Chapter:3

Spillways
Spillways are provided for storage dams to release surplus or flood water, which cannot be
contained in the allotted storage space, and at diversion dams to bypass flows exceeding those,
which are turned into the diversion system

It may be located either within the body of the dam or at one end of the dam or entirely away from
the dam as an independent structure

Essential Requirements of a Spillway

 The essential requirements of a spillway are:

i) The spillway must have sufficient capacity

ii) It must be hydraulically and structurally adequate

iii) It must be so located that it provides safe disposal of water, i.e. spillway discharge will not erode
or undermine the d/s of the dam
 The bounding surfaces of the spillway must be erosion resistant to withstand the high
scouring velocities created by the drop from the reservoir surface to the tail water

Bounded surface spillway

Spillway Capacity
d
The capacity of spillway must be balance or greater than that of surplus or flood
water coming from the storage dam

The required capacity of a spillway, i.e. the maximum outflow rate through the
spillway is determined by flood routing and requires the following data:

 Inflow hydrograph (plot of rate of inflow Vs time)

 Reservoir capacity curve (plot of reservoir storage Vs water surface elevation)

 Discharge curve (plot of rate of outflow Vs reservoir water surface elevation).

The required capacity of a spillway depends on the following factors:

u
 The inflow flood

 The available storage capacity

The discharge capacity of other outlet works

Whether the spillway is gated or ungated

The possible damages if a spillway of adequate capacity is not provided

Components of a Spillway

Control Structure: Major component, which regulates and controls the outflow from the reservoir
and It prevents outflow from a reservoir below a fixed level and allows the flow when the water
surface in the reservoir rises above the level

Discharge channel (or waterway, or conveyance structure):Located next to the control structure
and its main function is to convey the water safely from the reservoir downward to the river
Terminal structure or energy dissipaters: Provided to dissipate the high energy of flow
h
from spillway before the flow is returned to the river

Entrance or approach channel and outlet channel: Entrance channels is required to draw
water from the reservoir and convey it to the control structure

Types of Spillway

 Spillways may be classified:

 According to their function (or based on the time when the spillway comes into
operation) as

 Service (or main) spillways: It used in conveying flood releases from the reservoir to a
watercourse downstream from a dam. It is designed to pass the entire design flood
u
Auxiliary Spillways:- Designed for infrequent use and may sustain limited damages when

used some damages of the structure from passage of infrequent flood is permissible
It is erosion-resistant structures
Emergency spillways:- Designed to provide a reserve protection against overtopping
of a dam and are intended for use under extreme conditions, such as misoperation or
malfunction of a service spillway or other emergency conditions
Some of the situations, which may lead to emergency, are:
a). an enforced shut down of outlet works
b). a malfunctioning of spillway gates
c). the necessity for bypassing the regular spillway because of damage or failure of some part of
that structure
According to Mode of Control as
(a). Gated (or controlled) spillways: Is also called stop gates, are adjustable gates used to control
water flow in reservoir, river, stream systems. →They also acts as barrier for the storage of
additional water.
b). Free (or uncontrolled) spillways
An uncontrolled spillway, in contrast, does not have gates; when the water rises above the lip or
crest of the spillway, it begins to be released from the reservoir.
The rate of discharge is controlled only by the depth of water above the reservoir's spillway
c). Free Overfall Or Straight Drop Spillway
A free over fall spillway (or a straight drop spillway) is a type of spill way in which flow drops
straight or freely from crest into the stream bed, This type of Spillway is suitable for Arch dam
d). Overflow (or Ogee) Spillways
Whenever there is surplus water, it will be freely disposed of through ogee spillway along
its ogee shaped crest hence it can also be called as an overflow spillway. Ogee spillways are
most commonly used in case of gravity dams, arch dams, buttress dams
The control structure of overflow (or ogee) spillways is a weir which is ogee or S
Ushaped
The shape or profile of overflow (or ogee) spillway is depend upon the ff

Head

The inclination of U/S face of the overflow section and

The height of the overflow section above the floor of the entrance channel

The ogee profile should provide maximum possible hydraulic efficiency, structural
stability and economy and also avoid the formation of objectionable sub-atmospheric
pressure at the crest
Design of Crest of Ogee Spillway
The shape of the nappe shaped profile depends upon the head, the inclination of the upstream face
of the spillway and the height of the spillway above the streambed or the bed of the entrance
channel (which influences the velocity of approach to the crest of the spillway)

Several standard ogee shapes have been developed by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers at their
Waterways Experimental Station (WES). Such shapes are known as 'WES' standard spillway
shapes. If the U/S face of Ogee Spillway is inclined, the downstream profile can be represented by

Xn = KHdn-1 Y
Where: x, y = Co-ordinates of the points on the crest profile with the origin at the highest point of the
crest called APEX

Hd = Design head excluding head due to velocity of approach,

K, n = Constants depending on the slope of the upstream face

 The crest equation gives the crest shape downstream from the origin of coordinates.
This equation is applicable to positive values of x and y
The Figures bellow shows WES- standard spillway shape (vertical upstream face)

•u
The following table gives values of K, n and other constants and crest
equations

a b R1 R2
U/s Face K n Hd Hd Hd Hd Crest Equation
slope

1.85 0.85
Vertical 2.000 1.850 0.175 0.282 0.200 0.500 x 2H d y

1.836 0.836
1H: 3v 1.936 1.836 0.139 0.237 0.210 0.680 x 1.936H d y

1.810 0.810
2H: 3v 1.936 1.810 0.115 0.214 0.220 0.480 x 1.939H d y

1.776 0.776
3H: 3v 1.873 1.776 0.000 0.119 (Straight 0.450
x 1.873H d y
line)
According to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the u/s curve of the ogee spillway (u/s of origin, though
in the form of compound circular curve) having a vertical u/s face, should have the following equation
Y = {(0.724(X+0.27Hd) 1.85/Hd0.85} + 0.126Hd – 0.4315Hd0.375(X+0.27Hd) 0.625
 BUCKET is provided to create a smooth transition of flow from spillway surface to river
 The BUCKET is also useful for dissipation of energy and prevention of scour
 The approximate radius R of the bucket may be obtained from (empirical)
R = 0.305* 10(V+6.4H+4.88)/ (3.6H+19.52) OR P/4
V= velocity of flow at toe of spillway [m/s]
H = head excluding head due to velocity of approach (m)
Neglecting energy loss over the spillway, velocity of flow v at the toe will be
V = 2𝑔(𝑍 + 𝐻𝑎 − 𝑌)
where Z = P+Hd is the total fall from u/s water level to the floor level at the d/s toe, m
Ha = head due to velocity of approach, m
y = depth of flow at the toe, m
P = height of spillway
Discharge Computation of over ogee crest
The discharge over ogee spillway is computed from the basic equation of weir given below:
Q = Cd Le He1.5
Where, Q = Discharge in cumecs
Cd = coefficient of discharge
Le = effective length of overflow crest in meters
He = Head of over flow in meters including velocity of approach head.
He = Hd + Ha
The discharge coefficient is influenced by a number of factors:
Height of spillway above stream bed or depth of approach
relation of the actual crest shape to the ideal nappe shape
upstream face slope
downstream apron interference, and
down stream submergence
Ratio of actual total head to the design head
effect of head due to velocity of approach
 Height of spillway or Effect depth of approach
The height of spillway above stream bed or approach channel affects the velocity of approach
which in turn affects the coefficient of discharge

With increase in height of spillway the velocity of approach decreases and the coefficient of
discharge increases

The coefficient of discharge becomes fairly constant when height of spillway above the streambed
is equal to or greater than 1.33Hd, where Hd is the design head excluding the head due to velocity
of approach

A plot of C versus P/He is shown below, where He is the design head including head due to
velocity of approach (i.e. He = Hd + Ha)

It may be observed from this plot that there is a marked increase in the value of C till the height of
the spillway (P) becomes equal to twice the design head He. With further increase in P there is no
much increase in the value of C
 Effect of heads differing from the design head

 The plot of (C/C’) versus (H/He) for a spillway of height P above stream bed greater than 1.33 Hd, where C
is coefficient of discharge corresponding to the actual head of flow, H and

C’ is the coefficient of discharge corresponding to the design head, He

 It may be observed from this plot that with increase in the value of (H/He) the value of (C/C’) increases. In
other words, with increase in the head H the coefficient of discharge increases. However, for H< He, C < C’;
and for H > He, C > C’.

 Design head should not be less than about 80% of the maximum head in order to avoid the possibility of
cavitation (static pressure of the liquid reduces to below the liquid's vapor pressure, leading to the formation
of small vapor-filled cavities in the liquid)

Model tests have shown that for P > 1.33 Hd the head due to velocity of approach(Ha) is negligible and
when the total head of flow is equal to the design head, i.e. H = He, the coefficient of discharge is equal to
2.2
c
•o
k

•n
When the actual operating head, H is less than the design head, He the prevailing
ucoefficient of discharge, C, tends to reduce, and is given by
𝐻 0.12
C= C’( )
𝐻𝑒
Where He = design head including velocity head and C’ = 2.2
H = actual operating head
Effective Length of Crest of Overflow Spillway
The effective length of an overflow spillway is given by
Le = L - 2 (NKp + Ka) He
Where Le = effective length of crest
L = net length of crest which is equal to the sum of the clear spans of the gate bays
between piers i.e. No of span*Length of each span (clear)
He = total head on crest including velocity head
N = number of Piers

L
KP = Pier contraction coefficient
Ka = abutment contraction coefficient
 The pier contraction coefficient, Kp depends on

i) Shape and location of pier nose

ii) Thickness of pier

iii) Velocity of approach; and

iv) Ratio of actual head to design head

 For flow at design head the average values of Kp may be assumed as follows: Pier coefficients, Kp:

1. Square nosed piers with corners rounded on a radius equal to about 0.1 of pier thickness → Kp = 0.02

2. Round-nosed piers → Kp = 0.01

3. Pointed nose piers → Kp = 0.00

The abutment contraction coefficient Ka depends on:
O
i) Shape of abutment

ii) Angle between upstream approach wall and axis of flow

iii) Approach velocity; and

iv) Ratio of actual head to design head for flow at design head, average value of Ka may be assumed
as follows: Abutment coefficients, Ka

1. Square abutment with head wall at 90˚ to the direction of flow → Ka = 0.20

2. Rounded abutment with head wall at 90˚ to the direction of flow, when 0.5 Hd - 0.15 Hd → Ka =
0.10

3. Rounded abutments where r > 0.5 Hd and headwall is placed not more than 45˚ to the direction of
flow → Ka = 0.00. Where r = radius of abutment rounding, Hd = design head
 Energy Dissipation
The water flowing over the spillway acquires a lot of kinetic energy by the time it reaches near the
toe of the spillway due to the conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy

If arrangements are not made to dissipate this huge kinetic energy of the water, and if the velocity
of the water is not reduced, large-scale scour can take place on the downstream side near the toe of
the dam and away from it. These arrangements are known as energy dissipation arrangements or
energy dissipators

For the dissipation of the excessive kinetic energy possessed by the water the two common methods
adopted are:

By converting the supercritical flow into subcritical flow by hydraulic jump

 By using different types of buckets, i.e. by directing the flow of water into air and then making it
fall away from the toe of the structure
 A hydraulic jump occurs when the upstream flow is supercritical(is dominated by inertial forces and
behaves as rapid or unstable flow) or whose velocity is larger than the wave velocity, i.e. (Fr>1)
To have a jump, there must be a flow impediment downstream
The downstream impediment(obstacle) could be a weir, a bridge abutment, a dam, or simply channel friction
Water depth increases during a hydraulic jump and energy is dissipated as turbulence

Jump Height and tail water Rating Curves

Hydraulic jump can form in a horizontal rectangular channel when the following relation is satisfied between
the pre-jump depth (y1) and post – jump depth (y2)
𝑌1
Y2 = [−1 + 1 + 8𝐹𝑟2]
2

Where y1 = pre-jump (initial) depth

y2 = post- jump (sequent) depth
Fr1 = Froude number of the incoming flow
For a given discharge intensity q over a spillway, y1, will be equal to q/v1; and v1 (mean velocity of incoming
flow) is determined by the drop H1
V1= 2𝑔𝐻1 if head loss is neglected,
o

The plot of depth of tail water, yo versus q, known as Tail water Rating curve (T.W.R.C.)

The plot of y2 versus q is known as jump height curve (J.H.C.)

 If J.H.C. and T.W.R.C. are plotted on the same graph, five possibilities exist regarding the
relative positions of these curves
1.T.W.R.C. (y0) coinciding with y2 curve for all discharges
2. T.W.R.C. (y0) lying above the y2 curve for all discharges
3.T.W.R.C. (y0) lying below the y2 curve for all discharges
4. T.W.R.C (y0) lying below the y2 curve for smaller discharges and lying above y2 curve for larger
discharges
5. T.W.R.C. (yo) lying above the y2 curve for smaller discharges and lying below the y2 curve for
larger discharges
 Stilling Basin
It provided to absorb or dissipate the energy from the spillway discharge and protects the spillway
area from erosion and undermining

It must be constructed from concrete to resist scour

The function of the basin is to decelerate the flow sufficiently to ensure the formation of a hydraulic
jump within the basin

The jump dissipates much of the energy, and returns the flow to the subcritical state

Hydraulic Jump Stilling Basin

The passage of water from a reservoir into the downstream reach involves a number of hydraulic
phenomena such as the transition into supercritical flow, supercritical non-aerated and aerated flow
on the spillway, entry into the stilling basin with a transition from supercritical to subcritical flow,
and echoes of macro-turbulence after the transition into the stream beyond the basin.
o
 It is, therefore, possible to consider the energy dissipation process in the following stages,
all of which may be combined.
On the spillway surface  In the stilling basin At the outflow into the river
Energy Dissipation on Spillway Surface
The energy loss on the spillway surface may be expressed as
e = (V’2/2g)
Where V = the (supercritical) velocity at the end of the spillway
 = Coriolis coefficient (energy coefficient)
 = head loss coefficient
The total energy, E, can be expressed a
E = V’2/2g +V’2/2g
actual velocity
And taking ϕ =
u2 theoretical velocity
1/ ϕ = 1+
The ratio of the energy loss, e, to the total energy E (i.e. relative energy loss) is
𝑒 
= (V’2/2g)/ (V’2/2g +V’2/2g) = = 1- ϕ2
𝐸 1+

The analytical equation of the energy dissipated with the hydraulic jump is,
(𝑌2−𝑌1)3
ΔE =
4𝑌2𝑌1
power lost by hydraulic jump can be calculated by, P = γwQΔE
Where, γw = Specific weight of water = 9.81 kN/m3
Q = Discharge (m3 /sec)
ΔE = Energy dissipated as head (m)
P = Power dissipated (kW)
 Energy Dissipation in the Stilling Basin

A stilling basin provides a means to absorb or dissipate the energy from the spillway
discharge and protects the spillway area from erosion and undermining

E = Y1+q2/2g ϕ2Y12----------(a)

Y2 = Y1/2[-1+ (1+8q2/gy13)0.5]---------(b)

The stilling basin depth is then given by

Y’ = Y’2 – Yo = δY2- Yo-----------------(c)

and the length of the stilling basin is given by

L = K (Y2 –Y1)-----------(d)
Where, k are coefficients derived from laboratory and field experiments
When applying equations (a-d) we start with a known discharge q and the corresponding
downstream depth y0 and apply the iterative procedure, which follows:

1. Take the energy (reference) datum at downstream riverbed level, and compute E assuming
an initial value of y' = 0

2. Choose a suitable value of ϕ; (ϕ =1 − 0.0155P/H)

3. Compute y1 for qmax from equation (a); y2 from equation (b); and y' from equation (c)
(From a chosen value of safety coefficient, ϕ)

4. Compute y0 (from uniform flow equation – Manning, Chezy) and compare it with y2

If y2 < y0, no stilling basin is required; if y2 ≥ y0 stilling basin is required and therefore
compute y´ with 1.1 < y´ < 1.2 (≈ 1.2) from equation (c)
Take new reference datum at basin bed level; and calculate new E and repeat steps 2-4 to
check that ϕ ≥1.1

Repeat the above steps at least for one smaller q to check whether the designed stilling
basin is adequate for lower discharges as well

Submerged bucket dissipaters

When the tail water depth is too great for the formation of a hydraulic jump (i.e. when TW
depth(yo) are too large as compared to the sequent depths(y2) required for the formation of
hydraulic jump), dissipation of the high energy of flow can be effected by the use of
submerged bucket deflector
 Dam Outlet Works
Outlet works are hydraulic structures used to convey water from a reservoir to
a point downstream of a dam
 Functions of outlet works
 It serves to regulate or release water impounded by a dam
 It release incoming flows at a retarded rate
 divert incoming flows into canals or pipelines
 Classification of Outlet Works
 It classified according to their purpose, their physical and structural
arrangement, or their hydraulic operation
a).Classification according to purpose
River outlets - empties directly into the river for river flow requirements
 Canal outlets - discharges into a canal
 Flood control - to release water temporarily stored in flood control storage
space
 Emergency drawdown - to empty the reservoir to permit inspection
- to make needed repairs
- to maintain the upstream face of the dam
Diversion during construction
Control of sedimentation of reservoirs - by draining out sediment-laden
water
Power production, Irrigation, public water supply, etc
b) According to the type of waterway
 Open channel waterway
 Closed conduit waterway
c) According to its hydraulic operation
 Gated or ungated,
 Pressure flow (for a closed conduit) - for part or all of its length
 Free flow waterway (for closed conduit)
Capacity of Outlets
It designed to release water at specific rates, as dictated by downstream needs,
flood control regulation, storage consideration for irrigation, or legal
requirements
The outlet capacity for flood control is dependent on the following factor
Magnitude of design flood for the project
Reservoir storage capacity required for control purposes & spillway capacity
Downstream channel capacity
Note: For efficient and adequate flood control, channel improvement should be made
to increase the capacity

Dam
 When dam outlet capacity is not educated or not sufficient to pass water from reservoir
and poor quality of materials from which dam was constructed again lack of emergence
spillway
 Irrigation outlet capacities are determined from:
reservoir operation studies
based on a consideration of a critical period of low runoff when reservoir
storages are low
 daily irrigation demands at their peak
For emptying the reservoir for inspection or repair, the volume of water to
be evacuated and the allotted emptying period may be the determining
conditions for establishing the minimum outlet capacity

The size of an outlet conduit for a required discharge varies inversely with
the available head for producing the discharge
 The relationship is expressed by the following equation
HT = khv or
𝑄2
HT = k
𝑎2
Where: HT = the total available head for producing flow, Q = the required outlet works
discharge, a = the required area of the conduit, K = coefficient
Positions, Alignment and Arrangement of Outlet Works
In order to attain the required discharge capacity, the outlet must be placed
sufficiently below minimum reservoir operating level to provide head for
effecting outlet works flows

For dams impounding water for irrigation, domestic use, or other

conservation purposes, the outlet works must be placed low enough to draw
the reservoir down to the bottom of the allocated storage space; however, it
might be placed at some level above the riverbed, depending on the elevation
of the established minimum reservoir storage level
p
 Layout of Outlet Works
The layout of a particular outlet works will be influenced by
 Hydraulic requirements
 site adaptability
 Interrelation of the outlet works to the construction procedures
Topography and geology of the site
The topography and geology of the site may have a great influence on the layout
selection. Some sites may be suited only for a cut-and-cover conduit type of outlet
works, while at other sites either a cut-and-cover conduit or a tunnel can be selected.
Unfavorable foundation geology, such as deep overburdens or inferior foundation
rock, will obviate the selection of a tunnel scheme
 Arrangement of Outlet Works

An outlet work for a low dam, whether it is to divert water into a canal or release it
to the river, often may consist of an open channel or a cut-and-cover structure
placed at the dam abutment.

Where the outlet is to be placed through a low earth fill embankment , a closed-type
structure might be used which may consist of single or multiple units of buried pipe
or box culverts placed through or under the embankment.

For higher earth fill dams where an open channel outlet structure would not prove
feasible, the outlet might be carried through, under, or around the dam as a cut-and-
cover conduit or through the abutment as a tunnel
Components of Outlet Works
Inlet Channel Outlet Channel
Intake or Intake Structure Energy Dissipater
 Conduit Waterway Tunnel
 Gate Chamber or Downstream Gate Structure
 Intake Structures
Intakes are positioned with respect to various reservoir levels:
Lowest level for reservoir evacuation
The bottom of active storage
The bottom of flood control storage
The temperature
The sediment deposition level
 some other specified operating level
In addition to forming the entrance into the outlet works, an intake structure
may accommodate control devices (gates and valves), supports trash
racks(cleaning machines reliably remove deposited foreign bodies), fish screens(designed to
prevent fish from swimming where water is taken for human use) and bypass devices
Hydraulic design of outlet works
The hydraulics of out let works usually involve either one or both of two conditions of flow-
open channel (or free) flow and full conduit (or pressure) flow
open channel flow in outlet works is, either in an open water way or in a part full conduit and it
is based on the principle of steady non uniform flow confirming to the low of conservation of
energy
discharge through the control with the gates completely opened is computed by:
Q= CLH3/2
When open channel outlet flow is controlled by partly opened surface gates,
sluice flow will result. Discharges for such flow are given by the equation
2
Q= 2gCL (H11.5-H21.5)
3
where c is the discharge coefficient, L is the crest length & H is differential head
causing flow
For high tail water due to canal water surfaces or to d/s influences in the streambed,
the control openings may be partly or entirely submerged. For such conditions the
discharge through the control will be in accordance with submerged orifice or tube
flow as computed by the equation
For such conditions the discharge through the control will be in accordance with submerged
orifice or tube flow as computed by the equation
Q = CA(√2gH)
Where A = area of the opening
H = d.ce b/n the u/s & d/s openings
C = coefficient of discharge
Full pipe flow: closed conduits are based on pressure flow, which involves a
j
study of hydraulic losses to determine the total heads needed to produce the
required discharges
Bernoulli’s equation can be written as follows to overcome the various head
losses to produce discharge :
𝑣2
HT = h2 +
2𝑔

Where HT is the total head needed to overcome the various head losses to
produce discharge and, h2 = the cumulative losses of the system
𝑣2
= 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡
2𝑔
j
Irrigation water flow from pipe to canal
for rice fields and agriculture
 .

CHAPTER: 4…………………..