Load Flow Analysis

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© 2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Overview
Mother of all Studies
• Load Flow Analysis is an Engineering Art
• The Art of duplicating and understanding
the steady-sate behavior of Power Systems
• First studies to be done to validate the project model
• Last studies to be done to validate other studies
• Has contradictory objectives with SC & TS studies
• Need to consider past, present & future conditions
• Need to consider all possible operating conditions
• Compare limits & duties for the correct operation of the power systems apparatus

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Overview
Objectives
• To Protect the System Against:
• Electrical Limits
• Over/Under Voltage conditions
• Over Load conditions
• Voltage and Current Limits
• Mechanical
• Tension & Stress Levels
• Life Time
• Thermal
• Steady-State Temperature Limits
• Emergency Temperature Limits

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Overview
Objectives
• Steady-State Operating Conditions
• Voltage Profile
• Power Flows
• Current Flows
• Power Factors
• Voltage Drops
• Generator’s Mvar Demand (Qmax & Qmin)
• Generator’s MW Demand
• Total Generation & Demand
• MW & Mvar Losses

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Overview
Capabilities
Handel any kind of Integrated Network
No Limitations for the followings
▪ Connectivity / Subsystems
▪ DC, AC (1P-1W, 1P-2W, 2P-2W, 2P-3W, 3P-3W, 3P-4W
▪ Nominal Voltage
▪ Frequency
▪ Phase Connection
▪ Bus Number – 1,000,000+ tested

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Basic Concept
• Power in Balanced 3-Phase Systems
*
S 1 = V LN I
S 3 = 3  S 1
= 3 V LL I*
= P + jQ
▪ Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.
▪ Capacitive loads have leading Power Factors.
Lagging Power Factor Leading Power Factor Current and Voltage

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Concept
• Leading & Lagging Power Factors
▪ Leading PF: P+jQ , -P-jQ
▪ Lagging PF: P-jQ, -P+jQ

Gen1

4997.8
-j270.9
Bus3

Cable1
6 %
99.5
Bus1
796.9 -697.8 796.9 796.9 848.5 848.5 793 793 j892.1
j330.5 j289.4 j330.5 -j330.5 j525.9 -j525.9 j594.8 -j594.8

Mtr1 Mtr3 Syn1 Syn2 LUMP1 LUMP2 Load1 Load2 CAP1

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Concept
• Leading & Lagging Power Factors
▪ Current (amp) direction is based on the value of P (kW).
▪ Leading Power Factor are displayed as a negative value.

Gen1

209.4
-99.9%
Bus3

Cable1
6 %
209.4 99.5
Bus1 -99.9%
36.3 -31.7 36.3 36.3 41.9 41.9 41.7 41.7 37.5
92.4% -92.4% 92.4% -92.4% 85% -85% 80% -80% 0%

Mtr1 Mtr3 Syn1 Syn2 LUMP1 LUMP2 Load1 Load2 CAP1

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Concept
• 3-Phase Per Unit System
▪ Three phase power equation

S = 3VI  
 

V = 3 ZI 

▪ Base calculations
kVA B
IB =
3kVB
(kVB ) 2
ZB =
MVA B

▪ Per Unit calculations

I actual Vactual
I pu = Vpu = 2
o  VB   S Bn 
o
IB VB
Z n
pu = Z pu  n   o 
Z pu =
Zactual
Spu =
Sactual  VB   SB 
ZB SB

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Concept
• Elimination of Transformer Turn Ratio:
▪ To determine base voltage:

kVB1 Bus 1 Bus 2

N1
kVB1 = kVB2
N2
kVB2
Cable5
▪ Impedance of transformer in per unit:

X
Z pu    x pu
X pu = R  R pu =
X
2
X
1+    R 
R 

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Concept
Base for per unit or % values in ETAP
▪ Machines Z Rated kVA and kV

▪ ANSI Transformers Z Rated Output kVA and kV

▪ IEC Transformers Z Rated Input kVA and kV

▪ Base Voltage Bus Nominal kV

% Loading Reports
▪ Loads Rated kVA

▪ Transformers Max kVA

▪ Lines & Cables Allowable (Derated/U-D) Amp

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Concept
• Example:
▪ Base voltage calculation across a transformer in ETAP:

▪ Branch impedances in LF report are in percentage

▪ Turn ratio: N1/N2 = 3.31

▪ X/R = 12.14

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Concept
• Example (cont’d):
0.065 (12 .14 ) 0.06478
X pu = = 0.06478 R pu = = 0.005336
1 + (12 .14 ) 2 12 .14

▪ Impedance conversion to 100 MVA base

▪ “n” stands for new & “O” stands for old values
2
o  VB   S Bn 
2
 13.8   100 
o
Z n
pu = Z pu  n   o  = (5.33 10 −3 + j 0.06478)    = (0.1115 + j1.3538)
 VB   B
S  13 . 5   5 
%Z = 100  Zpu = 11 .15 + j135 .38

▪ The base voltage of the branch impedance (Z1) determined by

transformer turn ratio
kVutility 13 .5 VB2 (4.0695 ) 2
VB = = = 4.0695 ZB = = = 0.165608
 N1  3.31 MVA 100
 N 2 

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Concept
• Example (cont’d) :
Zactual (0.1 + j1)
Z pu = = = (0.6038 + j6.0382 )
ZB 0.1656
%Z = 100  Zpu = 60 .38 + j603 .8

▪ Load flow report generated by ETAP for branches:

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Concept
Decoupled Systems:

V 1 = V1 1
V 2 = V2  2

S = V  I  = P + jQ
V  V2 V1  V2 V2 
2
= 1 Sin(1 −  2 ) + j  Cos (1 −  2 ) − 
X  X X 
V1  V2
P= Sin(1 −  2 )
X
V1  V2
2
V2
Q= Cos(1 −  2 ) −
X X

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Concept
Decoupled Systems:
U1 Gen1

1.7 % 1.7 %
Bus1 j1.054 100 Bus2 j1.054 100
1.7 0 de 1.7 0 de
j1.054 g j1.054 g

LUMP1 T1 LUMP2
U2 Gen2

%
3.26 101 0.162 %
Bus3
j78.735 Bus4 -j75.854 100
1.707 1.554 0 de 1.7
j1.058 j77.677
g 0 de
j1.054
g

LUMP3 LUMP4
T2
U3 Gen3

% %
1339.5 100 Bus6
1331.5
100
Bus5 j91.184 -j144.6
1.7 1337.8 10 d 1.7 0 de
j1.054 j90.13 eg j1.054 g

LUMP6
LUMP5 T3

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Concept
• Power transfer between two buses in per unit
Power Flow
1 1

( V E)
sin(  ) 0

X

2
( V E)
cos(  )− V

X X

−2
2
0   
Real Power Flow
Reactive Power Flow

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Methodology
▪ Goals
▪ Steps
▪ Non-Linear Solution
▪ Solution Methods
▪ Requirements
▪ Load Types
▪ PV, PQ Elements

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Methodology
Goal
A healthy operation under different conditions
*** Size Equipments & Determine Parameters ***
▪ Cable
▪ Lines
▪ Capacitor
▪ Transformer MVA Rating
▪ Transformer Tap Setting & Limits
▪ Current Limiting Reactor Ratings
▪ MCC & Switchgear Current Ratings
▪ Generator Operating Mode (Isochronous / Droop)
▪ Generator’s Mvar Demand
▪ Transmission, Distribution & Utilization kV

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Methodology
• Verify operation conditions within limits
▪ Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits
▪ Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits of Equipment
▪ Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the Maximum Ratings
▪ Acceptable System MW & Mvar Losses
▪ Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated
▪ Steady State Stability Limits

• Validation of data in steady state condition

▪ Comparison of real time metered data with load flow results

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Methodology
• Load Flow Problem
▪ Given:
▪ Power consumption at all buses
▪ Branch impedances in the network
▪ Network Topology (Configuration)
▪ Generation and load VAriation

▪ Output:
▪ Voltage magnitude and angle at all buses
▪ Power flows on all the branches including power factors
▪ Losses on all branches

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Methodology
Steps in a Project
1. Understand the Scope of the Project and its Objectives
2. Obtain existing equipment data, one-lines, study reports,
plots, recorded data, etc.
3. Convert project files to ETAP via DataX
4. LF Data collection: NPs, settings, positions, etc.
5. Model Validation using network & operating info
6. Verifying all allowable limits, V, A, kVA, kW, time, etc.
7. Run 100s of studies
8. Verify acceptance using the LF Analyzer
9. Create Wizard for topmost 10-50 studies that show
verification of the worst operating requirements.
10. Create the study report, using CR, OLV, PDF, Excel, …

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Methodology
Non-Linear System
• Calculation Process
▪ Iterative Calculation
▪ Assume Load Voltage “VR”
(Initial Conditions)
Assume VR
▪ Calculate the Current “I” Calc: I = Sload / VR
▪ Based on Current Calc: Vd = I * Z
Calculate Voltage Drop “Vd” Re-Calc VR = Vs - Vd
▪ Re-Calculate Load Voltage “VR”
▪ Re-use “VR” until results are within the specified precision

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Methodology
• Load Flow Calculation Methods
▪ Newton-Raphson
▪ Fast in speed, but high requirement on initial values
▪ First order derivative is used to speed up calculation

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Methodology
• Load Flow Calculation Methods
▪ Adaptive Newton-Raphson
▪ Fast in speed, but high requirement on initial values
▪ First order derivative is used to speed up calculation

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Methodology
• Load Flow Calculation Methods
▪ Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method
▪ Low Requirements on initial values
▪ Slow in speed

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Methodology
• Load Flow Calculation Methods
▪ Fast-Decoupled Method
▪ Two sets of iteration equations: real power – voltage angle,
reactive power – voltage magnitude in speed, but high
requirement on initial values
▪ Fast in speed, but low in solution precision
▪ Better for radial systems and systems with long lines

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Methodology
• Possible Convergence Issues
▪ Negative Impedance
▪ Zero or Very Small Impedance
▪ Widely Different Branch Impedance Values
▪ Long Radial System Configurations
▪ Improper Initial Bus Voltage Values
▪ Imbalance of demand/supply in the system

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Requirements
• ETAP load flow required data
▪ General Equipment Data
▪ Element ID
▪ Nominal / Rated kV

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Requirements
• ETAP load flow required data
▪ Bus:
▪ %V and Angle
▪ Load Diversity Factor

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Requirements
• ETAP load flow required data
▪ Branch in general:
▪ Branch Z, R, X, or X/R values and units, tolerance, and
temperature, if applicable

▪ Cable and transmission line, length, and unit

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Requirements
• ETAP load flow required data
▪ Branch in general:
▪ Branch Z, R, X, or X/R values and units, tolerance, and
temperature, if applicable

▪ Transformer rated kV and kVA/MVA, tap, and LTC settings

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Requirements
• ETAP load flow required data
▪ Branch in general:
▪ Branch Z, R, X, or X/R values and units, tolerance, and
temperature, if applicable

▪ Impedance element base kV and base kVA/MVA

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Exercise
Example-B1

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Exercise

Purpose & Description

• The purpose of this exercise is to introduce the equipment editor fields
for the load flow calculation.
• The Load Flow required data for different elements are introduced.

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Methodology
Load Type Summary

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Types in Power System

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Types in Power System

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Modeling in ETAP
• Constant Power (kVA) Loads
• Motor loads,
▪ Constant Power output regardless of voltage variations -
P = T * Rotor Speed
▪ Induction Motor
▪ Synchronous Motors
▪ Lumped Load – Option
• Combination of constant power, current, & impedance loads with frequency dependencies

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Modeling in ETAP
• Example:
▪ Motor Nameplate Calculation
kWRated HP  0.7457
kVARated = =
PF  Eff PF  Eff
kVARated
FLA3 =
3  kV
kVARated
FLA1 =
kV
Mtr 2 : PF = 90%, EFF = 85%
200  0.7457
kVARated = = 194.95
0.9  0.85
194.95
FLA3 = = 234.48
3  0.48
194.95
FLA1 = = 406.14
0.48

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Modeling in ETAP
• Constant Impedance Loads
▪ Static Load
▪ Motor Operated Valve
▪ Lumped Load
▪ Capacitor
▪ Harmonic Filter
• Power & Voltage relation: P  V 2
• In Load Flow Harmonic Filters may be used as capacitive loads for Power Factor
Correction.
• MOVs are modeled as constant impedance loads because of their operating
characteristics.

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation©Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

1996-2008 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Load Flow Analysis Slide 41
 Load Modeling in ETAP
• Example (Cont’d):
▪ Load Calculation
k VA = ( k W ) 2 + ( k Var) 2
kW
PF =
k VA
k VA
I 3 =
( 3  kV)
k VA
I1 =
kV
Load1 : PF = 90 %, k VA = 280
k W = 59 .6  0.9 = 252
k Var = (59 .6) 2 − (53 .64 ) 2 = 122
59 .6
I 3 = = 336 .8
3  0.48
59 .6
I1 = = 194 .68
0.48

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Modeling in ETAP
• Constant Current Loads
▪ Current remains constant regardless of voltage variations
▪ DC Constant current loads are used to test Battery
discharge capacity
▪ AC constant current loads may be used to test UPS systems
performance
▪ DC Constant Current Loads may be specified in ETAP by
defining Load Duty Cycles

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Modeling in ETAP
• Constant Current Loads (Cont’d):

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Exercise

Example-B2

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Exercise

Purpose & Description

• The purpose of this exercise is to introduce features such as alert views,
load flow reports and load flow analyzer.
• Check voltage and loading conditions.
• Voltage regulation
• Element sizing

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Loading & Generation
Overview
▪ Generator Operation Modes
▪ Renewable Energy
▪ Motor Operation
▪ Generic Loads
▪ Invertors & Chargers
▪ UPS
▪ Equipment Limits

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Generator Operation Modes
• Synchronous Generator & Control System

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Generator Operation Modes
• Governor Operating Modes
▪ Isochronous:
▪ This governor setting allows the generator’s power output to be
adjusted based on the system demand
▪ Frequency (speed) is constant per system’s nominal frequency
▪ Droop:
▪ This governor setting allows the generator to be Base Loaded, meaning
that the MW output is fixed at

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Generator Operation Modes
• Generator Excitation System
▪ AVR: automatic voltage regulation
▪ Feedback voltage from generator terminal
▪ Comparison of feedback to reference
voltage in AVR unit
▪ Fixed: fixed excitation (no AVR)

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Generator Operation Modes
• Isochronous Mode

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Generator Operation Modes
• Droop Mode

Loading Governor
@60Hz Set Point

0% A

25% B

50% C

75% D

100% E

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Generator Operation Modes
• Droop Mode – Equal Settings
▪ 60Hz and constant loading of
400MW
▪ Equal load sharing
G1 = G2 = 200MW
• Droop Mode – Unequal Settings
▪ Increase G1 governor setting by
0.3Hz
▪ G2 governor setting must
decrease by 0.3Hz
▪ Unequal load sharing
G1 = 150 MW; G2 = 250MW

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Generator Operation Modes
• Unequal Speed Droops
▪ Initial operating frequency at
60Hz
▪ Initial loading G1 = G2 = 350MW
• Effect of load variations
▪ Total increase of load by
350MW
▪ Frequency drop by 0.5Hz
▪ Unequal load sharing
G1 = 600MW; G2 = 450MW

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Generator Operation Modes
• Generator/Power Grid operating modes used in LF calculation
▪ Swing Mode
▪ Governor in Isochronous mode
▪ Automatic Voltage Regulator

▪ Voltage Control
▪ Governor in Droop Mode
▪ Automatic Voltage Regulator

▪ Mvar Control
▪ Governor in Droop Mode
▪ Fixed Field Excitation (no AVR action)

▪ PF Control
▪ Governor in Droop Mode
▪ AVR Adjusts to Power Factor Setting

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Generator Operation Modes
• If in Voltage Control Mode, the limits of P & Q are
reached, the model is changed to a constant P & Q load
Generator Characteristics
Operating
Exciter Governor
Modes
P Q V δ°

Swing X X √ √ AVR Isoch

Voltage
Control √ X √ X AVR Droop

Mvar (PF)
Control √ √ X X Fixed Droop

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Modeling
• Generic Loads
▪ Exponential Load
▪ Polynomial Load
▪ Comprehensive Load
Ppoly = p1V 2
+ p2 V + p3
a1
Pexp 1 = p4 (V ) (1 + K pf 1f )
a2
Pexp 2 = p5 (V ) (1 + K pf 2 f )
P = P0 [ Ppoly + Pexp 1 + Pexp 2 ]

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Modeling
• Lumped Load Negative Loading

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Generator Limits
• Generator Capability Curve
▪ Based on generator MVA rating
▪ Q>0 in lagging mode
▪ Q<0 in leading mode
▪ P>0 in generator mode
▪ P<0 in motoring mode
▪ Curve AB; Field Heating limit
▪ Curve BC; Stator Heating
▪ Curve CD; Stator Core End Heating
▪ Point B; Rated Power Factor
▪ More limitation with no AVR

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Generator Modes in ETAP
• Generator Capability Curve (Cont’d):

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Example
IEEE Example

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Toolbar
• Load Flow Toolbar buttons:
▪ Run Load Flow
▪ Auto Run on/off
▪ Halt Current Calculation
▪ Alert View
▪ Report Manager
▪ Load Flow Result Analyzer
▪ Load Flow Comparator
▪ Display Options
▪ Unit Show
▪ Result Options
▪ Voltage Unit Option
▪ Load Terminal Voltages

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Study Case
• Study Case - Info Page:
▪ ID
▪ Method
▪ Select the mathematical calculation method
▪ Report
▪ Select the display unit for reporting
▪ Options
▪ Select the method for specifying initial
voltages
▪ Update
▪ Select certain fields to updated as the result of
load flow

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Study Case
• Study Case - Loading Page:
▪ Loading Category
▪ Select specific category to be considered for
the calculation
▪ Generation Category
▪ Select specific category to be considered for
the calculation
▪ Load Diversity Factor
▪ Charger Loading
▪ Apply charger loading per operating load or
selected loading category

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Study Case
• Study Case - Adjustment Page:
▪ Impedance Tolerance
▪ Apply positive tolerance for transformer,
reactor and/or overload heater
▪ Length Tolerance
▪ Apply positive tolerance for cable and/or
transmission line lengths
▪ Resistance temperature Correction
▪ Apply Max. temperature for cable and/or
transmission line

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Study Case
• Study Case – Alert Page:
▪ Loading
▪ Specify critical/marginal loading % for
alerting
▪ Bus Voltage
▪ Specify critical/marginal over/under
voltage limits
▪ Generator/Power Grid Excitation
▪ Specify critical/marginal over/under
excitation limits
▪ Auto Display
▪ Display alerts automatically right after load
flow run

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Study Case
• Allowable Voltage Drop NEC and ANSI C84.1

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Study Case
• Protective Device Alerts

Protective Devices Monitored parameters % Condition reported

Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Continuous rated Current OverLoad

High Voltage Circuit Breaker Continuous rated Current OverLoad
Fuses Rated Current OverLoad
Contactors Continuous rated Current OverLoad
SPDT / SPST switches Continuous rated Current OverLoad

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Load Flow Alerts

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation©Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Load Flow Analysis Slide 69
 Exercise
Example-B3

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Exercise

Purpose & Description

• The purpose of this exercise is to check the operating limits of the
elements
• Propose solutions for under-voltage conditions

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Reports
• ETAP Report Types:
One Line Diagram Report Types Remarks
Display (Annotation) Power Flows kW, kvar, Amp, PF, etc.
Flow Results Branch, Source, Load, etc.
Branch Losses kW + jkvar
Bus Voltage Magnitude/Angle (kV, V, %)
Load Terminal Load rated kV or Bus Nom. kV
Voltage Drop Line, Cable, Load Feeder
UPS/Panel Average values or per phase
Meters Ammeter, Voltmeter, Multi-Meter
Text Box Input Data All input properties for all equipments
Datablock Input/output All the input and output results (future
release)

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Reports
• Example (Bus Voltage Display):

Bus4 voltage in Percent:

kVCalculated = 13 .5 kVNo min al = 13.8
kVCalculated
V% = 100 = 97 .83 %
kVNo min al

Bus5 voltage in percent:

kVCalculated = 4.03 kVNo min al = 4.16
kVCalculated
V% = 100 = 96 .85 %
kVNo min al

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Reports
• ETAP Report Types:
Report Manager Report Types Remarks
Crystal Report Complete Including all input/output data
MS Excel Input Only input data
Ms Word Result Only output results
PDF Summary Including alerts, losses, loading, etc.
Text
Report Analyzer Report Types Remarks
Table (Grid) of multiple General Comparison of multiple reports in a table
reports displaying input/output data based on
Bus Results
different equipment types, ratings, flow
Branch Results results and specified alerts
(loading/voltage drop)
Loads
Sources

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Reports
• Report Manager:

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Reports
• Load Flow Analyzer:

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Reports
• Power Flow Convention:
Element Type Active Power (P) Reactive Power (Q) Power Flow Convention

Source + + Supply P & Q

+ - Supply P, Absorb Q

- + Absorb P, Supply Q

- - Absorb P & Q

Load + + Absorb P & Q

+ - Absorb P, Supply Q

- + Supply P, Absorb Q

- - Supply P & Q

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Wizards
• Scenario:
▪ Create new scenarios / copy existing scenarios
▪ Run scenario based on selected parameters

• Scenario Parameters:
▪ System (Network, CSD, UGS)
▪ Presentation
▪ Revision
▪ Configuration
▪ Study Mode
▪ Study Type
▪ Study Case
▪ Output Report

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Wizards
• Study:
▪ Create new study macro / copy existing study
macros
▪ Run study macro based on the order of selected
scenarios

• Study Parameters:
▪ Add an existing scenario to end of the list
▪ Insert an existing scenario in between the list
▪ Reorder the scenario list
▪ Activate/deactivate certain scenarios
▪ Create selective pause between the scenario
runs

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Wizards
• Project:
▪ Create new project macro / copy existing project
macros
▪ Run project macro based on the order of selected
study macros

• Project Parameters:
▪ Add an existing project macro to end of the list
▪ Insert an existing project macro in between the
list
▪ Reorder the study macro list
▪ Activate/deactivate certain studies
▪ Create selective pause between the study macro
runs

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System
Panel Boards:
• They are a collection of branch circuits feeding system loads
• Panel System is used for representing power and lighting
panels in electrical systems

Click to drop once on OLV

Double-Click to drop multiple panels

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System
• Representation:
A panel branch circuit load can be modeled
as an internal or external load

Advantages:
1. Easier Data Entry
2. Concise System
Representation

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System
• Pin Assignment:
Pin 0 is the top pin of the panel
ETAP allows up to 24 external load connections

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System
Assumptions:
• Vrated (internal load) = Vrated (Panel Voltage)
• Note that if a 1-Phase load is connected to a 3-Phase panel
circuit, the rated voltage of the panel circuit is (1/√3) times
the rated panel voltage
• The voltage of L1 or L2 phase in a 1-Phase 3-Wire panel is
(1/2) times the rated voltage of the panel
• There are no losses in the feeders connecting a load to the
panel
• Static loads are calculated based on their rated voltage

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System
• Line to Line Connections
Load Connected Between Two Phases of a
3-Phase System
A
A
B B
C C
IBC IB = IBC IC = -IBC
Load LoadB

Angle by which load current IBC lags the load voltage = θ

For load connected to phase B
Therefore, for load connected between phases B and C:
SB = VB.IB
SBC = VBC.IBC PB = VB.IB.cos (θ - 30)
PBC = VBC.IBC.cos θ QB = VB.IB.sin (θ - 30)
QBC = VBC.IBC.sin θ
And, for load connected to phase C

SC = VC.IC
PC = VC.IC.cos (θ + 30)
QC = VC.IC.sin (θ + 30)

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System
• Info Page:
NEC Selection
A, B, C from top to bottom or left to
right from the front of the panel

Phase B shall be the highest

voltage (LG) on a 3-phase, 4-wire
delta connected system (midpoint
grounded)

3-Phase 4-Wire Panel

3-Phase 3-Wire Panel
1-Phase 3-Wire Panel
1-Phase 2-Wire Panel

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System
• Rating Page:
Intelligent kV Calculation
If a 1-Phase panel is connected to a 3-Phase bus
having a nominal voltage equal to 0.48 kV, the default
rated kV of the panel is set to (0.48/1.732 =) 0.277 kV

For IEC, Enclosure Type

is Ingress Protection
(IPxy), where IP00 means
no protection or shielding
on the panel

Select ANSI or IEC

Breakers or Fuses from
Main Device Library

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System
• Schedule Page:

Circuit Numbers with

Standard Layout

Circuit Numbers with

Column Layout

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System
• Pin Assignment:
₋ First 14 load items in the list are based on NEC 1999
₋ Last 10 load types in the Panel Code Factor Table are user-defined
₋ Load Type is used to determine the Code Factors used in calculating the total panel load
₋ External loads are classified as motor load or static load according to the element type
₋ For External links the load status is determined from the connected load’s demand factor
status

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System
• Rating Tab:

Enter per phase VA, W, or

Amperes for this load.

For example, if total Watts

for a 3-phase load are 1200,
enter W as 400 (=1200/3)

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System
• Loading Tab:
For internal loads, enter the % loading for the selected loading category

For both internal and external loads, Amp values are

calculated based on terminal bus nominal kV

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System
• Protective Device Tab: Library Quick Pick - LV Circuit
Breaker (Molded Case, with
Thermal Magnetic Trip Device)
or

Library Quick Pick – Fuse will

appear depending on the Type
of protective device selected.

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System
• Feeder Tab:

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System
• Action Buttons: Copy the content of the selected
row to clipboard. Circuit number,
Phase, Pole, Load Name, Link
and State are not copied.

Paste the entire content (of the

copied row) in the selected row.
This will work when the Link
Type is other than space or
unusable, and only for fields
which are not blocked.

Blank out the contents of the entire

selected row.

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System
• Summary Page:
Continuous Load – Per Phase and Total

Non-Continuous Load – Per Phase and Total

Connected Load – Per Phase and Total (Continuous + Non-Continuous Load)

Code Demand – Per Phase and Total

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System
• Output Report

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Panel System
• Panel Code Factors
The first fourteen have fixed formats per NEC 1999
Code demand load depends on Panel Code Factors
Code demand load calculation for internal loads are done for each types of
load separately and then summed up

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Advanced LF Topics
Load Flow Convergence

Load Flow vs. Optimal Power Flow

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Advanced Topics

• Review of Load Flow Study

• Given generation, loading and control settings (Mwgen, Vgen, LTC, Capacitor
Bank, …)
• Solve bus voltages and branch flows
• Check over/under voltage, device overloading conditions
• Reset controls and run Load Flow again
• Iterative process

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Advanced Topics

• Optimal Load Flow Approach

• Given control setting ranges
• Specify bus voltage and branch loading constraints
• Select optimization objectives (Min. P Losses, Min. Q Losses, …)
• Solve bus voltages, branch flows and control settings
• Direct solution

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Advanced Topics

• Control Variables
• Load Tap Changer (LTC) Settings
• Generator AVR Settings
• Generator MW Generation
• Series or Shunt VAR Compensator Settings
• Phase Shift Transformer Tap Positions
• Switched Capacitor Settings
• Load Shedding
• DC Line Flow

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Advanced Topics

Objective Function:

• Minimize Real Power Losses

- To minimize real power losses in the system

• Minimize Reactive Power Losses

- To minimize reactive power losses in the system

• Minimize Swing Bus Power

- To minimize real power generation at the swing bus(s)

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Advanced Topics

• Minimize Shunt var Devices

- To minimize var generation from available shunt var control devices

• Minimize Fuel Cost

- To minimize total generation fuel cost

• Minimize Series Compensation

- To minimize var generation from available series var control devices

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Advanced Topics

• Minimize Load Shedding

- To minimize load to be shed from the available bus load shed schedule

• Minimize Control Movement

- To minimize total number of controls

• Minimize Control Adjustment

- To minimize overall adjustment from all controls

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Advanced Topics
• Maximize Voltage Security Index
2n
AllBuses
 Vi − Vi ,avg 
Voltage Security Index =   
i  dVi 

Where,
Vi ,max + Vi ,min Vi ,max − Vi ,min
Vi ,avg = dVi =
2 2

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Advanced Topics
• Maximize Line Flow Security Index
2n
AllBranche
s
 Si 
Line Flow Security Index =  i
 
 Si 
Where, dSi is the line rating

• Flat Voltage Profile

- Voltage Magnitude difference between all buses is minimum

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Advanced Topics

Constraints:

• Bus Voltage Constraints

• Branch Flow Constraints

• Interface Flow Constraints

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Exercise

• Open LF-Example-A3
• Follow instructions in LF-Example-A3.PDF

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis
 Exercise
• Comparison
of LF and OPF:

© 2017-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Load Flow Analysis