University of Technology/ College of

Engineering, Department of Biomedical

Engineering

Dr. Eenas Anwer AL Tahir

2023-2024
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 Module Learning Outcomes
• Lecture 1: Introduction
• Lecture 2: Properties of light
• Lecture 3: Lenses and prisms
• Lecture 4: Eye and vision
• Lecture 5: Refractive errors
• Lecture 6: Optical instruments
• Lecture 7: Applications of light in medicine
• Lecture 8: Fiber optics / Introduction and types of optical fibers
• Lecture 9: Fundamental parameters of an optical fibers,
❑ Lecture 10: Transmission characteristics of an optical fibers,
Applications of optical fibers in medicine.
 References

• Optics, 4th edition, by Eugene Hecht, (Addison Wesley

Longman, 2002);
• ModernOpticalEngineering, 3th ed., Warren J. Smith, Mc Graw Hill,
2000);
• Ralf Menzel, "Photonics Linearand Nonlinear Interactionsof Laser
LightandMatter", (2007);
•Tuan Vo Dirh, "Biomedical Photonics” ǁ, CRC Press,
Bocaraton, 2014.
•Raymond A. Serway, Jonhn w " Physics for Scientists and Engineers"
Brooks cole(2015).
• Jia-Ming Liu, " PhotonicDevices " Cambridge University Press
2005
Lecture: 1

Nature and Properties of Light

 Basic Concepts
I. NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
A. Introduction to Photonics
● Photonics is defined as the generation, manipulation, transport, detection, and
use of light information and energy whose quantum unit is the photon.
● Photonics is based on the science of optics and electronics. The origins of
optical technology (photonics) date back to the remote past.
● Photonics promises to be a vital part of the information revolution. To enable
us to understand and apply photonics, it is necessary to have a basic
understanding of the behavior and properties of light.

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A. Photonics Opportunities
● There are ten broad areas of employment that are likely to need increasing
numbers of photonics technicians:

• Medicine-biomedical
• Environmental
• Energy
• Transportation
• Defense
• Public safety
• Aerospace
• Computers
• Manufacturing with photonics and test and analysis
• Communication and information technology

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 Concept of a photon
● The particle-like nature of light is modeled with photons. A photon has no
mass and no charge.

● It is a carrier of electromagnetic energy and interacts with other discrete

particles (e.g., electrons, atoms, and molecules).

● A beam of light is modeled as a stream of photons, each carrying a well-

defined energy that is dependent upon the wavelength of the light.

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 Properties of
Photons
•light beams are characterized by their intensity I, their power P or, in
case of pulsed light, by their pulse energy E pulse and repetition rate. These
values represent a certain number of photons per time interval or per pulse.
• These photons have typically slightly different properties and thus the
measured intensity, power or energy. Thus the light intensity I follows in
this approximation from:

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• Light can be described as an electromagnetic wave or a collection of
single photons propagating with speed c, which is a maximum in vacuum
and smaller in materials:

n : material is the conventional refractive index of the matter which is 1 for

the vacuum
• The single photon represents an electromagnetic wave oscillating with
frequency ν which determines its energy E:

where h is Planck’s constant.

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• The wavelength λ of this electromagnetic wave results from

• If the photon is moving in direction e a wave vector k is defined as:

• Not to be confused with the wave number ˜ν:

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 C. Properties of Light
What is light? This question has been debated for many centuries. The sun
radiates light, electric lights brighten our darkness, and many other uses of light
impact our lives daily. The answer, in short, is light is a special kind of
electromagnetic energy.

● The speed of light, although quite fast, is not infinite. The speed of light in a
vacuum is expressed as c = 2.99 × 108 m/s.

● Light travels in a vacuum at a constant speed, and this speed is considered a

universal constant. It is important to note that speed changes for light traveling
through nonvacuum media such as air (0.03% slower) or glass (30.0% slower).
● For most purposes, we may represent light in terms of its magnitude and
direction. In a vacuum, light will travel in a straight line at fixed speed,
carrying energy from one place to another.

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 What are properties of light interacting with a medium are?
● It can be deflected upon passing from one medium to another (refraction).

● It can be bounced off a surface (reflection).

● The aspects of light interaction with media other than a vacuum will be
addressed further in the field of detection and measurement of light energy is
called radiometry.
● It uses a standardized system for characterizing radiant energy.

● It is with light energy. It is through seeing the effects of light that the
models are developed. Scientists have observed that light energy can behave
like a wave as it moves through space, or it can behave like a discrete particle
with a discrete amount of energy (quantum) that can be absorbed and
emitted. As we study and use light, both models are helpful.

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 Table 1-1 defines the standard terms used in this course

Term Definition Symbo Units

l
Quantity Radiant energy Q Joule (J)

Flux Rate of radiant Watt (W); Joule/second (J/s)

Φ
energy
Flux density Flux per unit area Watts per square meter
(irradiance) E (W/m2)
Intensity Flux per solid angle I Watts per steradian (W/sr)
Radiance Flux per unit area Watts per square meter per
per unit solid angle L steradian (W/m2 · sr)
Spectral Radiance per unit Watts per square meter per
radiance wavelength Lλ steradian per nanometer

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● The energy of a given photon can be calculated by:

Photon energy (E) = hc/ (1-1)

where E is in joules
h = Planck’s constant = 6.625 10–34 J•s
c = Speed of light = 2.998 × 108 m/s
λ = Wavelength of the light in meters

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Example 1.1
Photons in a pale blue light have a wavelength of 500 nm. (The symbol nm is
defined as a nanometer = 10–9 m.) What is the energy of this photon?

Solution:

E = hc / = [6.625 10 –34 J • s 2.998 108 m / s] / 500 10 –9 m

6.625 10 –34 2.998 108

= 500 10–9

3.97 10–19 J

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● When ultraviolet light shines on some metal surfaces, it causes electrons to be

emitted. This effect is shown in Figure 1-2.

● The photoelectric effect did not produce results that matched the early
predictions of wave theory. Two concerns were:
1. More intense radiation (larger-amplitude waves) did not cause emitted
electrons to have more energy.

2. The energy of the emitted electron was dependent on the wavelength of the
light, not the amplitude of the wave.

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● In the photoelectric effect experiment shown in Figure 1-2, light strikes a
metal plate. Electrons are immediately released.

● The flow of electricity in the external circuit can be measured and the
number of electrons generated for a given light signal can be determined.

Figure 1-2 Photoelectric effect experiment

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● If light were a continuous wave, it might wash over the metal surface and
interact with the electrons to give them the needed energy to escape at lower
light levels (intensities), but only after long delays. However, faint light at high
frequencies (short wavelengths) caused the immediate release of electrons.
Thus, light knocked the electrons out of the metal surface as if the light were
made of particles—photons.
● There is a minimum energy threshold for an electron to escape from the metal.
Photons with frequencies below a given threshold eject no electrons, no matter
how intense the light.

● Photons with frequencies above the threshold do eject electrons, no matter

how low the intensity.

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● The energy of the released electrons can be calculated from Equation 1-2:

Ee– = hc/l – p (1-2)

where:
p = characteristic escape energy for the metal
Ee– = the kinetic energy of an escaping electron
hc / l = the energy of the photon of wavelength l

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 Example 1.2
We can calculate the threshold wavelength of light needed to just
release electrons from gold. This corresponds to Ee– equal to zero.
Solve Equation 1-2 for l.

● The photon model, although quite useful in explaining some properties of

light, is still closely related to the wave model discussed below.

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 Characteristics of light waves

● To understand light waves, it is important to understand basic wave motion

itself. Water waves are sequences of crests (high points) and troughs (low
points) that “move” along the surface of the water. When ocean waves roll in
toward the beach, the line of crests and troughs is seen as profiles parallel to
the beach.

● An electromagnetic wave is made of an electric field and a magnetic field

that alternately get weaker and stronger. The directions of the fields are at
right

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Example 1-3
For blue light in a vacuum, we can calculate the cycle time and frequency. From a
previous example, we know that the wavelength of blue light is 500 nm and the
velocity of light in a vacuum is c. Plugging in the numbers in Equation 1-3 we
get:

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 Concept of light waves—Oscillating electric and magnetic fields
● Light waves are complex. They are not one-dimensional waves but rather are
composed of mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic fields with wave
motion at right angles to both fields, as illustrated in Figure 1-4. The wave
carries light energy with it. The amount of energy that flows per second across
a unit area perpendicular to the direction of travel is called the irradiance (flux
density) of the wave.

Figure 1-4 Electric and magnetic fields in a light wave

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● Electromagnetic waves share six properties with all forms of
wave motion:
➢ Polarization
➢ Superposition
➢ Reflection
➢ Refraction
➢ Diffraction
➢ Interference

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 Polarizatio
n
● Up to this point we have discussed the direction of light’s propagation and its
associated electric and magnetic fields.

● Polarization arises from the direction of the E-field vector with respect to the
direction of the light’s propagation. Since a light wave’s electric field vibrates
in a direction perpendicular to its propagation motion, it is called a transverse
wave and is polarizable.

● A sound wave, by contrast, vibrates back and forth along its propagation
direction and thus is not polarizable.

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● Light is unpolarized if it is composed of vibrations in many different
directions, with no preferred orientation. See Figure 1-5(a).

● Many light sources (e.g., incandescent bulbs, arc lamps, the sun) produce
unpolarized light.

● Vertically polarized light is shown in Figure 1-5(b) and horizontally

polarized light in Figure 1-5(c).
● Each is an example of linearly polarized light. Figure 1-5(d) shows
linearly polarized light making an angle of with the vertical. In this case,
the tilted E-vector can be described by its components, Ex and Ey.

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Figure 1-5 Unpolarized and linearly polarized light

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● When it happens, as in some cases, that Ex and Ey are not in the same phase
—that is, they do not reach their maxima and minima at the same time—the
E-field does not remain oriented in a fixed, linear direction. Rather, the
amplitude maxima of the two components do not occur at the same time and
so-called elliptically polarized light is exhibited.
● This means that, over time, light exhibits differing polarization orientations.
A special case of elliptical polarization—called circular polarization—occurs
when Ex equals Ey and they are out of phase by 90°.

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● The intensity of light passing through a linear polarizer can be calculated using
Equation 1-5.

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Example 1-4
(a) Given horizontally polarized light, what would be the ratio of the light
intensity output to the light intensity input for θ = 0°, 45°, and 90°?

Solution:
Use Equation 1-5 to solve for I( )/I0 and plug in the numbers.

I( )/I0 = cos2 ( )

I(0)/I0 = cos2 (0) = 1

I(45)/I0 = cos2 (45) = 0.5

I(90)/I0 = cos2 (90) = 0

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(a) Given two polarizers and incident vertically polarized light, what is the ratio
of the resultant light intensity to the incident light intensity if the polarizers’
transmission axes are both vertical and parallel? What is the ratio if the axes are
crossed, that is, one vertical and one horizontal?

Solution:
First, for the parallel polarizers, calculate the I(θ)/I0 for the first polarizer
assuming θ is 0. Then take the ratio of the two and repeat for the second
polarizer. The resulting ratio is 1. Now, for the perpendicular polarizers,
calculate I(θ)/I0 for the first polarizer, assuming θ is 0. Then take the ratio of
the two and repeat for the second polarizer, this time assuming that is 90. The
resulting value is 0, as should be expected from crossed polarizers.

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 Huygens’ Principle
● In the seventeenth century, Christian
Huygens proposed a principle that can be
used to predict where a given wave front
will be at any time in the future if you know
the current location. His principle assumes
that each point along a wave front can be
considered a point source for production of
secondary spherical wavelets. After a period
of time, the new position of the wave front
will be the surface tangent to these
secondary wavelets. Huygens’ principle is Figure 1-6 Using Huygens’
illustrated in Figure 1-6, for five point principle to establish new
wave fronts
sources on a wave front.
.

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 Superposition
● For many kinds of waves, including electromagnetic, two or more waves can
traverse the same space at the same time independently of one another. This
means that the electric field at any point in space is simply the vector sum of the
electric fields that the individual waves alone produce at the point.

● This is the superposition principle. Both the electric and magnetic fields of an
electromagnetic wave satisfy the superposition principle. Thus, given multiple
waves, the field at any given point can be calculated by summing each of the
individual wave vectors.

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● When two or more waves are superimposed, the resulting physical effect is
called interference. Suppose two waves, y1 and y2, have nearly the same
wavelength and phase (i.e., the maxima occur at nearly the same time and
place).
● Superposition of these waves results in a wave (y1 + y2) of almost twice the
amplitude of the individual waves.
● See Figure 1-7a. This is called constructive interference. If the maximum of
one wave is near the minimum of the other wave, the resultant (y1 + y2) has
almost no amplitude, as shown in Figure 1-7b. This is called destructive
interference.

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Figure 1-7 Using the principle of superposition to add individual waves

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 Reflection
● When a ray of light reflects off a surface (such as a mirror), its new direction
depends on only the angle of incidence. The law of reflection states that the
angle of incidence on a reflecting basic surface is equal to the angle of
reflection.

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 Refraction
● When a ray of light passes from one medium to another, it changes direction
(bends) at the interface because of the difference in speed of the wave in the
media. The ratio of this speed difference is called the index of refraction (n).
The ratio of the indices of refraction and the direction of the two rays of light
for the two media are expressed in Snell’s law as shown in Figure 1-8 and
Equation 1-6.

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Figure 1-8 Refraction and Snell’s law

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 Diffractio
● n Conclusive evidence of the correctness of a wave model came with the
explanation of observed diffraction and interference. When light passes an
obstacle, the shadow is not precise and sharp as geometrical ray theory would
predict, but rather diffracted a little into the dark region behind the obstacle,
thus giving the shadow a fuzzy edge. This property of light that causes it to
spread out as it travels by sharp edges or through tiny holes can be explained
by light having wavelike properties. Diffraction is predicted from Huygens’
principle.

● In Figure 1-9, a wave is incident on a barrier from the left. The barrier has a
slit. Every point on the incident wave front that arrives at the slit can be
viewed as the site of an expanding spherical wavelet. For apertures that are
small compared to the wavelength, the aperture becomes like a source and
spherical waves result. As the slit width d increases, the diffracted wave
becomes more and more like the incident plane wave except for the edges at
the shadow.
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Figure 1-9 Diffraction of waves through slits of differing size

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 Interference
● The first definitive demonstration of the wavelike nature of light was the
classical two-slit experiment performed by Thomas Young in 1801. The two
slits are very small compared to their separation distance. Thus, each slit
produces diffracted spherical waves that overlap as they expand into the
space to the right of the barrier. When they overlap, they interfere with each
other, producing regions of mutually reinforcing waves.

● These appear on the screen as regions of maximum intensity. Between

adjacent maxima is a region of minimum intensity. See Figure 1-10. The
resulting pattern on the screen shows where constructive interference occurs
(maxima, labeled B) and where destructive interference occurs (minima,
labeled D). The experimental layout shown in Figure 1-10 can be used in
practice to measure the wavelength of light.

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Figure 1-10 Classic double-slit experiment

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 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
● All electromagnetic radiation has similar wavelike properties differing only
in wavelength. Electromagnetic waves range in wavelength from very long
(e.g., electric power line radiation at 60 Hz) to very short (e.g., gamma ray
radiation).

● This entire range is called the electromagnetic spectrum. The spectrum

shown in Figure 1-11 is divided by the practical applications for given ranges
of frequencies that are set through convention by the sources and detection
devices. Of primary interest to photonics is the region from infrared to
ultraviolet. However, each regime has some utility. Rotating generators and
power lines generate low-frequency waves.

● These wavelengths are on the order of 105 to 108 meters. Heinrich Hertz
produced radio waves in a very useful region of wavelengths ranging from
0.3 to 105 meters. Television and radio broadcasting bands are found in lower
wavelengths.
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● The microwave regime ranges from 0.01 to 0.3 meter and provides the radar
and satellite communication bands. The infrared region, from 1µm to 30 µm,
was first detected by Sir William Herschel in 1800. This region is subdivided
into five regions: very near (1–3 µm), near (3–5 µm), mid (5–6 µm), far (6–15
µm), and very long (15–30 µm) infrared. Just as the ear cannot hear above or
below certain frequencies, the human eye cannot detect light outside a small
range of wavelengths (0.76–0.49 µm).

● The ultraviolet region is a higher-energy region discovered by Johann Ritter.

It triggers many chemical reactions and is what ionizes the upper atmosphere,
creating the ionosphere. Wilhelm Röntgen discovered the X-ray regime in
1895.

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Figure 1-11 Electromagnetic spectrum

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● White light is a mixture of light of different colors. Each of these colors has
a different wavelength and, when passed through a transparent medium,
refracts differently. Thus, a prism can separate white light into its component
colors, as shown in Figure 1-12.

Figure 1-12 Separation of light into component colors

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● The colors displayed in visible light are categorized by wavelength. Table 1-2
gives the wavelengths of these colors. An arrangement showing the different
components of light, with the wavelengths of the components in order, is
called the spectrum of the light.

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 Atomic Structure
● All matter is made up of atoms. An atom is the smallest unit that retains the
characteristics of a chemical element. It consists of a positive nucleus
surrounded by negative electrons arranged in distinct energy shells designated
K through O, as shown in Figure 1-13. The notation K(2) indicates that the K-
shell is complete when it has 2 electrons. Similarly, L(8) indicates that 8
electrons complete the L-shell, and M(18) indicates that 18 electrons complete
the M-shell. We model the energy of an atom with the electrons. When all the
electrons are in an unexcited, or ground, state, the atom is assumed to be at its
lowest energy level. When the atom absorbs energy, electrons can be
“excited” and moved into higher-energy shells. As electrons move from one
shell to another, unique amounts, or quanta, of energy are absorbed or emitted.
This is how an atom can absorb or emit light. The light’s unique energy
quanta are dependent on the electronic structure of the atom.

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Figure 1-13 Atomic model

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Figure 1-14 Energy-level diagram for a hydrogen atom

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● An atomic energy-level diagram shows the unique electron energies available
in a given atom. An energy-level diagram for hydrogen is shown in Figure 1-
14. Hydrogen has only one electron, and it can exist in only one of the energy
levels shown at a time. The lowest level, E1, is the ground state. Energy must
be added to the atom for the electron to move to a higher level. Note that
energy levels range from a value of –13.6 eV (electron volts) for the lowest
energy level (n = 1) to a value of 0 eV for the very highest energy level (n =
¥)—when the electron breaks free from the atom. Suppose a hydrogen atom
is in an excited state, say, the n = 3 level. The atom can make a transition to
the ground state by emitting a photon. The energy of the photon equals the
change in energy of the atom, as given by Equation 1-7.

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 Blackbody Radiation
● The first step toward developing an understanding of blackbody radiation is
to describe the relationships between temperature, wavelength, and energy
emitted by an ideal thermal radiator (blackbody). Based on our everyday
observations, we know that bodies at different temperatures emit radiation
(heat energy) of different wavelengths or colors.

● For example, the wires in a heater begin to glow red when heated.
Blackbody radiation is the theoretical maximum radiation expected for
temperature-related thermal self-radiation.

● This radiation can have a peak energy distribution in the infrared, visible, or
ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The hotter the emitter, the
more energy emitted and the shorter the wavelength. An object at room
temperature has its peak radiation in the infrared while the sun has its peak in
the visible region.

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● The equations for calculating radiation based on temperature use the Kelvin
temperature scale. (Be sure to use the Kelvin scale for all calculations.) The
conversions between the different temperature scales are provided in
Equations 1-8 and 1-9.

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 Example 1-5
● Convert the following Fahrenheit temperatures to degrees Celsius and
Kelvin: 212, 100, 32, 0, –100, – 434.

Solution:
Use Equations 1-8 and 1-9 to complete Table 1-3 with the correct
temperatures.

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● A waveband is a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum between defined
upper and lower wavelengths.
● The energy radiated by a blackbody in a given waveband is the sum of all
energies radiated at the wavelengths within the band. The rate of energy
radiation is the power radiated. You can also add the power over all emitted
wavelengths to find the total power radiated by a blackbody. For a blackbody
at temperature T, the power radiated per unit surface area of the radiator is
given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law in Equation 1-10.

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● The power per unit area, Ws, is called the emitted radiant flux density. A
graybody is one that does not emit as a perfect “blackbody” but at a fraction
of the theoretical maximum of a blackbody.
● The blackbody’s emitted radiant flux density is reduced by a factor called the
emissivity. The emissivity (Ɛ) is dependent on the material emitting and is
less than 1. Thus, for a graybody the emitted radiant flux density is expressed
in Equation 1-11.

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 Example 1-6

Calculate the radiant flux density emitted by a graybody (emissivity = 0.7) at

room temperature (82°F).

Solution:
First we must convert 82°F to Kelvin. This is 301 K. We then use Equation 1-11
and plug in the numbers.

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 Spectral distribution
● The radiation emitted by a blackbody is distributed over wavelength. The
quantity Wλ is called the spectral flux density.
● It is defined so that Wλ Δλ is the power radiated per unit area of surface for
wavelengths in the waveband Δλ (between λ and λ + Δλ).
● In 1900, Max Planck developed a formula that fits experimental
measurements of Wλ extremely well. Planck’s radiation formula is given by
Equation 1-12.

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● The blackbody spectral flux density from Planck’s formula is plotted in Figure
1-15 for five blackbody temperatures. The wavelengths are plotted in units of
microns. Notice that the axes are logarithmic.

Figure 1-15 Spectral radiant blackbody flux density distributions at

various temperatures

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 Wien’s displacement law
● The spectral distribution for each blackbody temperature has a maximum, or
peak, emission wavelength. This maximum wavelength is related to the
blackbody temperature. The relationship is given by Wien’s displacement law:

● Wien’s displacement law predicts that the peak wavelength decreases in

value as the temperature of the blackbody increases.

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 Example 1-7
Calculate the apparent blackbody temperature of the sun. If it is observed that the
peak spectral radiant flux density of the sun is near 490 nm, what is its effective
blackbody temperature?

Solution:
By applying Wien’s displacement law and solving for T, we can find the sun’s
effective temperature.

● This equation allows the choice of the wavelength most advantageous for
detectors given an expected target temperature.

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 Interactions of Light with Matter
● When light travels through a medium, it interacts with the medium. The
important interactions are absorption and scattering.
Absorption
● Absorption is a transfer of energy from the electromagnetic wave to the atoms
or molecules of the medium. Energy transferred to an atom can excite electrons
to higher energy states. Energy transferred to a molecule can excite vibrations
or rotations.
● The wavelengths of light that can excite these energy states depend on the
energy-level structures and therefore on the types of atoms and molecules
contained in the medium.
● The spectrum of the light after passing through a medium appears to have
certain wavelengths removed because they have been absorbed. This is called
an absorption spectrum. Selective absorption is also the basis for objects having
color. A red apple is red because it absorbs the other colors of the visible
spectrum and reflects only red light.
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 Scattering
● Scattering is the redirection of light caused by the light’s interaction with
matter. The scattered electromagnetic radiation may have the same or longer
wavelength (lower energy) as the incident radiation, and it may have a
different polarization. If the dimensions of the scatterer are much smaller
than the wavelength of light, like a molecule, for example, the scatterer can
absorb the incident light and quickly reemit the light in a different direction.
● If the reemitted light has the same wavelength as the incident light, the
process is called Rayleigh scattering. If the reemitted light has a longer
wavelength, the molecule is left in an excited state, and the process is called
Raman scattering.
● In Raman scattering, secondary photons of longer wavelength are emitted
when the molecule returns to the ground state.

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● Air molecules (O2 and N2) are Rayleigh scatterers of visible light and are
more effective at scattering shorter wavelengths (blue and violet). Can you use
this information to explain why, on a clear day, the sky looks blue?
● If the scatterer is similar in size to—or is much larger than—the wavelength
of light, matching energy levels is not important. All wavelengths are equally
scattered.
● This process is called Mie scattering. Water droplets effectively scatter all
wavelengths of visible light in all directions. Can you use this information to
explain the color of a cloud?

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Figure 1-16 Rayleigh and Raman scattering

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