Relativity

• Reference Frames (Inertial frames, Non Inertial frames)

• Newtonian relativity (Concept of space, time, mass)
• Special theory of Relativity
• The Ether Hypothesis (Michelsion–Moreley
Experiment)
• Galilean Transformation
• Lorentz Transformation
• Mass energy relation
• Velocity Transformation
• Reference Frames
A system of co-ordinate axes which defines the position of
a particle in two or three dimensional space is called a
frame of reference.
Cartesian system of coordinates in which the position of a
particle in space defined by its three co-ordinates x, y, z.
• Inertial frames
Unaccelerated reference frames in uniform motion of
translation relative to one another are called inertial
frames.
Non Inertial frames
Accelerated frames are called non-inertial frames.
• The Ether Hypothesis
A material medium is necessary for the propagation of
light. It was consider that light propagate in the ether
as the sound waves propagates of air. Ether pervades
all space. In 1887, Michelson and Morley, set out to
measure the relative velocity of earth with respect to
the ether.
• Concept of space, time and mass
• Newtonian relativity
• Special theory of Relativity
The special theory of relativity based upon two
postulates. They are
• The first states that the laws of physics may be
expressed in equations having the same form in all
frames of reference moving at constant velocity with
respect to one another.
• The second postulates of special theory of relativity
states that the speed of light in space has the same
value for all observers, regardless of their motion.
Galilean Transformation
The transformation of coordinates of a particle
from one inertial frame of reference to another
frame of reference is called the Galilean
Transformation.
Limitation:
1. Violate Einstein’s 2nd law
2. Cannot explain certain phenomena regarding
electricity and magnetism
S and S’ are two inertial frame of reference
moving at constant velocity with respect to
one another.
x` = x-vt,
y` = y
z` = z
t` = t

y y’

x x’

S-Frame S’-Frame

z’
 Lorentz Transformation

The equations in relativistic physics which

relate to the space and time coordinates of
two coordinate systems moving with a uniform
velocity relative to one another are called
Lorentz Transformation.
• x` = x-vt,
• y` = y,
• z` = z,
• t` = t --------(1)
• x` = k(x-vt)----------------------------(2)
• x = k (x` + vt`)-------------------------(3)
y=y`
z=z`
t = t`
• At origin, t=0 and t’=0
• let us switch on a source of light along x axis at
origin of s and s`
• According to the 2nd postulate
• x = ct ------------(4)
• x` = ct` ------------(5)
Substituting the value of x and x` from (4) and (5) in
eqn (2) and (3)
ct = k (x`+ vt`)
ct = k (ct`+ vt`)
ct = kt` (c + v)
t/ t`=k/c (c+v) -------------------------(6)
and ct` = k (x - vt )
ct` = k (ct - vt)
ct`= k t (c - v)
t`/t = k/c (c - v) -------------------------(7)
• Multiplying (6) and (7)
t/ t`. t`/t = k/c (c+v) . k/c (c - v)
1 = k2/c2 (c2-v2)
k2 = c2 /( c2-v2)
k = 1/√( 1-v2/c2) --------------------------(8)
Putting eqn (8) in (2)
x`= x-vt/√( 1-v2/c2) ----------------------(9)
• Now putting the value of x` from (2) in (3)
x = k{k(x-vt) +vt`}
x = k2x - k2vt +kvt`
x - k2x + k2vt = kvt`
t` = kt – x (k2-1) /kv
t` = k{ t - x (k2-1)/k2v }
t` = k{ t - x (1- 1/k2)/v }
t` = k [ t – x { 1- ( 1-v2/c2)}/v]
t` = k [ t – x { 1- 1+v2/c2)}/v]
t` = k [ t – x ( v2/c2)/v]
t` = k [ t – xv/c2]
t` = [t – xv/c2]/ √( 1-v2/c2) -------------(10)
 x − vt
x =
'

v2
1− ( 2 )
c

y`= y
z`= z
v
t−x 2
t' = c
v2
1− ( 2 )
c

These equations comprise the Lorentz transformation.

Inverse Lorentz transformation
To obtain Inverse Lorentz transformation Prime
and un prime quantities in equations (11) to
(14) are exchanged and v is replaced by –v
(applicable for other inversions too),
The Inverse Lorentz transformation are
x = x`+ vt`/√( 1-v2/c2)
y = y`
z = z`
t = [t` + x`v/c2]/ √( 1-v2/c2)
 Length Contraction or Space Contraction
A phenomenon in which the length of a moving object is measured to
be shorter than its proper length is known as length contraction.
When an observer measures the distance between two points and is at
rest relative to both of the points, then such length is termed as
proper length Lo.

x2`- x1` = l0-------------------(1)

x2 - x1 = l (say) --------------(2)
X1`= x1-vt/√( 1-v2/c2)
X2`= x2-vt/√( 1-v2/c2)
Now X2`- X1`= x2-x1 / √( 1-v2/c2)-------(3)
l0 = l/ √( 1-v2/c2).
So the length to be contracted by the factor √( 1-v2/c2).
This contraction is reciprocal
 Time Dilation
Time dilation is the difference in elapsed time as measured by two clocks, either due
to a relative velocity between them (special relativity), or a difference
in gravitational potential between their locations (general relativity). When
unspecified, "time dilation" usually refers to the effect due to velocity.
The time that is measured by a clock which has the same motion as the observer is
known as proper time.
In the observer’s reference frame, the time between events is called observer time.

T0 = t2 –t1
T = t2`-t1`
t1` = [t1 – x1 v/c2]/ √( 1-v2/c2)
t2` = [t2 – x2 v/c2]/ √( 1-v2/c2)
The clock in the system s remain fixed at the point x1
So x2= x1
And t2` -t1` = t2-t1/ √( 1-v2/c2)
T = T0/ √( 1-v2/c2)
variation of mass
m = m0 / √( 1-v2/c2)

(When v=c, then m=∞

No material object can exceed the speed of light in free space)

Mass energy relation E = mc2

Velocity Transformation
Inverse Velocity Transformation
Proved that
• P = √(2m0T +T2/c2)
• E = √(m02 c4 + P2c2 )
 Twin Paradox
The twin paradox theory is a special relativity
thought experiment involving identical twins, one
of whom travels into space in a high-speed rocket
and returns home to discover that the twin who
stayed on Earth has aged more.
This finding is perplexing since each twin
perceives the other as passing, and so each should
paradoxically find the other to have aged less as a
result of an erroneous and naive implementation
of twin paradox time dilation and the theory of
relativity.
 Variation of mass
• An elastic collision between two particles:
VA = VB` -----------(1)
• The round trip time for A as measured in s surface,
y y
T0 = or VA = --------(2)
VA T0
• And it is same for particle B in s`
T0 =
y ---------(3)
VB'
• Now if the round trip time T for B as measured in s
frame, y
T =
VB -------------(4)
y -----------(5)
V = B
T
 mA vA = mB vB ------------(6)
From time dilation
T=T0/ √( 1-v2/c2) -----------------(7)
Putting the value of T in (5)
VB = y √( 1-v2/c2)/T0-------------(8)
From (2), (8) and (6)
mA y/T0 = mB y √( 1-v2/c2)/T0
2
v
m A = mB 1− ( 2 )
c
mA
mB =
v2
1− ( 2 )
c
In s frame mA= m0 and mB= m
m0 -------(9)
m =
v2
1− ( 2 )
c

This is the expression for variation of mass.

• * When v=c, then m=∞

• No material object can exceed the speed of
light in free space.
 Mass energy relation
If a body of mass m moving with a velocity v has a
force f applied to it, then F= ma, F= m (dv/dt)
d
F = (mv )
dt
dv dm
F =m +v ------------(1)
dt dt
m and v are both variables.

If the force acts for a small distance dx,

the work done F.dx is stored in the body as its K.E.
given by dT = F.dx
 dT = m dx dv/dt +v dx dm/dt
dT= m dv dx/dt + v dm dx/dt
dT = mv dv +v2 dm ---------------------(2)
• According to the theory of relativity
m= m0 / √( 1-v2/c2)
m2 = m02 / (1-v2/c2)
m2 (1-v2/c2) = m02
m2c2 – m2v2 = = m02c2---------------(3)
• Differentiating both sides of (3), since d/dm (m0)=0
2m dm c2 – 2mdmv2 -2v dv m2 =0
dm c2 – dmv2 -v dv m =0
dm c2 = dmv2 + v dv m --------------(4)
dm c2 = dT [using (2)]
• Integrating both sides we get
c2 (m-m0) =T
c2 m- c2 m0=T --------------------------(5)
If total energy is E and mc2 is the energy due to
relativistic mass, then m0c2is the rest mass
energy
So total energy E = mo c2 +T
E = E0 +T
E = mo c2 + c2 m- c2 m0
E = mc2
This is the form of Einstein mass energy
relationship equation.
Special PYQ
• Velocity Transformation
Now the component velocity of p measured by an observer A
in the s frame
Vx = dx/dt, Vy = dy/dt, Vz = dz/dt
• Velocity components measured by B in s` frame
Vx` = dx`/dt`, Vy` = dy`/dt`, Vz` = dz`/dt`
According to the Lorentz transformation equations
x`= x-vt/√( 1-v2/c2), y`=y, z`=z, t` =(t – xv/c2)/ √( 1-v2/c2)
Taking the differentials of above transformation equations
dx`= dx-vdt/√( 1-v2/c2),
dy`=dy,
dz`=dz,
dt` = (dt – v/c2 dx)/ √( 1-v2/c2)
Vx` = dx`/dt`,
Vx` = (vx –v) / (1-v/c2 vx) -------------------(1)

dy`/dt` = [dy√( 1-v2/c2)]/dt- dx v/c2

dy`/dt` = [(dy/dt )√( 1-v2/c2)]/1 – dx/dt. v/c2

Vy` = [Vy√( 1-v2/c2)]/1 – Vx. v/c2 --------(2)

Similarly
Vz` = [Vz√( 1-v2/c2)]/1 – Vx. v/c2 --------(3)

Equation (1), (2) and (3) are called the velocity

transformation equation.
The inverse velocity transformation equation are
obtained by putting v = -v and
Vx`= Vx, Vz`= Vz, Vy`= Vy
Hence Vx = (Vx` + v) / (1-v/c2 Vx`) ------(1)
Vy = [Vy`√( 1-v2/c2)]/1 – Vx`. v/c2 --------(2)
Similarly
Vz = [Vz`√( 1-v2/c2)]/1 – Vx`. v/c2 --------(3)
 Miochelsion- Moreley Experiment
• Let us consider a wave moving along MM1M on the ether hypothesis,

• A beam of monochromatic source S falls on a half-silvered glass plate P, placed at an angle of 450 to the beam.
The incident beam is split up into two parts by P. The reflected portion travels in a direction at right angles to
the incident beam, falls normally at B on the plane mirror M2 and is reflected back to P. It gets refracted
through P and enters the telescope T. The transmitted portion travels through alone the direction of the initial
beam, falls normally on mirror M1 at A and is reflected back to P. After reflection from the back surface of P, it
enters the telescope T.
• The beam reflected upwards to M2 traverses the thickness of plate P thrice whereas the beam refracted on to
mirror M1 traverses P only once. The effective distance of the mirrors M1 and M2 from the plate P is made to
be the same by the use of a compensating plate. The whole apparatus was floating on Mercury.
•
 the speed of light along MM1 is c+v and on the return path M1M is c-v.
Therefore time requires for complete trip along MM1M is
t1 = d/(c+v) +d/(c-v)
=2cd/ (c2-v2)
= 2cd / [c2 (1 – v2/c2)]
= 2d/c. [(1 – v2/c2)]-1 -------------(1)
where d is the distance of the half silvered mirror and each of other mirror.
• The speed of light according to the ether hypothesis
along MM2 is (c2-v2)1/2. The speed of light along M2M is
also (c2-v2)1/2. Therefore time required for a complete
trip along MM2 M is
t2 = 2d/ (c2-v2)1/2
= 2d / [c2 (1 – v2/c2)]1/2
= 2d/c. [(1 – v2/c2)]-1/2 ---------------(2)
Therefore time difference between the two paths owing
to the ether drift
t = t1 –t2
t = 2d/c. [ (1 – v2/c2)-1 – (1 – v2/c2)-1/2 ]
t = 2d/c . [(1+ v2/c2 +--------) – (1+ 1/2v2/c2+--------)]
t = 2d/c. (1/2 v2/c2)
t= dv2/c3----------------------------------------(3)
• The distance traveled by light in time
∆t= c x t = dv2/ c2
This is the path difference between the two parts of the
incident beam.
If the apparatus is turned through 900, the path difference
between the two beams becomes -2dv2/c2.
Michelson and Morley expected a fringe shift of about 0.4
in their apparatus when it was rotated through 900 and
they believed that they could detected a shift as small as
0.01 of a fringe. But in the experiment no displacement
of the fringes was observed.
This negative result suggests that it is impossible to
measure the speed of the earth relative to the ether.
Therefore, the effects of ether are undetectable.