INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: OBJECT OF STUDY: HOW I IT STUDIED?

BASIC
CONCEPTS, INTERNATIONAL ACTORS, THE IMPORTANCE OF THEORY

1. OBJECT OF STUDY: ORIGINS

The academic discipline of International Relations (IR) has its roots in two primary fields: diplomatic
history and international law.

- International relations emerged after the Peace of Westphalia (after the religious wars, in the 16th
and 17th centuries), at the same time of the concept of “ National sovereignty”, to achieve a more
just and peaceful world order. Although it was not really used until 1919, when World War I ended,
the aim was to analyse this conflict and prevent future ones, to predict what may alter the world
order in the future.
- Between 1919 and 1939, the IR was in an idealistic stage in which Wilson's 14 points and the
League of Nations were established.
- Between 1939 and 1959, a realistic stage that asks what society is really like, since after World War
II it is seen that it is not perfect. The UN (ONU) was created in 1945 to ensure international peace
and security.
- The first IR centres were created: The Royal Institute of International Affairs (1920) and the
Council on Foreign Relations. (1921)
- During the 20th century, there was a transformation of the IR due to idealism, realism,
behavioralism, neo-realism, and postmodernism. + disputes re: ontology (everything that you
believe ), epistemology, methodology.
- IR was influenced by Positivism: the social world could be studied and understood as it works, a
separation between scientists and materials, in the social world you can observe, report and explain
international phenomena. This was close to the ideas of epistemology (the study of knowledge)
and ontology (the conception of reality), which have been central to the development of IR
theories.

1.2 Object of study: WHAT IS IT?

The IR were born with a particular conception of reality, an ontological position (regarding power relation
between states and the major powers, but it also addressed the most pressing problems shaping the lives of
everyone ). This is an Interdisciplinary and heterogeneous area of study (that studies the world, as a complex
place). Here, we can find different theoretical and methodological traditions.
- Inside the IR, we can find different disciplines such as geopolitics, international law, international
history, security, political economy…
- The first IR were divided because of the hierarchical ontology into high politics ( “power politics”
(political, military, territorial agenda)) and low politics (socio-economic agenda, global capitalism,
inequality, human rights, gender, the environment…)). Although this was questioned by liberals,
Marxists, constructivists, and poststructuralists, that rejected the separations
- We started seeing the IR in all interactions across state borders, not just inter-state. relation between
states, international organisations & non-state actors.
- With globalisation, the centrality of the state ( the main IR actor) was questioned
Today, International Relations focuses not only on the interstate relations, but also on all interactions across
state borders like relations between states, international organisations and non-state actors.
That is why we refer to it, rather than as ‘international relations’ or ‘international politics’, as ‘world politics’.
(We are also interested in relations among institutions and organisations that may or may not be states.)

2. HOW IS IT STUDIED?
This discipline was born within Anglo-Saxon academia with very strong political science orientations. As the
US takes over this discipline among universities, it takes a positivist view regarding objective laws and
immutable premises such as a pessimist view of human nature (we are selfish )or a structural determinism
(there are no world governments).
- IR develop after the WWI (idealist vision), but it had another progression after the WWII (realist)

2.1 Criticism of mainstream IR’s positivist epistemology:

1. too deterministic: unable to explain change in IR/world politics, events not
foreseen by the mainstream scholars (ej: end of the Cold War -> breakup of the USSR), view of
reality incomplete, emergence of anti-positivist epistemologies as constructivism (no connections,
no possibility to change the world. Your ideas can affect the way the world works ) critical theory…
and critical realist epistemology: Marxists (concepts and theories are importants, but the capitalism
exploited social class, power relations are hidden… )
2. Disregard for the normative aspects of international affairs: insufficient attention
is paid to ethical and moral dimensions, what is right and what it “should be” is important, like
ethics of war and peace, human rights, sustainable development, social justice… They focused on
norms, rules, values, and standards.
3. Its focus is too narrow : Ango-saxon tradition: Eurocentrism within LON (league of
nations, self determination that limited to Europe: outside colonials), 20thC : war, empire,
property and land thefts, racial supremacy…, IR excluded certain groups and ethnicities (women,
poor, colonised people). Global south rejected IR theory, critical perspectives -> Dependency
theory, relationship between the north and the south (exploited). All proposals for genuine social
transformation are left out. Little on wealth distribution, poverty, hunger, gender
equality,environmental problems…

3. BASIC CONCEPTS:
1. DIPLOMACY : An instrument for managing relations between international actors by peaceful
means, relying on dialogue and negotiation
2. POWER : The ability of a political actor to achieve its goals; to get other actors to adapt their
conduct to Its will .
3. STATE : In international law, this entity exists when a government is in control over a population
residing within a defined territory ,and whose sovereignty is recognised by its counterparts.
According to Max Weber, its essential domestic feature is a monopoly over the Legitimate use of
force
4. ANARCHY : A system operating in the absence of Any central government. Does not imply chaos
but in realist theory the Absence of political authority
 5. IMPERIALISM : Domination or control by one country over another Via military, economic or
political force, in the context of global relations of hierarchy and subordination.
6. HEGEMONY : In realist theory it refers to the primacy, influence or Leadership which a state
exercises over other states
7. BALANCE OF POWER : A doctrine and an arrangement between states to prevent another state
(or group of states) from becoming so powerful as to dominate the rest.
8. SOVEREIGNTY : The principle that within its territorial boundaries the state is the supreme
political authority, and that outside those boundaries the state recognises no higher political
authority.
9. NATION : A group of people who recognise each other as sharing a common identity- including
Historical memory/myths, language, culture, traditions etc. –and associated with a homeland.
10. CAPITALISM: A system of production in which human labour and its products are commodities
that are bought and sold in the marketplace .
11. INTERNATIONAL ACTOR: An autonomous individual, group or entity able to devise a
strategy and mobilise sufficient resources to influence other actors in the international system and
achieve its objectives
12. GENOCIDE: Acts committed with the intent to destroy a national, ethnic, racial, or religious
group.
13. INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY : A group of states, conscious of common interests and values form
this when they conceive themselves to being bound by a common set of rules and share in the working of
common institutions
14. HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION: The coercive intrusion in the internal affairs of a state by a
state, group of states or international organisation, in order to protect the population from large- scale
human rights violations.

4. INTERNATIONAL ACTORS:
- International Actor: An autonomous individual, group or entity able to devise a strategy and
mobilise sufficient resources to influence other actors in the international system and achieve its
objectives
4.1 Principal actor: States
It has a stable population, a territory and an effective government (that has the legal authority) with
authority. In theory, there can’t be any other superior authority that can tell the state what to do. The
independence is only real when it’s recognised by other states
Legally, the state differs from any other actor because it enjoys a unique legal status: sovereignty.
- State’s sovereign equality (principles regarding the relationship between sovereigns states) is
reflected in the General Assessment of the UN. -> equality between states (composition of the G.A,
art.2.1) -> non-intervention or non-interference (Art. 2-7) - > refrain from the threat or use of
force (Art 2.4)
- This principles have been violated in recent decades
- Formal legal equality aside, a great diversity exists between states. 51 states in 1945, 193 states in
2024 (colonisation )
4.2 International Organizations
The next crucial actor is the IIOO (international organisations). “An association of states established by
international agreement by three or more states, for the pursuit of common objectives and endowed with an
institutional structure with permanent organs, independent of the members states.”
Modern IIOO emerged in Europe in the mid 19th century, originally called “river commissions”, which
didn’t have any political common interests. (Public International Unions, to solve problems and interests)
- The first political IO was the “The League of Nations 1919”, which was the first permanent
institution among the international system that promoted peaceful methods to end international
issues. It also introduced the idea of “collective security”.
- The number of IIOO increased after the IIWW and globalisation
- Each one depends on their founding treaties -> they have international legal personality
- The principal role is the coordination between states

4.2.1 different types on IIOO are classified depending on:

- Scope (universal, regional)
- purpose/competence (general: EU/ specific, promoting cooperation in: security, the
economy, health, scientific, cultural…)
- Cooperation or integration (deeper kind of relations, more independence)

4.3 Non-state Actors

Thye gained prominence in IR theory since 1970s because of the transnationalist approach. They have
neither sovereignty nor territory and they are multinational /transnational corporations
- Business tycoons
- global media/social networks
- NGO’s
- Foundations, think tanks and lobbies
- Religions groups, organisations
- Transnational diaspora communities
- Social movements, transnational coalitions
- Terrorist organisations, criminal networks and trafficking groups

5. THE IMPORTANCE OF THEORY:

- The world is complex: lots of material, what matters?Where to start?
- Brexit , global financial crisis, mass migration flows , coups in the Sahel, role of women in wars,
inequality between countries, conflicts, geopolitics in the Middle East…
- To explain this events: nature/relevance of international actors-> depends on which theory is
adopted
- A Theory is a device to simplify things and help you understand the world
- Helps you decide which historical/contemporary facts matter more
- Sunglasses analogy ( you see the world differently)
- Theoretical framework theory often more implicit than explicit
- Views of reality held as common sense
- Advocates of certain theories dismiss others as inadequate/incoherent
- The importance of theory differentiates IR from other disciplines