DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

Unit-3 SAQ
1. Define 1NF and 2NF.[unit-3]
Ans: 1NF (First Normal Form): First Normal Form (1NF) ensures that each column in a table contains only single,
indivisible values. It eliminates repeating groups and data duplication. Think of 1NF as making sure each cell
has a unique value and there are no redundant or repeated information.
2NF (Second Normal Form): Second Normal Form (2NF) goes beyond 1NF and focuses on functional
dependencies. It states that each non-key attribute should be dependent on the entire primary key, avoiding
partial dependencies. Imagine 2NF as organizing data in a way that every non-key attribute fully relies on the
entire primary key, ensuring proper relationships and avoiding inconsistencies.
2.Write a short note on Lossless Join Decomposition [unit-3]
Ans: Lossless join decomposition is a process of dividing a relation into smaller parts while preserving all the
original information. It ensures that when the divided parts are combined again, we can recreate the original
relation without any data loss.
To achieve lossless join decomposition:
1. The decomposition should follow 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, or BCNF.
2. Choose a common attribute for the decomposition that is a candidate key or a super key in either or both
of the divided parts.
3.Define MVD and JD [unit-3]
AnsMVD:
MVD stands for "Multivalued Dependency". It's a type of dependency that exists between two attributes in a database table,
where one attribute value corresponds to multiple values of another attribute.
JD:
JD stands for "Join Dependency". It's a type of dependency that exists between two tables in a database, where the values of
one table are dependent on the values of another table, typically through a join operation.

4.Define Transaction Management [unit-4]

Ans:Transaction management is a logical unit of processing that involves one or more database access operations.
A transaction is a program unit whose execution may or may not change the contents of a database. It is
essential to manage concurrent access to avoid issues like hardware failure and system crashes.
5.State ACID Properties [unit-4]
Ans: ACID Properties are used for maintaining the integrity of database during transaction processing. ACID in
DBMS stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability.
1. Atomic: Either all database changes for an entire transaction are completed or none of the changes are
completed.
2. Consistent: Database changes transform from one consistent database state to another.
3. Isolated: Transactions from concurrent applications do not interfere with each other. The updates from a
transaction are not visible to other transactions that execute concurrently until the transaction commits.
4. Durable: Complete database operations are permanently written to the database.
Q6.Write a short note on Validation Based Protocol
Ans: Validation-Based Protocols:

A validation-based protocol is a type of protocol used in database systems to ensure data consistency and
 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

integrity. It works by checking the validity of data before it's inserted, updated, or deleted from a database.

How it works:

1. The protocol checks the data against a set of predefined rules or constraints.
2. If the data is valid, it's accepted and the operation is completed.
3. If the data is invalid, the operation is rejected and an error message is generated.

Q7.Define Hashing [unit-5]

Ans: Hashing, as name suggests, is a technique or mechanism that uses hash functions with search keys as
parameters to generate address of data record. It calculates direct location of data record on disk without
using index structure. A good hash functions only uses one-way hashing algorithm and hash cannot be
converted back into original key. In simple words, it is a process of converting given key into another value
known as hash value or simply hash.
Q8.Explain briefly about Storage Access Mechanism

Ans: Storage Access Mechanism:

A Storage Access Mechanism is a way for a computer to access and retrieve data from a storage device, such
as a hard drive or solid-state drive.

Types:

There are two main types:

1. Sequential Access: Data is accessed in a linear sequence, one piece at a time. (e.g., tape drives)
2. Random Access: Data can be accessed directly, without having to read the entire sequence. (e.g., hard
drives, solid-state drives)

Q9.How records are organized in a file?

Ans: Record Organization:

Records in a file are organized in a specific way to make it easy to store, retrieve, and manage data. There are
three main ways to organize records:

1. Sequential Organization: Records are stored one after the other, in a linear sequence.
2. Indexed Organization: Records are stored with an index, which is a table that points to the location of
each record.
3. Hashed Organization: Records are stored using a hash function, which maps each record to a specific
location.
 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

10..Discuss Armstrong Axioms [unit-3]

Ans: Armstrong axioms: Armstrong’s Axioms are a set of rules of axioms. It was developed by William W.
Armstrong in 1974. It is used to infer all the functional dependencies on a relational database.
Armstrong’s Axioms has mainly two different sets of rules:
1) Primary Rule: The primary rule of Armstrong's Axioms is the Reflexivity Rule, which states that if a set of
attributes (X) functionally determines another set of attributes (Y), then any superset of X also
functionally determines Y.
2) Secondary Rule: The secondary rules of Armstrong's Axioms include the Augmentation Rule, which states
that if X functionally determines Y, then adding any set of attributes (Z) to X also functionally determines
Y, and the Transitivity Rule, which states that if X functionally determines Y and Y functionally determines
Z, then X functionally determines Z
11. What is Serializability. [unit -4]
Ans: Serializability is a property of a system that describes how different processes operate on shared data. A
system is serializable if its result is the same as if the operations were executed in some sequential order,
meaning there is no overlap in execution. In a database management system (DBMS), serializability requires
that transactions appear to happen in a particular order, even if they execute concurrently. Transactions that
are not serializable may produce incorrect results.
12. Define Lock. List out various types of locks. [unit - 4]
Ans: In DBMS, a lock is a mechanism used to synchronize access to a database resource, such as a table, row, or page, to
prevent concurrent updates or accesses that could lead to data inconsistencies or errors. A lock is a way to restrict access
to a resource, ensuring that only one transaction can modify or access it at a time.
TYPES OF LOCKS:
--Shared Lock (S-Lock)
--Exclusive Lock (X-Lock)
--Update Lock (U-Lock)
--Intent Lock

13. Draw Transaction state diagram. [unit -4]

 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

14. Discuss in detail about Static Hashing. [unit-5]

Ans: Static hashing: It is a hashing technique that enables users to lookup a definite data set. Meaning, the data in
the directory is not changing, it is "Static" or fixed. In this hashing technique, the resulting number of data
buckets in memory remains constant.
Operations Provided by Static Hashing:
1. Delete: Search a record address and delete a record at the same address or delete a chunk of records
from records for that address in memory.
2. Insertion: While entering a new record using static hashing, the hash function (h) calculates bucket
address "h(K)" for the search key (k), where the record is going to be stored.
3. Search: A record can be obtained using a hash function by locating the address of the bucket where the
data is stored.
4. Update: It supports updating a record once it is traced in the data bucket
15. What is B Tree with example.[unit-5]
Ans: A B-tree is an m-way tree that self-balances. Due to their balanced structure, such trees are frequently used
to manage and organize enormous databases and facilitate searches. In a B-tree, each node can have a
maximum of n child nodes. In DBMS, B-tree is an example of multilevel indexing.
Here’s an example of a B-tree:
In this example, the order of the B-tree is 3. Each node can have at most 3 child nodes. The root node has two
keys and three child nodes. The left child node has one key and two child nodes. The right child node has one
key and two child nodes. The leaf nodes contain the actual data pointers

LAQ

1 Explain 1NF, 2NF and 3 NF with suitable example. And illustrate the problems with thesenormalizations[unit3]
 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

Ans: First Normal Form (1NF)

o A relation will be 1NF if it contains an atomic value.
o It states that an attribute of a table cannot hold multiple values. It must hold only single-valued attribute. o First
normal form disallows the multi-valued attribute, composite attribute, and their combinations.
Example: Relation EMPLOYEE is not in 1NF because of multi-valued attribute EMP_PHONE.

Second Normal Form (2NF)

o In the 2NF, relational must be in 1NF.

o In the second normal form, all non-key attributes are fully functional dependent on the primary attributes

o And, it should not have Partial Dependency.

Example: Let's assume, a school can store the data of teachers and the subjects they teach.
In a school, a teacher can teach more than one subject.
 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

From above table one teacher is handling one or more subjects so Teacher_ id+subject is can is primary key which we
can identify the rows uniquely.
Teacher_Id,Subjectteacher_age which is Functionally dependent
But if we know teacher id we can get age details
TEACHER_IDAGE here it is partially dependent is .Which is not allowed in 2NF
Also inorder to get teacher age details there is no need to depend on subject details.
According to 2NF Rules all non-prime attributes should depend on primary attributes but here age which is non-key
attribute not depending on primary attribute subject. It violates the 2NF Rules so we need to decompose this table.
 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

Third Normal Form (3NF)

 The first condition for the table to be in Third Normal Form is that the table should be in the Second Normal Form.
 The second condition is that there should be no transitive dependency for non-prime attributes, which indicates that
non-prime attributes (which are not a part of the candidate key) should not depend on other non-prime attributes in a
table. Therefore, a transitive dependency is a functional dependency in which A → C (A determines C) indirectly,
because of A → B and B → C

Below is a student table that has student id, student name, subject id, subject name, and address of the
student as its columns.

In the above student table, stu_id determines subid, and subid determines sub. Therefore, stu_id determines sub via
subid. This implies that the table possesses a transitive functional dependency, and it does not fulfill the third normal
form criteria.
Stu_id-Subid
Subidsub
Stu_idsub transitively dependent which is not allowed in 3NF
Now to change the table to the third normal form, you need to divide the table as shown below
 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

As you can see in both the tables, all the non-key attributes are now fully functional, dependent only on the primary
key. In the first table, columns name, subid, and addresses only depend on stu_id. In the second table, the sub only
depends on subid.

2 Given a Relation R=(A,B,C) and Functional Dependencies are F={ {A,B}→{C}, {C}→{A} }. Determine all
Candidate keys of R and the normal form of R with proper explanation.[UNIT-3]
Ans: Candidate Keys:
A candidate key is a minimal set of attributes that uniquely identifies a tuple in a relation.
From the given functional dependencies:
{A, B} → {C} : This implies that A and B together determine C.
{C} → {A} : This implies that C determines A.
From these dependencies, we can infer the following:
A and B together determine C, so {A, B} is a superkey.
C determines A, so C alone cannot be a key (because it doesn't determine B).
Since {A, B} is a superkey, and C determines A, we can conclude that {B, C} is also a superkey.
Now, let's find the minimal sets of attributes that uniquely identify a tuple:
{A, B} is a candidate key because it's a minimal set that determines C.
{B, C} is also a candidate key because it's a minimal set that determines A.
Therefore, the candidate keys of R are:{A, B} {B, C}
Normal Form:
To determine the normal form of R, we need to check if it satisfies the conditions for each normal form.
First Normal Form (1NF):
R is in 1NF because each tuple contains a single value for each attribute.
Second Normal Form (2NF):
R is in 2NF because there are no partial dependencies. The functional dependency {A, B} → {C} is a full functional
dependency, and {C} → {A} is a transitive dependency.
Third Normal Form (3NF):
R is in 3NF because there are no transitive dependencies. The functional dependency {C} → {A} is not a transitive
dependency because C is not a non-prime attribute (it's part of a candidate key).
 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

Therefore, the relation R is in Third Normal Form (3NF).

3 a) What is BCNF? Explain how a relation van be converted to BCNF [UNIT-3]

Ans: Boyce Codd normal form (BCNF)
 The first condition for the table to be in Boyce Codd Normal Form is that the table should be in the third normal form
Secondly, every Right-Hand Side (RHS) attribute of the functional dependencies should depend on the super key of that
particular table.
For example :
You have a functional dependency X → Y. In the particular functional dependency, X has to be the part of the
super key of the provided table.
Consider the below EMPLYOEE table:
EMPCODE PROJECTID PROJECT LEADER
01 A01 AYAN
01 B01 AFFAN
02 C01 AYAZ
03 D01 AMER

The EMP table follows these conditions:

 Each emplyoe can handle in multiple projects.

 There is only one project leader for each project

In the above table, EMPCODE and PROJECTID together form the primary key because using EMPCODE
and PROJECTID; you can determine all the table columns.
EMPCODE,PROJECTIDPROJECT LEADER
PROJECT LEADERPROJECT ID
As for every project only one project leader is there. So if we know the project leader name we can identify the
projectid.But project leader is not super key.we need to decompose the table
EMPCODE PROJECTID
01 A01
01 B01
02 C01
03 D01

PROJECTI PROJECT LEADER

D
A01 AYAN
B01 AFFAN
C01 AYAZ
D01 AMER
B) compare 4NF and 5NF
Ans:
S.NO 4NF 5NF
1. A relation in 4NF must also be in BCNF(Boyce A relation in 5NF must also be in 4NF(Fourth Normal Form).
Codd Normal Form).
2. A relation in 4NF must not have any multi- A relation in 5NF must not have any join dependency.
valued dependency.
3. A relation in 4NF may or may not be in 5NF. A relation in 5NF is always in 4NF
 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

4. Fourth Normal Form is less stronger in Fifth Normal form is more stronger than Fourth Normal Form.
comparison to Fifth Normal form.
5. If a relation is in Fourth Normal Form then it will If a relation is in Fifth Normal Form then it will less redundancy.
have more redundancy.
6. If a relation is in Fourth Normal Form then it If a relation is in Fifth Normal Form then it cannot be decomposed
may be decomposed further into sub-relations. further into sub-relations without any modification in meaning or
facts.

4 Discuss in details about 2PL. List and Explain types of 2PL[unit-4]

Ans: Two Phase Locking is a technique used to control concurrent access to shared resources in a
database management system. The basic idea behind 2PL is to ensure that a transaction can only
acquire locks on resources after it has released all of its existing locks. This prevents deadlocks,
which can occur when two or more transactions are waiting for each other to release a lock.

Every transaction will lock and unlock the data item in two different phases.

 Growing Phase − All the locks are issued in this phase. No locks are released, after all
changes to data-items are committed and then the second phase (shrinking phase) starts.
 Shrinking phase − No locks are issued in this phase, all the changes to data-items are
noted (stored) and then locks are released.

The 2PL locking protocol is represented diagrammatically as follows −

 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

In the growing phase transaction reaches a point where all the locks it may need has been
acquired. This point is called LOCK POINT.

After the lock point has been reached, the transaction enters a shrinking phase.

Types
Two phase locking is of two types

Strict two phase locking protocol

A transaction can release a shared lock after the lock point, but it cannot release any exclusive lock
until the transaction commits. This protocol creates a cascade less schedule.

Cascading schedule: In this schedule one transaction is dependent on another transaction. So if one
has to rollback then the other has to rollback.
 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

Rigorous two phase locking protocol

A transaction cannot release any lock either shared or exclusive until it commits.

The 2PL protocol guarantees serializability, but cannot guarantee that deadlock will not happen.

Example
Let T1 and T2 are two transactions.

T1=A+B and T2=B+A

Here,

Lock-X(B) : Cannot execute Lock-X(B) since B is locked by T2.

Lock-X(A) : Cannot execute Lock-X(A) since A is locked by T1.

In the above situation T1 waits for B and T2 waits for A. The waiting time never ends. Both the
transaction cannot proceed further at least any one releases the lock voluntarily. This situation is
called deadlock.

5 Define Serializability. Explain in detail about the types and Illustrate with the help of suitable example.[unit-4]
Ans: serializability ensures that the outcome of a set of concurrent transactions is the same as if they were executed
one after the other, in some order. This means that the database remains in a consistent state, even when multiple
transactions are accessing and modifying the data simultaneously.

Types of Serializability

There are three types of serializability:

 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

1. Conflict Serializability
2. View Serializability
3. Causal Serializability

. Conflict Serializability:

Conflict serializability ensures that the order of conflicting operations (read-write, write-read, or write-write) is
preserved. Two operations conflict if they access the same data item and at least one of them is a write
operation.

Example
Three transactions—t1, t2, and t3—are active on a schedule “S” at once. Let’s create a graph of precedence.
 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

As there is no incoming edge on Transaction 1, Transaction 1 will be executed first. T3 will run second because it only
depends on T1. Due to its dependence on both T1 and T3, t2 will finally be executed.
Therefore, the serial schedule’s equivalent order is: t1 –> t3 –> t2

2. View Serializability:

View serializability ensures that the outcome of a set of transactions is equivalent to a serial execution,
considering the entire history of transactions.

Example
We have a schedule “S” with two concurrently running transactions, “t1” and “t2.”
Schedule – S:
 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

Schedule – S’:
 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

6 Write brief notes on the following

a) Multiple Granularity
Ans: Multiple Granularity:
o It can be defined as hierarchically breaking up the database into blocks which can be locked.
 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

o The Multiple Granularity protocol enhances concurrency and reduces lock overhead.

o It maintains the track of what to lock and how to lock.

o It makes easy to decide either to lock a data item or to unlock a data item. This type of hierarchy can be graphically
represented as a tree.

For example: Consider a tree which has four levels of nodes.

o The first level or higher level shows the entire database.

o The second level represents a node of type area. The higher level database consists of exactly these areas.

o The area consists of children nodes which are known as files. No file can be present in more than one area.

o Finally, each file contains child nodes known as records. The file has exactly those records that are its child nodes. No
records represent in more than one file.
o Hence, the levels of the tree starting from the top level are as follows:

1. Database
2. Area
3. File
4. Record

B)Deadlock Handling Mechanism

 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

Ans: Deadlock Handling Mechanisms:

A deadlock occurs when two or more transactions are blocked, waiting for each other to release resources,
resulting in a never-ending cycle. Deadlock handling mechanisms aim to prevent or resolve deadlocks.

Deadlock Prevention:
 Deadlock prevention protocols aim to eliminate one or more of the necessary conditions for deadlock
to occur. By avoiding the occurrence of these conditions, deadlocks can be prevented altogether.
 Some popular deadlock prevention techniques include resource allocation ordering, where resources
are allocated in a predefined order, and deadlock avoidance, where the system checks for safe states
before granting resource requests.
2. Deadlock Avoidance:
 Deadlock avoidance protocols dynamically analyze the resource allocation requests and make
decisions to avoid potential deadlocks.
 These protocols employ algorithms that determine whether granting a resource request would result
in a safe state or lead to a potential deadlock. If the state is deemed safe, the resource is allocated;
otherwise, the request is delayed until a safe state can be guaranteed.
3. Deadlock Detection:
 Deadlock detection protocols periodically examine the resource allocation state and check for the presence of deadlocks.
 Common deadlock detection algorithms include the Wait-for Graph algorithm and the Banker's
algorithm. These algorithms analyze the resource allocation and request information to identify
circular wait or dependency chains that indicate the presence of a deadlock.
4. Deadlock Recovery:
 Deadlock recovery protocols focus on recovering from a detected deadlock by taking corrective
actions.
 Recovery actions may involve aborting one or more transactions involved in the deadlock, rolling back
their operations, or forcing the release of resources held by the deadlocked transactions.
 Once the resources are released, the affected transactions can be restarted to continue their
execution.
7 What is Data storage? Explain Magnetic Disk and its types [unit-5]
Ans: Data storage in DBMS refers to the process of storing data in a database management system. Data in a
DBMS is stored on storage devices such as disks, magnetic disk and tapes. The disk space manager is
responsible for keeping track of available disk space. The file manager provides the abstraction of a file of
records to higher levels of DBMS code, issues requests to the disk space manager to obtain and relinquish
space on disk.
Magnetic disks are circular plates that are coated on both sides with a thin film of magnetic material. This
material has the property that it can store either ‘1’ or ‘0’ permanently. The magnetic material has square
loop hysteresis (curve) which can remain in one out of two possible directions which correspond to binary ‘1’
or ‘0’. Bits are saved in the magnetized surface in marks along concentric circles known as tracks. The tracks
are frequently divided into areas known as sectors. . The subdivision of one disk surface into tracks and
sectors is displayed in the figure.
 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

There are two types of magnetic disks:

 Hard Disk Drive (HDD): HDDs are used for storing large amounts of data and are commonly used in
personal computers and servers.
 Floppy Disk Drive (FDD): FDDs are used for storing small amounts of data and are commonly used in
portable devices such as laptops.
What is Hash based Indexing. Explain in detail with an example [unit-5]
8
Hash-based indexing is a technique used in database management systems (DBMS) to create an index
structure based on hash functions. It involves mapping keys to specific locations in a hash table, which
provides fast and direct access to the corresponding data. Here's an explanation of hash-based indexing
with an example:
In hash-based indexing:
1. Hash Function: A hash function takes a key as input and generates a hash value, which is typically an
integer. The hash function should be designed to distribute the keys uniformly across the hash table to
minimize collisions.
2. Hash Table: A hash table is an array with a fixed number of slots or buckets. Each slot corresponds to a
possible hash value. The size of the hash table is determined based on the expected number of keys and
desired performance characteristics.
3. Index Structure: The hash-based index structure consists of the hash table, which stores pointers to the
actual data records. Each slot in the hash table either contains a pointer directly to the data record or to a
block of data records.
Example: Let's consider a simple example of a hash-based index on student records. Suppose we have a
database table that stores student information with a unique student ID as the key. The hash function takes
the student ID as input and generates a hash value. Let's assume our hash table has 10 slots.
For example, if the student ID is 12345, and the hash function generates a hash value of 7, we store a pointer
to the corresponding student record in slot 7 of the hash table. When we want to retrieve the record for
student ID 12345, we apply the hash function to the ID, which gives us the hash value of 7. We can then

directly access slot 7 in the hash table and retrieve the student record.
 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

9
Explain different types of indexing with the help of suitable examples[unit-5]
Ans: different Types of indexing are:
1. Ordered Index.
2. Primary Index.
3. Clustering Index.
4. Sparse Index.
1. Ordered index: The indices are usually sorted to make searching faster. The indices which are sorted are
known as ordered indices.
Example: Suppose we have an employee table with thousands of record and each of which is 10 bytes
long. If their IDs start with 1, 2, 3... and so on and we have to search student with ID-543.
 In the case of a database with no index, we have to search the disk block from starting till it reaches
543. The DBMS will read the record after reading 543*10=5430 bytes.
 In the case of an index, we will search using indexes and the DBMS will read the record after reading
542*2= 1084 bytes which are very less compared to the previous case.
2. Primary Index:
 If the index is created on the basis of the primary key of the table, then it is known as primary
indexing. These primary keys are unique to each record and contain 1:1 relation between the records.
 As primary keys are stored in sorted order, the performance of the searching operation is quite
efficient.
 The primary index can be classified into two types: Dense index and Sparse index.
3. Clustering Index:
 A clustered index can be defined as an ordered data file. Sometimes the index is created on nonprimary
key columns which may not be unique for each record.
 In this case, to identify the record faster, we will group two or more columns to get the unique value
and create an index out of them. This method is called a clustering index.
 The records which have similar characteristics are grouped, and indexes are created for these groups.
4. Sparse Index:
 In the data file, index record appears only for a few items. Each item points to a block.
 In this, instead of pointing to each record in the main table, the index points to the records in the main
table in a gap.
Differentiate B and B+ Indexing[unit-5]
10
Ans:
 DBMS CIE-II Question Bank

Explain different types of file organizations with the operations performed on files[unit-5]
11
Ans: File Organization refers to the logical relationships among various records that constitute the file,
particularly with respect to the means of identification and access to any specific record. In simple terms,
Storing the files in certain order is called file Organization. File Structure refers to the format of the label
and data blocks and of any logical control record.
Different types of file organization:
1. Heap file organization: Any record can be placed anywhere in the file where there is space for the record.
There is no ordering of records.
2. Sequential file organization: Records are stored in sequential order, based on the value of the search key
of each record.
3. Hashing file organization: A hash function is computed on some attribute of each record. The result of
the function specifies in which block of the file the record should be placed.
4. Clustering file organization: Records of several different relations can be stored in the same file. Related
records of the different relations are stored on the same block so that one I/O operation fetches related
records from all the relations.
5. B+ Tree File Organization: B+ tree is a balanced tree structure that is used to store large amounts of data
in a sorted manner.
6. B-Tree File Organization: B-Tree file organization uses a balanced tree structure (typically a B-Tree or B+-
Tree) to store records. The tree structure allows for efficient searching, insertion, and deletion of records.
B-Trees are commonly used in indexing and provide good performance for a wide range of applications.
7. Indexed Sequential File Organization: Indexed sequential file organization combines the benefits of
sequential and indexed file organization. Records are stored in a sequential order, but an index structure
is created to allow efficient searching and retrieval of specific records. This method is suitable for
applications that require both sequential access and random access to records.
8. Partitioned File Organization: Partitioned file organization involves dividing a large file into smaller
partitions or segments. Each partition can be stored on a separate disk or storage device, enabling parallel
processing and improved performance for large databases. Partitioning can be done based on a range of
values or using hash functions.