perform unexpectedly. Another negative influence

while driving is auditory and visual notifications, while Kujala and Saariluoma found that GPS

displays introduce fewer distractions. The chance of being involved in a car crash because of

distraction is high. In a test by CBS This Morning (2015), 58% of accidents happened because of

distraction among teen drivers. Although this does not have to involve technology, as talking to a

passenger is also distracting, it has been in many cases. Within the test, a driver looks at their phone

for an average of 4.1 seconds. One second with eyes off the road while driving 65mph is equivalent

of driving the length of a basketball court, making it easy to be involved within an accident.

2.2.2 UX Design Safety Solutions

The difference within automotive HMI and its distraction, because of too much cognitive workload,

can partly be solved by UX designers. Good in-vehicle interface design should include safety and

usability in the design process from the start (Green, 2008). Moreover, the systems should be tested

as much as possible during the design process by real drivers instead of engineers. Those tests can

identify the concepts which would not be easy to use. An essential part of this design process is

calculating the user performance.

Besides the UX design of in-car devices like the infotainment system, it is hard to answer

the question if UX designers also have to take into account that mobile devices are used while

driving. Although it is forbidden by law in many countries, it still happens (IIHS, 2019) . As

emphasised earlier, there is a substantial difference between the HMI of in-car technology and those
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on other devices. While UX designers have to take cognitive load and road safety very seriously by

in-car technology, mobile HMI’s do not have to take these considerations into account. As users sit

on their desk or couches, a cognitive strain that appears from a shortage of usability seems to be a

minor inconvenience. Although taking longer to perform tasks can make a real difference while

driving (Laubheimer, 2018). Providing mobile HMI’s with strong signifiers, the visual elements that

informs which interaction a user has to perform can help reduce the time spend to figure out how to

use the software (Norman 2013, p. 13-19). Even if a UX designer decides to optimise its software

for in-car usage, it is important not to advertise with this functionality. If it is very likely that the

app will be used while driving, the UX designer might need to consider the use of the sensors of the

device and provide a warning when the device is moving at a certain speed.

A UX design solution to analyse and take action when a driver is distracted or tired is also a

modern vehicle implementation. An excellent example of such a system is Attention Assist from

Mercedes-Benz. The system analyses the driver within the first minutes of driving and makes up an

individual profile, recognising driver behaviour when he is alert. The system then uses this profile

for the rest of the ride and monitors steering movement and steering speed. When errors appeal

repeatedly, the systems checks other relevant parameters like the trip duration, HMI interaction and

external influences like bad roads and wind. If the results are unequivocal, Mercedes-Benz indicates

the driver with a dashboard message,

suggesting the driver to take a break like in

Fig. 2.9 (Mercedes-Benz USA, 2012).

Fig. 2.9

2.2.3 Cultural Differences

Many studies compare and highlight the importance of cultural differences and considerations

within automotive HMI design. These cultural differences also appear on other devices but are

especially important within the automotive industry because of the earlier mentioned cognitive

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overload and the interpretation of signifiers. Most car manufacturers are focussed on and based in

Western Europe and the United States. This localisation harms Asian countries like China (Young et

al., 2011) and Indian (Khan et al., 2016). An example of this harm is that Chinese drivers prefer a

higher density of screen information and can cope with a more significant amount of simultaneous

responsibilities in their HMI’s, as opposed to the UK and German drivers (Heimgartner, 2007;

Heimgartner and Holzinger, 2005). Moreover, Tawhid Khan and Mark Williams (2014) discovered

that Bluetooth and infotainment systems do specifically satisfy the visual perceptions and decoding

capabilities to interact with the systems successfully in the UK culture, while the India culture

struggles with task completion and suffers from a high error rate.

Avoiding misunderstanding, frustration and unsuccessful navigation have to start with

getting an understanding of the cultures a UX designer creates for. Especially within visual design

or UI, elements mean different things in different cultures (Engelbrecht, 2016). After the research,

designers should test with different people, change elements and adapt to their preferences. It is not

new to car manufacturers to change their products, based on geographical location and local needs.

For example, BMW used to have a car especially designed and produced for China: the BMW 1-

Series saloon, shown in Fig. 2.10. This product

has been produced to fulfil the need for a more

affordable, small and premium saloon. Sadly

enough, BMW did not modify the software in

this car, such as they did not with other Fig. 2.10

European models. This most likely creates a misunderstanding and errors in their target audience.

Other companies outside the car industry do also change their (digital) products like websites and

apps to be better understood and attract more customers from different backgrounds (Engelbrecht,

2016).

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2.3 Emotional Design

The human brain contains two parts: cognition and emotion, where emotion is an essential part of

decision making. Emotional design is about delivering value which is important for human beings

(CNN, 2015). Within emotion, there are three levels: firstly, visceral, which is about the emotion

people are born with and is the most fundamental. Secondly, behaviour, which is about how we use

something and how it feels what we are doing and lastly reflective, which is about thinking back

after an experience and what that makes us feel. The first and second are conscious, and the third

subconscious (NNgroup, 2016). Donald Norman (2004) highlights in his book ‘Emotional Design’,

a car review in the New York Times where the reviewer states that the Mini Cooper is so fun to

drive and look at, that he suggests overlooking its faults. This statement makes it quite clear that

emotional design can put cognition into perspective. Because cars are advanced machines with a

relatively high price point for a consumer, emotional design is an important consideration factor for

automotive manufacturers.

2.3.1 Emotion while Driving

Driving is a complicated task, and while doing so, a large variety of emotions can appear. Someone

else on the road might show behaviour that calls for negative emotion, while preferred music can

evoke positive ones. Most car manufacturers create vehicles with particular driving experience. For

example, Alfa Romeo steers more precise and has a more sporty chassis than equivalent brands

while Audi, a brand within the same segment, tries to smooth out the route so that the driver has less

feeling of the road and steering. The experience which manufacturers deliver can put their mistakes

into perspective and increases customer loyalty because they like the way the car handles.

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2.3.2 Emotion within Automotive HMI

Fig. 2.11 Fig. 2.12

Not only can emotional design be applied within the aesthetics of a vehicle or the experience it

delivers while driving, but emotional design can also be applied within HMI and automotive HMI

specifically.

Tesla has many jokes or ‘Easter eggs’ within its infotainment system. There are multiple

ways of enabling them, but they are always hidden as the name Easter egg suggests. Drivers can

activate, for example, a Mario Kart rainbow road (Fig. 2.11), ‘Santa Mode’, fart pillows and even a

James Bond Lotus submarine mode (Fig. 2.12). Although it does presumably create positive

emotions by a selected group of drivers, the cognitive workload might over increase, causing

danger to drivers.

Emotional design within automotive

HMI does not always have to attend

distraction. Audi recently implemented a new

digital dashboard design mode to reference

Fig. 2.13
their original Audi Quattro sport-model with a

hockey stick-style tachometer [1.2, p. 12], shown in Fig. 2.13. This design might be less practical

than the original round shape, but highlights the importance of the brand within the racing industry

and therefore, might increase customer loyalty and brand values associations.

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Evoking positive emotions can also be

more straightforward and minimalistic. The

best and less distracting moment to do so is

when entering the car. Many cars have a

Fig. 2.14 personalised welcome message when the

drivers start the vehicle. For example, in Fig. 2.14, the BMW M340i displays the car in its correct

colour with its type of indication, together with the drivers’ name and M-branding in the left-hand

corner at the bottom. The M340i model is more expensive because of its focus on sportiness,

resulting in a faster engine, sportier look and larger alloys. Extending this exclusiveness in the

instrument cluster evokes positive emotions, rationalises the cost better and make people buy the

car more easily (Chierotti, 2018).

2.4 Climate and City

Many experts within the energy and environmental fields (Boeve, 2019; Comey, 2019; Elder, 2019;

Keohane, 2019; Moody-Stuart, 2019) agree that fossil-powered vehicles have, up to a certain

extent, a share in climate change. This climate change is because “pollutants from cars contribute to

various types of air pollution” (Brinson, 2012). The air pollution from cars is believed to cause

cancer and contribute to other medical problems like asthma and heart diseases. Especially in cities,

inhabitants suffer from these conditions (World Health Organization, n.d.). NASA (2010) even

declared that automobiles were the most significant net contributor to pollution.

2.4.1 Non-Fossil Fuel Vehicles

Although 80% of Americans say they are concerned about climate change (Dennis et al. 2019),

68% of them did not even consider the environment within their decision for their next vehicle (The

Zebra, 2019). Examples of alternative fuels for vehicles are biofuel, electricity, steam, kinetic, heat,

hydrogen, air, nitrogen and LPG (RAC, 2018). Electricity or electric vehicles are most familiar with
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customers and do mostly use kinetic energy as well to enlarge their range. One of the reasons why

the majority of customers do not purchase an alternative fuelled vehicle is because of ‘range

anxiety’. This term refers to the drivers’ anxiety to fail in accomplishing the desired trip and do,

therefore, have to charge at a recharging station and will run out late for appointments. Although, a

study by Zachary Needell et al. (2016) shows that 87% of drivers would reach their daily

destination with a low-cost electric vehicle in the US. Assumably, this percentage would even be

more abundant in European countries because driving distances are shorter on average. UX

designers can also help to reduce range anxiety and communicate the range differently. For

example, a navigation system that considers the range could help as the shortest route is not always

the most range-friendly. Hills and high speeds to drain the battery-life substantially and can be

avoided.

2.4.2 Vehicle Sharing

Vehicle sharing or car clubs is a modern way of short-time car rental. Vehicle sharing is especially

in larger cities a solution to common problems like lack of parking spots, parking costs, little car

use and high risk of damage. It is expected to have an annual growth of 28% from 2015 to 2030

(Grosse-Ophoff et al.,2017). Especially the rise of autonomous driving vehicles [3.3, p. 39] will

contribute to rising vehicles, available for sharing.

The UX, while sharing a car, has to be excellent in order to convince more users as it might

be more time-consuming and less efficient in comparison with owning a vehicle. Claire Evans

(2019) tests car-sharing in London and makes use of Zipcar. She was surprised by the excellent

customer care and “the process of using the app to unlock the car and lock it again after the trip was

effortless”. Although, she considered “the Golf was a bit grubby inside”, and the second time when

she borrowed a vehicle using the platform from an owner, she was nervous about knocking on the

door of a stranger to get his car keys. She advises to check the vehicle for damages and make many

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close-up pictures around the vehicle “as evidence you can use in case of a fraudulent claim.”. This

occurrence all together might conclude that the experience is too inefficient and time-consuming to

convince the more frequent drivers to sell their car and use car sharing at this time. The current

target audience of vehicle sharing does use their cars three times less than car owners and use more

sustainable transport modes like walking, cycling and public transport (Karbaumer, 2018).

Terminating; technology is growing exponentially, and therefore, dashboards are packed

with it. This evolution includes touchscreens, HUD’s, AR, AI, smartphone integration, gesture

recognition, and VUI. An essential part of this chapter is the research about how HMI in vehicles is

different from others because of distractions, UX design safety solutions and cultural differences.

Moreover, it reveals how car manufacturers are using emotional design and UX on a wide variety of

locations to make up for the customers’ investment. Lastly, this chapter incorporates climate and

city health, what problems the industry is facing and how UX designers can help to solve these

problems.

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3. The Predicted Future of the Automotive Industry

3.1 Generational Preferences
A specific timeframe is always highly influenced by the generations who are the most prosperous.

For the near future, this will be generation Z (born late-1990s - early-2010s). The preferences of

this generation will influence the directions of car manufacturers in the short term. Another future

generation is generation alpha (born early-2010s - mid-2020s) (Robinson, n.d.). This generation

will most likely experience mobility quite differently.

3.1.1 Vehicle Ownership by Generation Z

Although it is predicted that vehicle ownership is less necessary in the future [3.4, p. 45], there is

still much uncertainty about the interpretation of generation Z because of their current age. “Nearly

70% of Gen Z respondents do not have their driver’s license. Of those, 30% have no intention or

desire to get one.” (Gazdik, 2019), while Cox Automotive states that 92% of generation Z still plans

to own a car (2016). This generation believes that “a car represents freedom and convenience. Car

ownership is so important to generation Z; they say they would be willing to give up social media,

new clothes, events, and eating out for a year to have one. Surprisingly, a third of them even say

they would give up their cell phone!” (Cox Automotive, 2016).

3.1.2 Vehicle Purchase Considerations by Generation Z

Generation Z currently values other components than previous generations. As these customers are

currently young, 77% believes the price is an essential factor. In line with less budget, 67% consider

gas mileage as a critical component. 49% takes style in consideration and 43% values safety

features. Other components are infotainment (35%), environmental friendliness (27%) and brand

(23%). When purchasing a vehicle, they value a positive experience. Surprisingly, this digital

generation values face-to-face interactions more than other generations. In comparison, millennials

and generation X value convenience the most and boomers the price (Cox Automotive, 2016).

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3.1.3 Expected Mobility by Generation Alpha

The babies currently being born are expected to have a different view on mobility. Although

previous generation and life-long-car owners suffer from the idea of self-driving cars, generation

alpha does value ease of use, user experience and purpose more than horsepower and tyre size

(Schlereth, 2019). It is expected that “most people in generation alpha do not have a driver’s

license” (Schlereth, 2019). Frequently and autonomous driving five-to-eight-person shuttles might

bring people everywhere in a city for little money (Volkswagen AG, n.d.). Fleet operators will

mostly provide long-distance trips with a bus that possibly combines travel with a motel (Cabin

Technologies Inc., 2017).

3.2 Vehicle Connectivity

Vehicle connectivity or ‘connected car’ refers to devices in an automobile which connects to similar

devices in other networks or services outside the car such as other vehicles, buildings, and

infrastructures. The connectivity and automation of vehicle technologies are one of the most

researched automotive technologies (Auto Connected Car News, 2014).

3.2.1 Benefits
According to the U.S. Department of Transportation (2015), 94% of serious crashes was assigned to

the driver while only 2% of the crashers was due to a vehicle component’s failure or degradation.

Some of the advantages of connected and automated transportations include crash elimination,

reduced need for new infrastructure, travel time dependability, productivity improvements,

improved energy efficiency, new models for vehicle ownership, and new business models and

scenarios (Center for Advanced Automotive Technology, 2018).

3.2.2 Defined Connectivity Levels

There are five levels of vehicle connectivity to define the advancement level of communication

between the vehicle and its surroundings (Auto Connected Car News, 2014).
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V2I: Vehicle-to-Infrastructure captures traffic data which is generated by the vehicle.

Moreover, the vehicle provides infrastructure information to the driver, such as

information about safety, mobility and environment-related conditions (US

Department of Transportation, n.d.). Examples of applications that can be applied

are ‘Red Light Violation Warnings’, ‘Work Zone Warnings’, Curve Speed Warnings’,

‘Speed Limit Warnings’ and ‘Emergency Vehicle Preemption’ (Siemens, n.d.).

V2V: Vehicle-to-Vehicle, has the ability to wirelessly exchange information about speed,

position, and heading with other similarly equipped vehicles. With the use of visual,

tactile, and audible alerts, this system can actively help to avoid crashes, make traffic

congestion easier and improve the environment (NHTSA, n.d.).

V2C: Vehicle-to-Cloud exchanges vehicle information from and to a cloud system. This

technology makes connectivity possible within an unlimited area. The speed of

sending and receiving this information increases, based on new broadband cellular

technologies like 5G. Furthermore, the driver can use information from cloud-

connected industries like energy, transportation and smart homes. From this level,

vehicle connectivity is connected to the IoT (ABI Research, 2015). Examples of

applications that can be applied are ‘Intersection Movement Assist’, where a driver

will be alert when it enters an unsafe intersection; a ‘Do not Pass Warning’, where

drivers will be warned that it is not safe to pass a slower moving vehicle; an ‘Emergency

Electronic Brake Light Warning’, where a driver will be notified if there is a sudden-braking

ahead and ‘Forward Collision Warning’, where a driver will be alerted because a vehicle

ahead is stopped and there is a risk of a rear-end collision (Siemens, n.d.).

V2P: Vehicle-to-Pedestrian enables the vulnerable groups of pedestrians and bicyclists to be

connected with other vehicles and infrastructures in their surroundings. Because

although numbers of deathly crashes are declining because of safer vehicles, the
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number of deaths in these groups remain consistent. With the use of mobile

devices, the safety of these groups can be improved (US Department of Transportation,

n.d.).

V2X: Vehicle-to-Everything interconnects all types of vehicle and infrastructure

communication with each other. This makes the technology the final and most

complete vehicle connectivity solution.

3.2.3 Challenges of Vehicle Connectivity

Although vehicle connectivity has a lot of benefits, there are also challenges to let drivers make use

of these technologies as well as possible. Firstly, it will cost an unpredictable but large amount of

government money to equip all or most infrastructures to a network. Secondly, to make the second

level of connectivity (V2V) possible, all vehicles on the road must be equipped with the technology

necessary to communicate with each other. According to ACEA (2020), the average age of

passenger cars in the EU in 2017 is 11.1 years old and heavy commercial vehicles are even 12 years

old. This means that it will take decades to fully use the second level of connectivity. Adding

connectivity might also arise issues with security, privacy, and data analytics because a large

number of information is shared and accessed by unknown people.

3.3 Vehicular Automation

When vehicles are able to connect with each other, the step towards vehicular automations remains

small. Especially with the help of existing technologies like AI [2.1.4, p. 24], vehicular automations

might be much closer than expected. Most likely, this will decrease the amount of accidents and

change the design and in-vehicle digital UX.

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3.3.1 Levels of Autonomous Driving

Vehicular automation is mostly referred to fully autonomous driving. Although, six different levels

of autonomous driving are defined by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) (SAE, 2018).

0: The user drives itself.

1: An Advanced Driver Assistance System (ADAS) assist the user with driving which

can contain either braking/accelerating or steering (for example: cruise control).

2: The ADAS assist with both braking/accelerating and steering (for example: adoptive

cruise control).

3: An Automated Driving System (ADS) can perform the task of driving under

specific circumstances. The user will be requested to take back the task of driving at

any time and must be ready to do so (for example: Tesla ‘Autopilot’).

4: The ADS performs all tasks of driving in certain circumstances and constantly

monitors the driving environment. The user does not have to pay attention on those

circumstances (not permitted).

5: The ADS performs all the tasks of driving in all circumstances. The user is not

qualified as driver but as passenger and therefore not responsible (not permitted).

3.3.2 Technology Behind Cooperative Cars

To have a vehicle move without driver intervention, the right technology is required. Matthias

Hartwig (2020) defined the following information and technologies necessary to realise SAE level

five: firstly, the driving order most be ‘known’ by the vehicle to determine where to go and where it

is expected to be present. Technologies like navigational systems and V2C vehicle connectivity

[3.2.2, p. 38] can help to accomplish this. Secondly, self-positioning is required. The vehicle needs

to ‘know’ where it is located using GPS [1.3.3, p. 15]. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) can

also contribute. These are small chips, applied in the road, which corresponds with a transmitter-

receiver in the vehicle. Thirdly, self-status detection, existing out of many sensors to provide
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information about the vehicle status such as direction, speed, temperature, etcetera. Fourthly,

roadway and environmental conditions. This information is required to ensure the fastest and safest

way. The information can be gained from V2I connectivity [3.2.2, p. 38]. Fifthly, traffic situations.

“The vehicle needs the exact position of buildings and other fixed obstacles, the current position,

the outline, the speed, and the direction of movement of all road users in the area” (Hartwig, 2020).

A ‘Local Dynamic Map’ (LDM) can store the

data, required in the vehicle, as seen in Fig.

3.1. The LDM is split in four types:

• Type 1: map data;

• Type 2: roadside infrastructure;

• Type 3: congestion, signal phase;

• Type 4: vehicles pedestrians. Fig. 3.1

3.3.3 Trust and Acceptance

The acceptance of autonomous driving is about the willingness to adapt to this new vehicle

technology and change a habit or pleasure. One of the most critical determinants is the trust in

automated driving technology (Ayoub et al., 2019). Currently, 43% of people who participated

within a survey conducted by PSB Research indicated that they do not feel safe around autonomous

driving vehicles (Wiggers, 2018). A reason for the lack of trust is that contemporary technologies

require the driver to keep paying attention and hold their hands on the wheel to take over control

when necessary. “The uncertainty and vulnerability involved in the system are often not transparent

and thus the level of trust tends to fluctuate, which affects their acceptance of highly automated

driving.” (Ayoub et al., 2019).

Researchers Kristin Schaefer et al. (2016) identified three constituents that can influence the

trust and acceptance of automated driving. The first one is human-related, where experience,

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knowledge, and age interplays a role. Secondly, automation-related, where the focus is on the trust a

user has in the information the system provides and how the vehicle reacts in specific

circumstances. Thirdly, environment-related, such as reputation of original equipment

manufacturers (OEMs).

It is highly essential that UX designers understand and take these identified factors into

account to grow trust and acceptance from drivers. Jiin Lee et al. (2016) suggests that consecutive

evaluation of the vehicle’s performance by the driver, providing the driver with external and in-car

information about the current driving situations and enhancing the vehicle’s role by incorporating

emotional interactions with the driver [2.3, p. 31]. When users will not trust autonomous driving

vehicles, lots of technology and research will be taken for granted (Moyers, 2017).

3.3.4 Road Users Interaction

Up until autonomous driving SAE Level four, drivers communicate with other road users in many

situations. Not only by using their turn signal, hazard lights, and horns but also with body

expression like gestures (Dey and Terken, 2017), eye contact (Ren et al., 2016), and smiling

(Guéguen, 2015). Although, at level five, drivers become passengers and are therefore not within

the need or awareness of communicating with other road users, which is especially crucial with

pedestrians and bicyclists.

To remain a safe road and communicate clearly, automotive manufactures need to develop

an advanced communication interface which informs pedestrians and bicyclists about the current

state and future behaviour of an autonomous driving vehicle (Cœugnet et al., 2018; Habibovic et

al., 2018). An example of this is a concept

from BMW: the BMW Vision Next 100 (Fig.

3.2), where moving forms indicate the

direction of the vehicle. These can also be used Fig. 3.2

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Robin Tepe 01 - 06 - 20 Research & Dissemination

to signal other information to communicate awareness. Another example is from Chia-Ming Chang

et al. (2017), which developed eyes in the headlights to help pedestrians make better and quicker

street-crossing decisions and Yeti Li et al. (2018) developed an external display to communicate

three warning levels based on colours.

3.3.5 Digital UX Within Autonomous Driving Vehicles

When the vehicle does take over some or all tasks from the driver, it is vital that it accurately

informs the user. According to NHTSA (2016), the vehicle should inform the user about its

condition, its system status and request of control transition. An excellent digital UX does highly

contributes to improved trust and acceptability [3.3.3, p. 41].

Trust has to be gained stepwise. The more the user will trust the vehicle over time, the more

opportunities do arise for the in-car UX (Moyers, 2017). One of them is that the cognitive load [2.2,

p. 27] does not have to be taken into account any longer. The infotainment system [1.4.1, p. 16] can

become more complex and might turn out to be the essential element in the cars’ interior. The

experience can be more personalised with customer relationship management (CRM), even when

the user makes use of a shared mobility solution [3.4, p. 45]. The infotainment system can also

expand itself with a more extensive HUD [2.1.2, p. 21] and might turn in a futuristic hologram later.

(Foundry, n.d.).

It will require a lot of time and testing before the ultimate solutions and formulas of in-

autonomous-vehicle UX design will be clear and work. Considering the current evolution of user

behaviour, the chance is significant that it will focus on personalisation (Carter, 2019), even when

the vehicle is shared. Some users might find it difficult to trust the vehicle, while others do not mind

and would prefer shopping while driving. The future might find solutions for both users within one

construction.

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3.3.6 Legal Aspects of Autonomous Driving

The “legal regulation of autonomous vehicles is a fairly complex object of research. The most

significant benefit of autonomous vehicles is a much safer driving environment. Accidents,

however, will always be an aspect of motor vehicle travel, and it must be decided who is to be held

responsible in such cases.” (Ilková and Ilka, 2017). The legal aspects of autonomous driving do

highly depend on specific countries.

The United States of America (USA) was the first jurisdiction in the world which made

autonomous vehicles on public road legal (Committee on Transportation, 2011). Even though the

country approved these vehicles under conditions like being ensured for five million dollars, not

exceeding thirty-five miles per hour, and sharing testing data with the government; individual states

can still prohibit the usage. Currently, the “nine states California, Florida, Louisiana, Utah,

Michigan, North Dakota, Tennessee, Nevada, Virginia, and Washington D.C., have passed

legislation pertaining to AVs.” (Ilková and Ilka, 2017).

In the European Union (EU), almost all country members, except for Spain and the United

Kingdom, have approved the ‘Convention on Road Traffic’ or ‘Vienna Convention’ (United

Nations, 1968). In contrast to the USA, it requires a human driver to be in charge of the travelling

vehicle always. Although the EU is not left behind within the technical development of cooperative

vehicles, the pressure is intensifying for participating institutions like insurance companies and

lawmakers to be ready for the future.

Countries in Asia do not have an umbrella union. In China, it even depends on specific

cities. Since “the end of 2018, more Chinese cities have started promulgating new road testing rules

to give the green light to self-driving vehicles undertaking passenger-carrying road tests.” (Herbert

Smith Freehills, 2019). Moreover, Japan allows up to SEA Level three automated vehicles on public

roads from May 2020 (Herbert Smith Freehills, 2019). Singapore is ranked second in the world that

embraces autonomous vehicles (Threlfall, 2019) and is acknowledged as a global leader of

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autonomous driving development (Lago and Trueman, 2019). In conclusion, some Asian countries

do work hard to participate in this evolution. Countries like Indonesia, The Philippines, and

Thailand do not have any legal allowance for the connected and autonomous driving industry,

facing their constraints such as poor urban planning, lack of customer interest and other compelling

laws (Trueman, 2019).

3.3.7 Perspectives on SAE Level Five

To reach autonomous driving SAE Level five; all constraints in terms of technology, trust and

acceptance, road users interaction, in-vehicle digital UX and legal aspect have to be solved

completely. It will most likely reduce the number of crashes (U.S. Department of Transportation,

2015; Hartwig, 2020), increase traffic flow and traffic efficiency (Hartwig, 2020), positively

influence job opportunities (Jadhav, 2018) and make transport more safe, affordable, accessible, and

sustainable (United Nations, 2019). Although, experts predict it might take decades before SAE

Level five will be available for customers (Gessner, 2019). “I think that SAE Level five will remain

a dream for quite a long time, but SAE Level four Technology V2V and V2X will be very

beneficial and more important than what the current discussion implies for the majority of valuable

use cases.” (Hartwig, 2020).

3.4 Shared Mobility and City Efficiency

The contemporary development of shared mobility is described earlier in [2.4.2, p. 34] and is

predicted to continue in the future, most likely in other form factors. Because cities are becoming

more crowded (AFP, 2011), shared mobility is expected to become more essential to increase space

efficiency. Considering that a car is 80% vacuous when driven by an individual (Plumer, n.d.) and is

parked for 95% of the time (Morris, 2016): “It all seems rather inefficient and wasteful. If cities

could reclaim even a fraction of this land from vehicles, they could build more housing, or stores, or

43
Robin Tepe 01 - 06 - 20 Research & Dissemination

parks, or plazas. For cities struggling with

housing shortages and soaring rents, such as

San Francisco and New York City, the gains

would be staggering.” (Plumer, n.d.).

San Francisco (USA) has an ambitious

Fig. 3.3
project to redeem land from cars to make the

city more efficient (SFMTA, 2016), as seen in Fig. 3.3. The city will partner with the University of

California Berkeley together with tech organisations to accomplish a shift from personal cars to car

sharing, making public services more affordable and move to automated electric vehicles in the

future (Plumer, n.d.). These plans are in line with the expectation of generation alpha [3.1.3, p. 37]

to have a frequently and autonomous driving five-to-eight-person shuttle that brings people

everywhere in a city for little money, from the concept of Volkswagen AG (n.d.).

The last chapter highlighted the predicted future of the automotive industry and its UX.

Because design is about humans, preferences of the upcoming generations are essential to analyse

because they profoundly influence the future. Vehicle connectivity and the broad topic of vehicular

automation with its benefits and challenges were covered. It was made clear how UX designers can

influence the trust and acceptance of these new technologies as well as how their work will

contribute to a safer road environment. Shared mobility and city efficiency are very likely to be an

important future topic as well, together with how UX designers can contribute to this area.

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Conclusion
The role of digital UX within the automotive industry is rising. The infotainment system was the

first acknowledgement of defending the inconsistent functionalities of the in-vehicle radio,

telephone and GPS navigation. From that moment forward, the foundation of vehicle connectivity

was introduced in 1996 by GN and in-car usability became more critical because new technologies

found themselves in cars.

Although most technologies have been created to benefit the UX of the driver, this

dissertation makes clear that touchscreens and HUDs do negatively benefit the human cognitive

load and leads to distraction. At the same time, AR and VUI depend on the user-friendliness of the

systems as they might cause more distraction when they perform unexpectedly. AI, smartphone

integration and gesture control do almost always positively influence the drivers’ UX. Therefore,

one could conclude that implementing new and accepted technologies might not benefit the user at

all times. It was found that HCI in vehicles is different compared to other devices because the

primary user task in a car is driving instead of interacting with a system. Therefore, good in-vehicle

interface design should include safety and usability in the design process from the start. It was also

found that the HCI was different across cultures. Because of this, a UX designer has to start with

getting an understanding of the cultures it creates for to avoid misunderstanding, frustration and

unsuccessful navigation. Especially within visual design or UI, elements mean different things in

other cultures.

Another element that car manufactures have to take into account is emotional design. This

can put cognition into perspective. Because cars are advanced machines with a relatively high price

point for a consumer, emotional design is an important consideration factor for automotive

manufacturers. These emotions can be achieved with visual appearance, specific driving behaviour

and HMI adjustments. Cars contribute to medical problems like asthma and heart diseases.

Manufactures try to reduce this by delivering non-fossil fuel vehicles and city sharing. Although,

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most customers do not consider the environment while looking for a car, car sharing is expected to

grow while the UX has lots of potential to improve in this area.

The dissertation explored the the predicted future by researching the wishes of upcoming

generation Z and generation alpha. While 92% of generation Z plans to purchase a car, it is

expected that most people in generation alpha will not have a drivers' license. Vehicle connectivity

is a highly researched topic. It has many advantages like crash elimination, reduced need for new

infrastructure, travel time dependability, productivity improvements, improved energy efficiency,

new models for vehicle ownership, and new business models and scenarios. Constraints are the

costs, relatively old vehicles and privacy concerns. Vehicular Automation has six SAE-levels of

automation and requires much technology to work entirely independently. Also, customers have to

trust and accept these vehicles based on human-related, automated-related and environment-related

topics. UX designers are partly able to solve this problem by providing the driver with external and

in-car information about the current driving situations and enhancing the vehicle’s role by

incorporating emotional interactions with the driver. Designers have the challenge in the future to

successfully communicate with other road users and the users inside the vehicle. Moreover, some

legal aspects might stand in the way of fully autonomous driving even when it will most likely

reduce the number of crashes, increase traffic flow and traffic efficiency, positively influence job

opportunities and make transport more safe, affordable, accessible, and sustainable. Both vehicle

connectivity as vehicular automation will contribute to cleaner and more efficient cities. Therefore,

the technology does not have to take a long route , but the user will have to.!

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Robin Tepe 01 - 06 - 20 Research & Dissemination

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