CHAPTER IV : Cell Division and Reproduction

 Mitosis and Its Stages

 Meiosis and Its Stages
 Meiosis in Relation to Gametogenesis
 Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

Introduction

What do your intestines, the yeast in bread dough, and a developing frog all have in

common? Among other things, they all have cells that carry out mitosis, dividing to produce

more cells that are genetically identical to themselves.

Why do these very different organisms and tissues all need mitosis? Intestinal cells have to

be replaced as they wear out; yeast cells need to reproduce to keep their population

growing; and a tadpole must make new cells as it grows bigger and more complex.

What is mitosis?

Mitosis is a type of cell division in which one cell (the mother) divides to produce two new

cells (the daughters) that are genetically identical to itself. In the context of the cell cycle,

mitosis is the part of the division process in which the DNA of the cell's nucleus is split into

two equal sets of chromosomes.

The great majority of the cell divisions that happen in your body involve mitosis. During

development and growth, mitosis populates an organism’s body with cells, and throughout

an organism’s life, it replaces old, worn-out cells with new ones. For single-celled eukaryotes

like yeast, mitotic divisions are actually a form of reproduction, adding new individuals to the

population.

In all of these cases, the ―goal‖ of mitosis is to make sure that each daughter cell gets a

perfect, full set of chromosomes. Cells with too few or too many chromosomes usually don’t

function well: they may not survive, or they may even cause cancer. So, when cells undergo

mitosis, they don’t just divide their DNA at random and toss it into piles for the two
daughter cells. Instead, they split up their duplicated chromosomes in a carefully organized

series of steps.

Phases of mitosis

Mitosis consists of four basic phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Some

textbooks list five, breaking prophase into an early phase (called prophase) and a late phase

(called prometaphase). These phases occur in strict sequential order, and cytokinesis - the

process of dividing the cell contents to make two new cells - starts in anaphase or

telophase.

Stages of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase. Cytokinesis typically overlaps

with anaphase and/or telophase.

You can remember the order of the phases with the famous mnemonic: [Please] Pee on

the MAT. But don’t get too hung up on names – what’s most important to understand is

what’s happening at each stage, and why it’s important for the division of the chromosomes.
Late G2 phase. The cell has two centrosomes, each with two centrioles, and the DNA has

been copied. At this stage, the DNA is surrounded by an intact nuclear membrane, and the

nucleolus is present in the nucleus.

Let’s start by looking at a cell right before it begins mitosis. This cell is in interphase (late

G_22start subscript, 2, end subscript phase) and has already copied its DNA, so the

chromosomes in the nucleus each consist of two connected copies, called sister

chromatids. You can’t see the chromosomes very clearly at this point, because they are

still in their long, stringy, decondensed form.

This animal cell has also made a copy of its centrosome, an organelle that will play a key

role in orchestrating mitosis, so there are two centrosomes. (Plant cells generally don’t have

centrosomes with centrioles, but have a different type of microtubule organizing

center that plays a similar role.)

 Early prophase. The mitotic spindle starts to form, the chromosomes start to condense, and

the nucleolus disappears.

In early prophase, the cell starts to break down some structures and build others up,

setting the stage for division of the chromosomes.

 The chromosomes start to condense (making them easier to pull apart later on).

 The mitotic spindle begins to form. The spindle is a structure made of microtubules,

strong fibers that are part of the cell’s ―skeleton.‖ Its job is to organize the chromosomes

and move them around during mitosis. The spindle grows between the centrosomes as they

move apart.

 The nucleolus (or nucleoli, plural), a part of the nucleus where ribosomes are made,

disappears. This is a sign that the nucleus is getting ready to break down.
 Late prophase (prometaphase). The nuclear envelope breaks down and the chromosomes

are fully condensed.

In late prophase (sometimes also called prometaphase), the mitotic spindle begins to

capture and organize the chromosomes.

 The chromosomes finish condensing, so they are very compact.

 The nuclear envelope breaks down, releasing the chromosomes.

 The mitotic spindle grows more, and some of the microtubules start to ―capture‖

chromosomes.
Anatomy of the mitotic spindle. Diagram indicating kinetochore microtubules (bound to

kinetochores) and the aster. The aster is an array of microtubules that radiates out from the

centrosome towards the cell edge. Diagram also indicates the centromere region of a

chromosome, the narrow "waist" where the two sister chromatids are most tightly

connected, and the kinetochore, a pad of proteins found at the centromere.

Microtubules can bind to chromosomes at the kinetochore, a patch of protein found on the

centromere of each sister chromatid. (Centromeres are the regions of DNA where the

sister chromatids are most tightly connected.)

Microtubules that bind a chromosome are called kinetochore microtubules. Microtubules

that don’t bind to kinetochores can grab on to microtubules from the opposite pole,

stabilizing the spindle. More microtubules extend from each centrosome towards the edge of

the cell, forming a structure called the aster.

 Metaphase. Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate, under tension from the mitotic

spindle. The two sister chromatids of each chromosome are captured by microtubules from

opposite spindle poles.

In metaphase, the spindle has captured all the chromosomes and lined them up at the

middle of the cell, ready to divide.

 All the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate (not a physical structure, just a term

for the plane where the chromosomes line up).

 At this stage, the two kinetochores of each chromosome should be attached to microtubules

from opposite spindle poles.

Before proceeding to anaphase, the cell will check to make sure that all the chromosomes

are at the metaphase plate with their kinetochores correctly attached to microtubules. This

is called the spindle checkpoint and helps ensure that the sister chromatids will split

evenly between the two daughter cells when they separate in the next step. If a

chromosome is not properly aligned or attached, the cell will halt division until the problem

is fixed.
 Anaphase. The sister chromatids separate from one another and are pulled towards opposite

poles of the cell. The microtubules that are not attached to chromosomes push the two poles

of the spindle apart, while the kinetochore microtubules pull the chromosomes towards the

poles.

In anaphase, the sister chromatids separate from each other and are pulled towards

opposite ends of the cell.

 The protein ―glue‖ that holds the sister chromatids together is broken down, allowing them

to separate. Each is now its own chromosome. The chromosomes of each pair are pulled

towards opposite ends of the cell.

 Microtubules not attached to chromosomes elongate and push apart, separating the poles

and making the cell longer.

All of these processes are driven by motor proteins, molecular machines that can ―walk‖

along microtubule tracks and carry a cargo. In mitosis, motor proteins carry chromosomes

or other microtubules as they walk.

 Telophase. The spindle disappears, a nuclear membrane re-forms around each set of

chromosomes, and a nucleolus reappears in each new nucleus. The chromosomes also start

to decondense.

In telophase, the cell is nearly done dividing, and it starts to re-establish its normal

structures as cytokinesis (division of the cell contents) takes place.

 The mitotic spindle is broken down into its building blocks.

 Two new nuclei form, one for each set of chromosomes. Nuclear membranes and nucleoli

reappear.

 The chromosomes begin to decondense and return to their ―stringy‖ form.

Cytokinesis in animal and plant cells.

Cytokinesis in an animal cell: an actin ring around the middle of the cell pinches inward,

creating an indentation called the cleavage furrow.

Cytokinesis in a plant cell: the cell plate forms down the middle of the cell, creating a new

wall that partitions it in two.

Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells, overlaps with the final

stages of mitosis. It may start in either anaphase or telophase, depending on the cell, and

finishes shortly after telophase.

In animal cells, cytokinesis is contractile, pinching the cell in two like a coin purse with a

drawstring. The ―drawstring‖ is a band of filaments made of a protein called actin, and the

pinch crease is known as the cleavage furrow. Plant cells can’t be divided like this because

they have a cell wall and are too stiff. Instead, a structure called the cell plate forms down

the middle of the cell, splitting it into two daughter cells separated by a new wall.
When division is complete, it produces two daughter cells. Each daughter cell has a complete

set of chromosomes, identical to that of its sister (and that of the mother cell). The daughter

cells enter the cell cycle in G1.

When cytokinesis finishes, we end up with two new cells, each with a complete set of

chromosomes identical to those of the mother cell. The daughter cells can now begin their

own cellular ―lives,‖ and – depending on what they decide to be when they grow up – may

undergo mitosis themselves, repeating the cycle.

MEIOSIS

Phases of meiosis

In many ways, meiosis is a lot like mitosis. The cell goes through similar stages and uses

similar strategies to organize and separate chromosomes. In meiosis, however, the cell has

a more complex task. It still needs to separate sister chromatids (the two halves of a

duplicated chromosome), as in mitosis. But it must also separate homologous

chromosomes, the similar but nonidentical chromosome pairs an organism receives from

its two parents.

These goals are accomplished in meiosis using a two-step division process. Homologue pairs

separate during a first round of cell division, called meiosis I. Sister chromatids separate

during a second round, called meiosis II.

Since cell division occurs twice during meiosis, one starting cell can produce four gametes

(eggs or sperm). In each round of division, cells go through four stages: prophase,

metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Meiosis I

Before entering meiosis I, a cell must first go through interphase. As in mitosis, the cell

grows during G_11start subscript, 1, end subscript phase, copies all of its chromosomes

during S phase, and prepares for division during G_22start subscript, 2, end subscript phase.

During prophase I, differences from mitosis begin to appear. As in mitosis, the

chromosomes begin to condense, but in meiosis I, they also pair up. Each chromosome

carefully aligns with its homologue partner so that the two match up at corresponding

positions along their full length.

For instance, in the image below, the letters A, B, and C represent genes found at particular

spots on the chromosome, with capital and lowercase letters for different forms, or alleles,

of each gene. The DNA is broken at the same spot on each homologue—here, between
genes B and C—and reconnected in a criss-cross pattern so that the homologues exchange

part of their DNA.

Image of crossing over. Two homologous chromosomes carry different versions of three

genes. One has the A, B, and C versions, while the other has the a, b, and c versions. A

crossover event in which two chromatids—one from each homologue—exchange fragments

swaps the C and c genes. Now, each homologue has two dissimilar chromatids.

One has A, B, C on one chromatid and A, B, c on the other chromatid.

The other homologue has a, b, c on one chromatid and a, b, C on the other chromatid.

This process, in which homologous chromosomes trade parts, is called crossing over. It's

helped along by a protein structure called the synaptonemal complex that holds the

homologues together. The chromosomes would actually be positioned one on top of the

other—as in the image below—throughout crossing over; they're only shown side-by-side in

the image above so that it's easier to see the exchange of genetic material.
Image of two homologous chromosomes, positioned one on top of the other and held

together by the synaptonemal complex.

You can see crossovers under a microscope as chiasmata, cross-shaped structures where

homologues are linked together. Chiasmata keep the homologues connected to each other

after the synaptonemal complex breaks down, so each homologous pair needs at least one.

It's common for multiple crossovers (up to 252525!) to take place for each homologue

pair ^11start superscript, 1, end superscript.

The spots where crossovers happen are more or less random, leading to the formation of

new, "remixed" chromosomes with unique combinations of alleles.

After crossing over, the spindle begins to capture chromosomes and move them towards the

center of the cell (metaphase plate). This may seem familiar from mitosis, but there is a

twist. Each chromosome attaches to microtubules from just one pole of the spindle, and the

two homologues of a pair bind to microtubules from opposite poles. So, during metaphase

I, homologue pairs—not individual chromosomes—line up at the metaphase plate for

separation.
 The phases of meiosis I.

Prophase I: The starting cell is diploid, 2n = 4. Homologous chromosomes pair up and

exchange fragments in the process of crossing over.

Metaphase I: Homologue pairs line up at the metaphase plate.

Anaphase I: Homologues separate to opposite ends of the cell. Sister chromatids stay

together.

Telophase I: Newly forming cells are haploid, n = 2. Each chromosome still has two sister

chromatids, but the chromatids of each chromosome are no longer identical to each other.

When the homologous pairs line up at the metaphase plate, the orientation of each pair is

random. For instance, in the diagram above, the pink version of the big chromosome and

the purple version of the little chromosome happen to be positioned towards the same pole

and go into the same cell. But the orientation could have equally well been flipped, so that
both purple chromosomes went into the cell together. This allows for the formation of

gametes with different sets of homologues.

In anaphase I, the homologues are pulled apart and move apart to opposite ends of the

cell. The sister chromatids of each chromosome, however, remain attached to one another

and don't come apart.

Finally, in telophase I, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cell. In some

organisms, the nuclear membrane re-forms and the chromosomes decondense, although in

others, this step is skipped—since cells will soon go through another round of division,

meiosis II^{2,3}2,3start superscript, 2, comma, 3, end superscript. Cytokinesis usually

occurs at the same time as telophase I, forming two haploid daughter cells.

Meiosis II

Cells move from meiosis I to meiosis II without copying their DNA. Meiosis II is a shorter
and simpler process than meiosis I, and you may find it helpful to think of meiosis II as
―mitosis for haploid cells."The cells that enter meiosis II are the ones made in meiosis I.
These cells are haploid—have just one chromosome from each homologue pair—but their
chromosomes still consist of two sister chromatids. In meiosis II, the sister chromatids
separate, making haploid cells with non-duplicated chromosomes.
 Phases of meiosis II

Prophase II: Starting cells are the haploid cells made in meiosis I. Chromosomes

condense.

Metaphase II: Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate.

Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate to opposite ends of the cell.

 Telophase II: Newly forming gametes are haploid, and each chromosome now has just

one chromatid.

During prophase II, chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks down, if

needed. The centrosomes move apart, the spindle forms between them, and the spindle

microtubules begin to capture chromosomes.

The two sister chromatids of each chromosome are captured by microtubules from opposite

spindle poles. In metaphase II, the chromosomes line up individually along the metaphase

plate. In anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate and are pulled towards opposite

poles of the cell.

In telophase II, nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes, and the

chromosomes decondense. Cytokinesis splits the chromosome sets into new cells, forming

the final products of meiosis: four haploid cells in which each chromosome has just one

chromatid. In humans, the products of meiosis are sperm or egg cells.

How meiosis "mixes and matches" genes

The gametes produced in meiosis are all haploid, but they're not genetically identical. For

example, take a look the meiosis II diagram above, which shows the products of meiosis for

a cell with 2n = 42n=42, n, equals, 4 chromosomes. Each gamete has a unique "sample" of

the genetic material present in the starting cell.

As it turns out, there are many more potential gamete types than just the four shown in the

diagram, even for a cell with only four chromosomes. The two main reasons we can get

many genetically different gametes are:

 Crossing over. The points where homologues cross over and exchange genetic material

are chosen more or less at random, and they will be different in each cell that goes through

meiosis. If meiosis happens many times, as in humans, crossovers will happen at many

different points.

 Random orientation of homologue pairs. The random orientation of homologue pairs in

metaphase I allows for the production of gametes with many different assortments of

homologous chromosomes.
 Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

Types of sexual life cycles

Sexual life cycles involve an alternation between meiosis and fertilization. Meiosis is where

a diploid cell gives rise to haploid cells, and fertilization is where two haploid cells (gametes)

fuse to form a diploid zygote. What happens between these two events, however, can differ

a lot between different organisms—say, between you and a mushroom or oak tree!

There are three main categories of sexual life cycles.

 In a diploid-dominant life cycle, the multicellular diploid stage is the most obvious life

stage, and the only haploid cells are the gametes. Humans and most animals have this type

of life cycle.

 In a haploid-dominant life cycle, the multicellular (or sometimes unicellular) haploid stage

is the most obvious life stage and is often multicellular. In this type of life cycle, the single-

celled zygote is the only diploid cell. Fungi and some algae have this type of life cycle.

 In alternation of generations, both the haploid and the diploid stages are multicellular,

though they may be dominant to different degrees in different species. Plants and some

algae have this type of life cycle.

Let's make these ideas more concrete by looking at an example of each type of life cycle.

Diploid-dominant life cycle

Nearly all animals have a diploid-dominant life cycle in which the only haploid cells are the

gametes. Early in the development of an animal embryo, special diploid cells, called germ

cells, are made in the gonads (testes and ovaries). Germ cells can divide by mitosis to make

more germ cells, but some of them undergo meiosis, making haploid gametes (sperm and

egg cells). Fertilization involves the fusion of two gametes, usually from different individuals,

restoring the diploid state.

Example of a diploid-dominant life cycle: the human life cycle. In a mature human (2n), eggs

are produced by meiosis in the ovary of a woman, or sperm are produced by meiosis in the

testis of a man. The eggs and sperm are 1n, and they combine in fertilization to form a

zygote (2n). The zygote divides by mitosis to produce a mature human.

Haploid-dominant life cycle

Most fungi and some protists (unicellular eukaryotes) have a haploid-dominant life cycle, in

which the ―body‖ of the organism—that is, the mature, ecologically important form—is

haploid.

An example of a fungus with a haploid-dominant life cycle is black bread mold, whose sexual

life cycle is shown in the diagram below. In sexual reproduction of this

mold, hyphae (multicellular, thread-like haploid structures) from two compatible individuals

first grow towards each other.

Where the hyphae meet, they form a structure called the zygosporangium. A

zygosporangium contains multiple haploid nuclei from the two parents within a single cell.

The haploid nuclei fuse to form diploid nuclei, which are equivalent to zygotes. The cell

containing the nuclei is called the zygospore.

Example of a haploid-dominant life cycle: black bread mold. A haploid spore (1n) undergoes

mitosis to produce a multicellular individual (1n) with thread-like structures called hyphae.

Two hyphae of compatible (+ and -) mating types extend protrusions towards one another,

and where the protrusions meet, they form a zygosporangium with multiple haploid nuclei

inside (some from both parent hyphae). Nuclear fusion then takes place, in which the

haploid nuclei fuse to form diploid nuclei, and the cell containing the diploid nuclei is called

the zygospore. The diploid nuclei in the zygospore undergo meiosis to produce haploid

nuclei, which are released as unicellular spores (1n), and the cycle repeats.

The zygospore may stay dormant for long periods of time, but under the right conditions,

the diploid nuclei undergo meiosis to make haploid nuclei that are released in single cells
called spores^44start superscript, 4, end superscript. Because they were formed through

meiosis, each spore has a unique combination of genetic material. The spores germinate and

divide by mitosis to make new, multicellular haploid fungi.

Alternation of generations

The third type of life cycle, alternation of generations, is a blend of the haploid-dominant

and diploid-dominant extremes. This life cycle is found in some algae and all plants. Species

with alternation of generations have both haploid and diploid multicellular stages.

The haploid multicellular plants (or algae) are called gametophytes, because they make

gametes using specialized cells. Meiosis is not directly involved in making the gametes in this

case, because the organism is already a haploid. Fertilization between the haploid gametes

forms a diploid zygote.

The zygote will undergo many rounds of mitosis and give rise to a diploid multicellular plant

called a sporophyte. Specialized cells of the sporophyte will undergo meiosis and produce

haploid spores. The spores will then develop into the multicellular gametophytes.

Example of alternation of generations: life cycle of a fern. Haploid (1n) spores germinate and

undergo mitosis to produce a multicellular gametophyte (1n).Specialized cells of the

 gametophyte undergo mitosis to produce sperm and egg cells (1n), which combine in

fertilization to make a zygote (2n). The zygote undergoes mitosis to form a multicellular,

diploid sporophyte, the frond-bearing structure that we usually think of as a fern. On the

sporophyte, specialized structures called sporangia form, and inside of them, haploid cells

(spores, 1n) are formed by meiosis. The spores are released and can germinate, starting the

cycle over again.

Although all sexually reproducing plants go through some version of alternation of

generations, the relative sizes of the sporophyte and the gametophyte and the relationship

between them vary among species.

In plants such as moss, the gametophyte is a free-living, relatively large plant, while the

sporophyte is small and dependent on the gametophyte. In other plants, such as ferns, both

the gametophyte and sporophyte are free-living; however, the sporophyte is much larger,

and is what we normally think of as a fern.

In seed plants, such as magnolia trees and daisies, the sporophyte is much larger than the

gametophyte: what we consider the ―plant‖ is almost entirely sporophyte tissue. The

gametophyte is made up of just a few cells and, in the case of the female gametophyte, is

completely contained inside of the sporophyte (within a flower).

Why is sexual reproduction widespread?

In some ways, asexual reproduction, which makes offspring that are genetic clones of the

parent, seems like a simpler and more efficient system than sexual reproduction. After all, if

the parent is living successfully in a particular habitat, shouldn’t offspring with the same

genes be successful too? In addition, asexual reproduction only calls for one individual,

removing the problem of finding a mate and making it possible for an isolated organism to

reproduce.

Despite all this, few multicellular organisms are completely asexual. Why, then, is sexual

reproduction so common? This question has been hotly debated, and there is still

disagreement about the exact answer. In general, though, it’s thought that sexual
reproduction offers an evolutionary advantage – and thus, is widespread among organisms

alive today – because it increases genetic variation, reshuffling gene variants to make new

combinations. The processes that generate genetic variation in all sexual life cycles are:

crossing over in meiosis, random assortment of homologous chromosomes, and fertilization.

Why is this genetic variation a good thing? As an example, let’s consider the case where a

population’s environment changes, perhaps through the introduction of a new pathogen or

predator. Sexual reproduction continually makes new, random combinations of gene

variants. This makes it more likely that one or more members of a sexually reproducing

population will happen to have a combination that allows survival under the new conditions

(e.g., one that provides resistance to the pathogen or allows escape from the predator).

Over generations, beneficial gene variants can spread through the population, allowing it to

survive as a group under the new conditions.

Term Meaning

Sexual reproduction Process of creating new individual using two parent organisms

Asexual reproduction Process of creating new individual using one parent organism

Offspring New organism that results from reproduction

Gamete Sex cell (in males: sperm; in females: eggs)

Fertilization The joining of gametes to form a new organism

Zygote Cell formed during the fusion of two gametes

Types of reproduction

There are two major forms of reproduction: sexual and asexual.

Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction requires two parents. Each parent contributes a gamete - a sex cell that
has half of the normal DNA of a regular body cell. In males, the gametes are sperm and in

females, the gametes are eggs.

When these two gamete combine during fertilization, the result is a zygote, which then

continues to develop into an embryo.

Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction requires only one parent.

There are many types of asexual reproduction. Four major types are:

1) Binary fission: Single parent cell doubles its DNA, then divides into two cells. Usually

occurs in bacteria.
 Prokaryotic cell undergoing the process of binary fission

2) Budding: Small growth on surface of parent breaks off, resulting in the formation of two

individuals. Occurs in yeast and some animals (like the hydra below).
 Hydra reproduce asexually through budding

3) Fragmentation: Organisms break into two or more fragments that develop into a new

individual. Occurs in many plants, as well as some animals (like coral, sponges, and

starfish).

Starfish losing an arm. The arm fragment grows into another starfish and the original

starfish regrows its lost arm.

This starfish has lost its arm. The fragment is growing into a new individual, while the
parent regrows its lost arm.
4) Parthenogenesis: An embryo develops from an unfertilized cell. Occurs in

invertebrates, as well as in some fish, amphibians, and reptiles.

Baby Komodo dragon produced through parthenogenesis.

Comparing sexual vs asexual reproduction

Sexual Asexual

Requires 2 parents Requires 1 parent

Sperm fertilizes egg Single organism makes an exact copy of itself

Used by animals, flowering plants, some Bacteria, some plants and fungi, few animals

fungi (sponges)
 Sexual Asexual

Offspring are different from parents Offspring are identical to parent

Provides genetic variation, but time-

consuming Fast and easy, but no genetic variation

Common mistakes and misconceptions

 Budding and fragmentation are not the same thing. Although they do appear similar,

in fragmentation, the parent body breaks into distinct fragments and each fragment

develops into a new individual or offspring. In budding, there must be an outgrowth (bud)

that develops on the parent.

 Some organisms are able to do both sexual and asexual reproduction. This is

particularly true for fungi and plants (and rarely, animals - as in parthenogenesis). Often,

the type of reproduction that they undergo depends on their environmental conditions or the

point in their growth cycles.

 Although sexual reproduction requires two parents, they do not always have to

be two separate individuals. This may sound confusing, but some organisms are

hermaphroditic, meaning they contain both male and female gametes. In this instance,

those organisms are able to self-fertilize. Despite the fact that these gametes come from the

same individual, we still consider this sexual reproduction, as two gametes are involved.

CHAPTER V : Tissues

 Epithelial Tissues
 Connective Tissue
 Muscular Tissue
 Nervous Tissue

Multicellular organisms need specialized systems

Most cells in large multicellular organisms don't directly exchange substances like nutrients

and wastes with the external environment, instead, they are surrounded by

an internal environment of extracellular fluid—literally, fluid outside of cells. The cells get

oxygen and nutrients from this extracellular fluid and release waste products into it. Humans

and other complex organisms have specialized systems that maintain the internal

environment, keeping it steady and able to provide for the needs of the cells.

Different systems of the body carry out different functions. For example, your digestive

system is responsible for taking in and processing food, while your respiratory system—

working with your circulatory system—is responsible for taking up oxygen and getting rid of

carbon dioxide. The muscular and skeletal systems are crucial for movement; the

reproductive system handles reproduction; and the excretory system gets rid of metabolic

waste.

Because of their specialization, these different systems are dependent on each other. The

cells that make up the digestive, muscular, skeletal, reproductive, and excretory systems all

need oxygen from the respiratory system to function, and the cells of the respiratory

system—as well as all the other systems—need nutrients and must get rid of metabolic

wastes. All the systems of the body work together to keep an organism up and running.

All living organisms are made up of one or more cells. Unicellular organisms, like

amoebas, consist of only a single cell. Multicellular organisms, like people, are made up

of many cells. Cells are considered the fundamental units of life.

The cells in complex multicellular organisms like people are organized into tissues, groups

of similar cells that work together on a specific task. Organs are structures made up of two

or more tissues organized to carry out a particular function, and groups of organs with

related functions make up the different organ systems.

 From left to right: single muscle cell, multiple muscle cells together forming muscle tissue,

organ made up of muscle tissue (bladder), and organ system made up of kidneys, ureter,

bladder and urethra.

At each level of organization—cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems—structure is closely

related to function. For instance, the cells in the small intestine that absorb nutrients look

very different from the muscle cells needed for body movement. The structure of the heart

reflects its job of pumping blood throughout the body, while the structure of the lungs

maximizes the efficiency with which they can take up oxygen and release carbon dioxide.

Types of tissues

As we saw above, every organ is made up of two or more tissues, groups of similar cells

that work together to perform a specific task. Humans—and other large multicellular

animals—are made up of four basic tissue types: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle

tissue, and nervous tissue.

 The four types of tissues are exemplified in nervous tissue, stratified squamous epithelial

tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, and connective tissue in small intestine.

Epithelial tissue consists of tightly packed sheets of cells that cover surfaces—including

the outside of the body—and line body cavities. For instance, the outer layer of your skin is

an epithelial tissue, and so is the lining of your small intestine.

Epithelial cells are polarized, meaning that they have a top and a bottom side. The apical,

top, side of an epithelial cell faces the inside of a cavity or the outside of a structure and is
usually exposed to fluid or air. The basal, bottom, side faces the underlying cells. For

instance, the apical sides of intestinal cells have finger-like structures that increase surface

area for absorbing nutrients.

Image showing three cells lining the small intestine. Each cell contains a nucleus and is

surrounded by a plasma membrane. The tops of the cells have microvilli that face the cavity

from which substances will be absorbed.

Epithelial cells are tightly packed, and this lets them act as barriers to the movement of

fluids and potentially harmful microbes. Often, the cells are joined by specialized

junctions that hold them tightly together to reduce leaks.

Connective tissue consists of cells suspended in an extracellular matrix. In most cases,

the matrix is made up of protein fibers like collagen and fibrin in a solid, liquid, or jellylike

ground substance. Connective tissue supports and, as the name suggests, connects other

tissues.

Loose connective tissue, show below, is the most common type of connective tissue. It's

found throughout your body, and it supports organs and blood vessels and links epithelial

tissues to the muscles underneath. Dense, or fibrous, connective tissue is found in tendons

and ligaments, which connect muscles to bones and bones to each other, respectively.
Loose connective tissue is composed of loosely woven collagen and elastic fibers. The fibers

and other components of the connective tissue matrix are secreted by fibroblasts.

Specialized forms of connective tissue include adipose tissue—body fat—bone, cartilage,

and blood, in which the extracellular matrix is a liquid called plasma.

Muscle tissue is essential for keeping the body upright, allowing it to move, and even

pumping blood and pushing food through the digestive tract.

Muscle cells, often called muscle fibers, contain the proteins actin and myosin, which allow

them to contract. There are three main types of muscle: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle,

and smooth muscle.

 From left to right. Smooth muscle cells, skeletal muscle cells, and cardiac muscle cells.

Smooth muscle cells do not have striations, while skeletal muscle cells do. Cardiac muscle

cells have striations, but, unlike the multinucleate skeletal cells, they have only one nucleus.

Cardiac muscle tissue also has intercalated discs, specialized regions running along the

plasma membrane that join adjacent cardiac muscle cells and assist in passing an electrical

impulse from cell to cell.

Skeletal muscle, which is also called striated—striped—muscle, is what we refer to as

muscle in everyday life. Skeletal muscle is attached to bones by tendons, and it allows you

to consciously control your movements. For instance, the quads in your legs or biceps in

your arms are skeletal muscle.

Cardiac muscle is found only in the walls of the heart. Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle

is striated, or striped. But it's not under voluntary control, so—thankfully!—you don’t need to

think about making your heart beat. The individual fibers are connected by structures called

intercalated disks, which allow them to contract in sync.

Smooth muscle is found in the walls of blood vessels, as well as in the walls of the

digestive tract, the uterus, the urinary bladder, and various other internal structures.

Smooth muscle is not striped, striated, and it's involuntary, not under conscious control.

That means you don't have to think about moving food through your digestive tract!

Nervous tissue is involved in sensing stimuli—external or internal cues—and processing

and transmitting information. It consists of two main types of cells: neurons, or nerve cells,

and glia.
The neurons are the basic functional unit of the nervous system. They generate electrical

signals called conducted nerve impulses or action potentials that allow the neurons to

convey information very rapidly across long distances. The glia mainly act to support

neuronal function.

Picture of neuron. The neuron has projections called dendrites that receive signals and

projections called axons that send signals. Also shown are two types of glial cells: astrocytes

regulate the chemical environment of the nerve cell, and oligodendrocytes insulate the axon

so the electrical nerve impulse is transferred more efficiently.

Organs, such as the heart, the lungs, the stomach, the kidneys, the skin, and the liver, are

made up of two or more types of tissue organized to serve a particular function. For

example, the heart pumps blood, the lungs bring in oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide,

and the skin provides a barrier to protect internal structures from the external environment.

Most organs contain all four tissue types. The layered walls of the small intestine provide a

good example of how tissues form an organ. The inside of the intestine is lined by epithelial
cells, some of which secrete hormones or digestive enzymes and others of which absorb

nutrients. Around the epithelial layer are layers of connective tissue and smooth muscle,

interspersed with glands, blood vessels, and neurons. The smooth muscle contracts to move

food through the gut, under control of its associated networks of neurons.

Cross-section of the GI tract. From outside to inside: Blood vessels, networks of nerves in

smooth muscle layers, connective tissue, more smooth muscle, another layer of connective

tissue, epithelial tissue, and empty space in the middle as the path of digested food.