University of Zimbabwe

HMTHCS 101 CALCULUS 1

Chapter 4
Department:
Lecturer:
Mathematics and
Mr D. Muzadziwa
Computational Sciences

October 21, 2024

Differentiation

Increments. The increment ∆x of a variable x is the change in x as it increases or decreases from

one value x = x0 to another value x = x1 in its domain. Here, ∆x = x1 − x0 and we may write
x1 = x0 + ∆x. If the variable x is given an increment ∆x from x = x0 (i.e., if x changes from x = x0
to x1 = x0 + ∆x) and a function y = f (x) is thereby given an increment ∆y = f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )
from y = f (x0 ), then the quotient
∆y change in y
= ,
∆x change in x
is called the average rate of change of the function on the interval between x = x0 and x1 = x0 +∆x.

Let f (x) be defined at any point x0 in (a, b). The derivative of f (x) at x = x0 is defined as

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
f ′ (x0 ) = lim
h→0 h
if this limit exists. A function is called differentiable at a point x = x0 , if it has a derivative at
that point, i.e., if f ′ (x0 ) exists. If we write x = x0 + h, then h = x − x0 and h approaches 0 if and
only if x approaches x0 . Therefore, an equivalent way of stating the definition of the derivative, is
f (x) − f (x0 )
f ′ (x0 ) = lim .
x→x0 x − x0

Example: If f (x) = x3 − x, find a formula for f ′ (x).

Solution:

′ f (x + h) − f (x) [(x + h)3 − (x + h)] − [x3 − x]

f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
x + 3x h + 3xh + h3 − x − h − x3 + x
3 2 2
= lim
h→0 h
2 2 3
3x h + 3xh + h − h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (3x2 + 3xh + h2 − 1) = 3x2 − 1.
h→0

√
Example: If f (x) = x, find the derivative of f .

1
Solution:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0
√ h
√
x+h− x
= lim
h→0
√ h
√ √ √
x+h− x x+h+ x
= lim ·√ √
h→0 h x+h− x
(x + h) − x
= lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x)
1
= lim √ √
h→0 x+h+ x
1 1
= √ √ = √ .
x+ x 2 x
dy d d
The derivative at x may be denoted by f ′ (x), y ′ , , (f (x)). The symbol is called differ-
dx dx dx
entiation operator because it indicates the operation of differentiation. The process of finding
derivatives of functions is called differentiation.

A function f is differentiable at x0 if f ′ (x0 ) exists. It is differentiable on an open interval (a, b)

[or (a, ∞) or (−∞, a) or (−∞, ∞)], if it is differentiable at every number in the interval.

Example: Where is the function f (x) = |x| differentiable?

Solution: If x > 0, then |x| = x and we can choose h small enough that x + h > 0 and hence
|x + h| = x + h. Therefore, for x > 0,
|x + h| − |x|
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 x
(x + h) − x h
= lim = lim = 1,
h→0 h h→0 h
and so f is differentiable for any x > 0.

Similarly, for x < 0, we have |x| = −x and h can be chosen small enough that x + h < 0 and so
|x + h| = −(x + h). Therefore, for x < 0,
|x + h| − |x|
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
−(x + h) − (−x) −h
= lim = lim = −1,
h→0 h h→0 h
and so f is differentiable for any x < 0.

For x = 0 we have to investigate

f (0 + h) − f (0)
f ′ (0) = lim
h→0 h
|0 + h| − |0|
= lim (if it exists).
h→0 h

2
Let’s compute the left and right limits separately;

|0 + h| − |0| |h|
lim+ = lim+ = lim+ 1 = 1.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
|0 + h| − |0| |h|
lim− = lim = lim− (−1) = −1.
h→0 h h→0− h h→0

Since these limits are different f ′ (0) does not exist. Thus, f is differentiable at all x except 0.

0.1 Differentiation Techniques (Finding Derivatives)

1.
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
f ′ (x0 ) = lim
h→0 h
if this limit exists.

2. The derivative of any constant function is zero, i.e., c′ = 0.

3. For any real number n,

(xn )′ = nxn−1 .
When differentiating, results can be expressed in a number of ways. For example, (i) if
dy
y = 3x2 then = 6x, (ii) if f (x) = 3x2 then f ′ (x) = 6x, (iii) the differential coefficient
dx
of 3x2 is 6x.
√ 1 1 1 1 1
For example, if f (x) = x = x 2 , then f ′ (x) = x 2 −1 = 12 x− 2 = √ .
2 2 x
You Try It: Using the general rule, differentiate the following with respect to x :
4
(a) f (x) = 5x7 (b) f (x) = 2 .
x
4. For any constant c, (cf (x))′ = cf ′ (x). For example, (5x3 )′ = 5(x3 )′ = 5(3x2 ) = 15x2 .

5. The derivative of a sum (difference) is the sum (difference) of the derivatives,

(f (x) ± g(x))′ = f ′ (x) ± g ′ (x).

For example,

(3x5 − 2x2 + 1)′ = (3x5 )′ − (2x2 )′ + 1′ = 3(x5 )′ − 2(x2 )′ + 0 = 3(5x4 ) − 2(2x) = 15x4 − 4x.

6. Product Rule
(f (x)g(x))′ = f (x)g ′ (x) + g(x)f ′ (x).

7. Quotient Rule ′
g(x)f ′ (x) − f (x)g ′ (x)

f (x)
= .
g(x) (g(x))2

3
 8. Parametric Equations. If the coordinates (x, y) of a point P on a curve are given as
functions x = f (u) and y = g(u) of a third variable or parameter u, the equations x = f (u)
and y = g(u) are called parametric equations of the curve. For example, x = 12 t, y = 4 − t2 or
x = cos θ, y = 4 sin2 θ.
dy
The First Derivative is given by
dx
dy dy/du
= .
dx dx/du

d2 y
The Second Derivative is given by
dx2
d2 y
 
d dy du
2
= .
dx du dx dx

dy d2 y
Example: Find and 2 given x = θ − sin θ and y = 1 − cos θ.
dx dx
dx dy
Solution: Note that = 1 − cos θ and = sin θ, so
dθ dθ
dy dy/dθ sin θ
= = .
dx dx/dθ 1 − cos θ
Also
d2 y
 
d sin θ dθ
2
=
dx dθ 1 − cos θ dx
cos θ − 1 1 1
= 2
· =− .
(1 − cos θ) 1 − cos θ (1 − cos θ)2

dy d2 y
Example: Find and 2 given x = et cos t and y = et sin t.
dx dx
dx dy
Solution: Note that = et (cos t − sin t) and = et (sin t + cos t), so
dt dt
dy dy/dt sin t + cos t
= = .
dx dx/dt cos t − sin t
Also
d2 y
 
d sin t + cos t dt
2
=
dx dt cos t − sin t dx
2 1 2
= 2
· t = t .
(cos t − sin t) e (cos t − sin t) e (cos t − sin t)3

Theorem 0.1.1. If f (x) = c is a constant function, then f ′ (x) = 0 for all real numbers x.

f (x + h) − f (x) c−c
Proof. Observe that f ′ (x) = lim = = 0.
h→0 h h

4
Theorem 0.1.2 (Product Rule). If f and g are both differentiable at x, then the product function
f g is also differentiable at x and (f g)′ (x) = f (x)g ′ (x) + g(x)f ′ (x).

Proof.
f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
(f g)′ (x) = lim .
h→0 h
Trick of adding and subtracting f (x + h)g(x) to the numerator,

f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x + h)g(x) + f (x + h)g(x) − f (x)g(x)

lim =
h→0 h
g(x + h) − g(x) f (x + h) − f (x)
lim f (x + h) lim + g(x) lim =
h→0 h→0 h h→0 h
f (x)g ′ (x) + g(x)f ′ (x).

Theorem 0.1.3. If g is differentiable at x and g(x) ̸= 0, then

 ′
1 g ′ (x)
(x) = − .
g (g(x))2

Proof.
1 1
g(x+h)
− g(x) g(x) − g(x + h)
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h(g(x))(g(x + h))

−(g(x + h) − g(x)) 1
= lim
h→0 h g(x)g(x + h)
−(g(x + h) − g(x)) 1
= lim lim
h→0 h h→0 g(x)g(x + h)
1
= −g ′ (x) .
(g(x))2

f
Theorem 0.1.4. If f and g are differentiable at x and g(x) ̸= 0, then is differentiable at x and
 ′ g
f g(x)f ′ (x) − f (x)g ′ (x)
(x) = .
g (g(x))2

5
  
f 1
Proof. Since = f , we have
g g
 ′  ′
f 1
(x) = f· (x)
g g
 ′
′ 1 1
= f (x) + f (x) (x)
g(x) g
f ′ (x) g ′ (x)
 
= + f (x) −
g(x) (g(x))2
f ′ (x)g(x) − f (x)g ′ (x)
= .
(g(x))2

x2 − 1 ′ (x2 + 1)(2x) − (x2 − 1)(2x) 4x

Example: f (x) = 2
, then f (x) = 2 2
= 2 .
x +1 (x + 1) (x + 1)2

x ′ (x2 + 1) − x(2x) 1 − x2
Example: If f (x) = , then f (x) = = .
x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2 (x2 + 1)2

1 1
Example: If f (x) = , then f ′ (x) = − 2 .
x x

dy
Example: If x = cos t and y = t sin t, find .
dx

Solution:
d
dy (t sin t) sin t + t cos t
= dt = .
dx d − sin t
(cos t)
dt

0.2 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Recall :
sin h 1 − cos h
lim = 1 and lim = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h

6
 sin(x + h) − sin x
(sin x)′ = lim
h→0 h
sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
= lim
h→0 h
sin x(cos h − 1) + cos x sin h
= lim
h→0
 h  
(1 − cos h) sin h
= lim − sin x + cos x
h→0 h h
= − sin x(0) + cos x(1).

Hence (sin x)′ = cos x.

dy
Example: Find if y = x3 sin x.
dx

dy
Solution: = (x3 sin x)′ = x3 (sin x)′ + sin x(x3 )′ = x3 cos x + 3x2 sin x.
dx

Example: Determine whether the function,

  
 3 1
x sin , if x ̸= 0
f (x) = x
0, if x = 0,


is differentiable at x = 0.

Solution: Observe that

h3 sin h1 − 0 1
lim = lim h2 sin = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h

Logarithmic Functions. Assume a > 0 and a ̸= 1. If ay = x, then define y = loga x. Let

ln x ≡ loge x (ln x is called the natural logarithm of x).

Basic Properties of Logarithms

1. loga 1 = 0 (In particular, ln 1 = 0).

2. loga a = 1 (In particular, ln e = 1).

3. loga uv = loga u + loga v.

u
4. loga = loga u − loga v.
v
5. loga ur = r loga u.

d x d 1 d x
Derivatives of ln x and ex are e = ex and ln x = . Also (a ) = ax ln x, a > 0.
dx dx x dx
7
 d
Example: Calculate the derivative [(sin x + x) · (x3 − ln x)].
dx

d d d 3 d 1
Solution: We know that sin x = cos x, x = 1, x = 3x2 and ln x = . Therefore, by
dx dx dx dx x
the addition rule,
d d d
(sin x + x) = sin x + x = cos x + 1
dx dx dx
and
d 3 d 3 d 1
(x − ln x) = x − ln x = 3x2 − .
dx dx dx x
Now we may conclude the calculation by applying the product rule;
d d d
[(sin x + x) · (x3 − ln x)] = (sin x + x) · (x3 − ln x) + (sin x + x) · (x3 − ln x)
dx dx  dx 
3 2 1
= (cos x + 1) · (x − ln x) + (sin x + x) · 3x −
x
1
= 4x3 − 1 + x3 cos x + 3x2 sin x − sin x − ln x cos x − ln x.
x

You Try It: Calculate the derivative

  
d x
sin x · cos x − x .
dx e + ln x

0.3 Derivative of a Composition [The Chain Rule]

We calculate the derivative of a composition by

[f ◦ g(x)]′ = f ′ (g(x)) · g ′ (x).

If y = f (u) where u = g(x), then

dy dy du du
= · = f ′ (u) = f ′ (g(x))g ′ (x).
dx du dx dx
Similarly, if y = f (u) where u = g(v) and v = h(x), then
dy dy du dv
= · · .
dx du dv dx

d
Example: Calculate the derivative (sin(x3 − x2 )).
dx

Solution: This is the composition of functions, so we must apply the Chain Rule. It is essential
to recognize what function will play the role of f and what function will play the role of g. Notice

8
that, if x is the variable, then x3 − x2 is applied first and sin applied next. So it must be that
d d
g(x) = x3 − x2 and f (s) = sin s. Notice that f (s) = cos s and g(x) = 3x2 − 2x. Then
ds dx
sin(x3 − x2 ) = f ◦ g(x)

and
d d
(sin(x3 − x2 )) = (f ◦ g(x))
dx dx 
df d
= (g(x)) · g(x)
ds dx
= cos(g(x)) · (3x2 − 2x)
= [cos(x3 − x2 )] · (3x2 − 2x).

x2
 
d
Example: Calculate the derivative ln .
dx x−2

x2 x2
 
Solution: Let h(x) = ln . Then h = f ◦ g, where f (s) = ln s and g(x) = . So
x−2 x−2
d 1 d (x − 2) · 2x − x2 · 1 x2 − 4x
f (s) = and g(x) = = . As a result,
ds s dx (x − 2)2 (x − 2)2
d d
h(x) = (f ◦ g)
dx dx 
df d
= (g(x)) · g(x)
ds dx
1 x2 − 4x
= ·
g(x) (x − 2)2
1 x2 − 4x
= ·
x2 (x − 2)2
x−2
x−4
= .
x(x − 2)

You Try It: Calculate the derivative of tan(ex − x).

0.4 Continuity and Differentiation

What is the relationship between continuity and differentiation? It appears that functions that
have derivatives must be continuous.
Theorem 0.4.1. If a function f is differentiable at a point x, then it is continuous at x.

9
Proof. We want to show that f is continuous at x, i.e., lim f (t) = f (x) or lim f (x + h) = f (x),
t→x h→0
where h = t − x. It will be sufficient to show that lim [f (x + h) − f (x)] = 0.
h→0

Now,
 
f (x + h) − f (x)
lim [f (x + h) − f (x)] = lim h
h→0 h→0 h
f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim lim h
h→0 h h→0
= f ′ (x) · 0
= 0,

because f ′ (x) is finite. Thus f is continuous at x.

Converse is false: For example, the function f (x) = |x| is continuous at x = 0, but it is not
differentiable there.

0.5 Higher Order Derivatives

dy
If f (x) is differentiable in an interval, its derivative is given by f ′ (x), y ′ or where y = f (x).
dx

d2 y
 
′ ′′ d
′′ dy
If f (x) is also differentiable in the interval, its derivative is denoted by f (x), y or = .
dx dx dx2

dn y
Similarly, the nth derivative of f (x), if it exists, is denoted by f (n) , y (n) or where n is called
dxn
the order of the derivative.

Example: Let y = f (x) = 12 x4 − 3x2 + 1.

d 1 4
Solution: Derivative y ′ = f ′ (x) = ( x − 3x2 + 1) = 2x3 − 6x.
dx 2

d2 y d
Second derivative y ′′ = f ′′ (x) = = (2x3 − 6x) = 6x2 − 6.
dx2 dx

′′′ d3 y
′′′ d
Third derivative y = f (x) = 3 = (6x2 − 6) = 12x.
dx dx

d4 y d
Fourth derivative y (4) = f (4) (x) = 4
= (12x) = 12.
dx dx

10
0.6 Implicit Differentiation

Compare

√
1. x2 − y 3 = 3 ⇐⇒ y = 3
x2 − 3.
√
2. x2 + y 2 = 1 ⇐⇒ y = ± 1 − x2 .

3. x3 + y 2 = 3xy ⇐⇒????????.

Implicit Functions. A function in which the dependent variable is expressed solely in terms of
the independent variable x, namely y = f (x), is said to be an explicit function, for example,
y = 12 x3 − 1. An equation f (x, y) = 0, on perhaps certain restricted ranges of the variables, is said
to define y implicitly as a function of x.

1−x
Example: (a) The equation xy + x − 2y − 1 = 0, with x ̸= 2, defines the function y = .
√ x−2
(b) The equation 4x2 + 9y 2 − 36 = 0 defines the function y = 23 9 − x2 when |x| ≤ 3 and y ≥ 0
√
and the function y = − 23 9 − x2 when |x| ≤ 3 and y ≤ 0.

The derivative y ′ may be obtained by one of the following procedures:

1. Solve, when possible, for y and differentiate with respect to x.

2. Thinking of y as a function of x, differentiate both sides of the given equation with respect
to x and solve the resulting relation for y ′ . This differentiation process is known as implicit
differentiation.

dy
Example: Find if x2 + y 2 = 4.
dx

Solution: We differentiate both sides of the equation

d 2 d d
x + y2 = 4
dx dx dx
dy
2x + 2y =0 .
dx
Solving the derivative yields
dy x
=− .
dy y

d2 y
Example: Find if x2 + y 2 = 4.
dx2

11
Solution: From the above example, we already know that the first derivative is
dy x
=− .
dx y
Hence by the Quotient Rule

d2 y
 
d x
2
= −
dx dx y
dy
y·1−x·
= − dx
y2
 
x
y−x −
y dy
= − 2
Substituting for
y dx
y + x2
2
= − .
y3

Noting that x2 + y 2 = 4 permits us to write the second derivative as

d2 y 4
= − .
dx2 y3

dy
Example: Find if sin y = y cos 2x.
dx

Solution:
d d
sin y = y cos 2x
dx dx
dy dy
cos y = y(− sin 2x · 2) + cos 2x
dx dx
dy
(cos y − cos 2x) = −2y sin 2x
dx
dy 2y sin 2x
= − .
dx cos y − cos 2x

Example: Find y ′ , given xy + x − 2y − 1 = 0.

Solution: We have
d d d d d d
x (y) + y (x) + (x) − 2 (y) − (1) = (0)
dx dx dx dx dx dx
1+y
or xy ′ + y + 1 − 2y ′ = 0, then y ′ = .
2−x

Example: Find y ′ , given x2 y − xy 2 + x2 + y 2 = 0.

12
Solution:
d 2 d d 2 d 2
(x y) − (xy 2 ) + (x ) + (y ) = 0
dx dx dx dx
d d d d d 2 d 2
x2 (y) + y (x2 ) − x (y 2 ) − y 2 (x) + (x ) + (y ) = 0.
dx dx dx dx dx dx
y 2 − 2x − 2xy
Hence, x2 y ′ + 2xy − 2xyy ′ − y 2 + 2x + 2yy ′ = 0 and y ′ = .
x2 + 2y − 2xy

Example: Find y ′ and y ′′ , given x2 − xy + y 2 = 3.

Solution:
d 2 d d 2 2x − y
(x ) − (xy) = (y ) = 2x − xy ′ − y + 2yy ′ = 0. So y ′ = .
dx dx dx x − 2y
Then
d d
(x − 2y) (2x − y) − (2x − y) (x − 2y) (x − 2y)(2 − y ′ ) − (2x − y)(1 − 2y ′ )
y ′′ = dx dx =
(x − 2y)2 (x − 2y)2
 
2x − y
3x − 3y
3xy ′ − 3y x − 2y 6(x2 − xy + y 2 )
= = =
(x − 2y)2 (x − 2y)2 (x − 2y)2
18
= .
(x − 2y)2

You Try It: Find y ′′ , given x3 − 3xy + y 3 = 1.

0.7 Logarithmic Differentiation

Take natural logarithm (ln) both sides, differentiate implicitly and solve for y ′ .
√
2 3
x 7x − 14
Example: Compute y ′ if y = .
(1 + x2 )4

13
 √  2√
x2 3 7x − 14

x 3 7x − 14
Solution: y = ⇒ ln y = ln .
(1 + x2 )4 (1 + x2 )4
1
ln y = 2 ln x + ln(7x − 14) − 4 ln(1 + x2 )
  3 
1 (7x − 14)′ (1 + x2 )′
  
1 ′ 1
y = 2 + −4
y x 3 7x − 14 1 + x2
2 7 8x
= + −
x 3(7x − 14) 1 + x2
 
′ 2 7 8x
y = y + −
x 3(7x − 14) 1 + x2
√
x2 3 7x − 14 2
 
7 8x
= + − .
(1 + x2 )4 x 3(7x − 14) 1 + x2

0.8 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

If x = sin y, the inverse function is written y = sin−1 x or y = arcsin x. The inverse trigonometric
functions are multivalued functions.

Example: Find the derivative of y = sin−1 x.

Solution: Differentiate implicitly with respect to x. Then sin y = x. Hence,

(sin y)′ = x′
cos yy ′ = 1
1
y′ =
cos y
1
y′ = p
1 − sin2 y
1
= √ .
1 − x2

d 1 d 1 d 1
Some Derivatives. (cos−1 x) = − √ , (cot−1 x) = − , (sec−1 x) = √ .
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 + x2 dx x x2 − 1

1
You Try It: Show that the derivative of tan−1 x = .
1 + x2

14
Applications of the Derivative

0.9 Approximation by Differentials

A method for approximating the value of a function near a known value. The method uses the
tangent line at a known value of the function to approximate the function’s graph. Let ∆x and ∆y
represent the changes in x and y for the function and dx and dy represents the changes in x and y
for the tangent line.

tan.png

This is also written as

f (x + ∆x) = f (x) + ∆y = f (x) + f ′ (x)∆x.

√
Example: Approximate 10 by differentials.
√ √ √
Solution: 10 is near 9, so we will use f (x) = x with x = 9 and ∆x = 10 − 9 = 1. Note that

15
 1
f ′ (x) = √ . Therefore
2 x
√
10 = f (x + ∆x)
≈ f (x) + f ′ (x)∆x
√ 1 √ 1
= x + √ ∆x = 9 + √ (1)
2 x 2 9
19
= .
6
√
Example: Find an approximate value of 3 9.
√ 2
Solution: We set f (x) = 3 x. Suppose to find f (9). Note that f ′ (x) = 13 x− 3 and hence, f (8) = 2
and f ′ (8) = 12
1
, where x = 8 and ∆x = 9 − 8 = 1. Therefore,
√
3 1
9 = f (9) ≈ 2 + (1)
12
25
=
12
≈ 2.0833.

Example: Find an approximate value for tan 46◦ .

π π
Solution: Radial measure 46◦ = 45◦ + 1◦ corresponds to + and note that f (x) = tan x, then
4 180
f ′ (x) = sec2 x and f ( π4 ) = 1, f ′ ( π4 ) = 2. Therefore
π π  π 2 π
 π  π
◦
tan 46 = tan + ≈ tan + sec =1+ ≈ 1.0349.
4 180 4 4 180 90

0.10 The Mean Value Theorem

Suppose f (x) is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Then, there exists a c in (a, b) at
which the tangent line is parallel to the secant line joining the points (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)), i.e., at
f (b) − f (a)
which f ′ (c) = ,
b−a

OR

If f (x) is continuous in [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b), then there exists a point c in (a, b) such
that
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = , a < c < b.
b−a

16
 mean.png

The word mean in The Mean Value Theorem refers to the mean (or average) rate of change of f
in the interval [a, b].

If f (a) = f (b) = 0, then the theorem says that there exists a c in (a, b) at which f ′ (c) = 0. The
graphs suggest that there must be at least one point on the graph, that corresponds to a number c
in (a, b), at which the tangent is horizontal. This special case of the Mean Value Theorem is called
Rolle’s Theorem 1 .

rolle.png

1
Michel Rolle, a French mathematician (1652-1719)

17
 √
Example: Consider f (x) = x − 1 on [2, 5], f (x) is continuous when x − 1 ≥ 0, i.e., x ≥ 1. In
1
particular, f (x) is continuous on [2, 5] and f ′ (x) = √ , so differentiable when x > 1. In
2 x−1
particular, f (x) is differentiable on (2, 5).
√ √
f (b) − f (a) f (5) − f (2) 5−1− 2−1 1
= = = .
b−a 5−2 3 3
1
The Mean Value Theorem asserts that, for some c in (2, 5), f ′ (c) = . Let us find it.
3
1
f ′ (x) =
3
1 1
√ =
2 x−1 3
√
2 x−1 = 3
4(x − 1) = 9
9
x−1 =
4
13
x = .
4
13 13
Notice that is in (2, 5), so we may take c = .
4 4

π
Example: Show that if f (x) = tan x on the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ k where k < , then tan k ≥ k.
2

Solution: By the Mean Value Theorem

tan k − tan 0
= sec2 c,
k−0
for some c ∈ (0, k). But sec2 c ≥ 1 and tan 0 = 0. So
tan k
≥ 1 =⇒ tan k ≥ k.
k

Example: Use The Mean Value Theorem to show that | cos a − cos b| ≤ |a − b|.

Solution: The function cos x is continuous and differentiable for all x. By the Mean Value Theorem
cos a − cos b
(cos x)′ =
a−b
cos a − cos b
|(cos x)′ | = ,
a−b
but (cos x)′ = − sin x and |(cos x)′ | ≤ 1, therefore
| cos a − cos b|
≤ 1 =⇒ | cos a − cos b| ≤ |a − b|.
|a − b|

18
 b−a b−a
Example: Prove that 2
< tan−1 b − tan−1 a < for a < b.
1+b 1 + a2

1 1
Solution: Let f (x) = tan−1 x. Since f ′ (x) = 2
, f ′ (c) = . By the Mean Value Theorem
1+x 1 + c2
f (b) − f (a) tan−1 b − tan−1 a 1
= = , a < c < b.
b−a b−a 1 + c2
Then, from a < c < b, we have
a2 < c2 < b2 =⇒ 1 + a2 < 1 + c2 < 1 + b2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
> 2
> 2
=⇒ 2
< 2
<
1+a 1+c 1+b 1+b 1+c 1 + a2
−1 −1
1 tan b − tan a 1 b−a b−a
2
< < 2
=⇒ 2
< tan−1 b − tan−1 a < .
1+b b−a 1+a 1+b 1 + a2

 
a b b
Example: Use the Mean Value Theorem, to prove that if 0 < a < b, then 1 − < ln < − 1.
b a a
1 1
Hence show that < ln 1.2 < .
6 5

1
Solution: Let f (x) = ln x and f ′ (x) = . By the Mean Value Theorem, there exists c ∈ (a, b)
x
such that
1 ln b − ln a
f ′ (c) = = .
c b−a
Then, from a < c < b we have
1 1 1
a < c < b =⇒ < <
b c a
1 ln b − ln a 1 b−a b−a
< < =⇒ < ln b − ln a <
b b−a a b   a
a b b
=⇒ 1 − < ln < − 1.
b a a

   
12 6
Now, ln(1.2) = ln = ln . Therefore a = 5 and b = 6. Substituting in
  10 5
a b b
1 − < ln < − 1, we have
b a a
 
5 6 6 1 1
1 − < ln < − 1 =⇒ < ln 1.2 < .
6 5 5 6 5

0.11 Some Corollaries of The Mean Value Theorem

Corollary 0.11.1. If f ′ (x) = 0 at all points of the interval (a, b), then f (x) must be a constant in
the interval.

19
Proof. Let x1 < x2 be any two different points in (a, b). By the Mean Value Theorem for
x1 < x < x 2 ,
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
= f ′ (x) = 0.
x2 − x1
Thus f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). Since x1 and x2 are arbitrarily chosen, the function f (x) has the same value
at all points in the interval. Thus, f (x) is constant.
Corollary 0.11.2. If f ′ (x) > 0 at all points of the interval (a, b), then f (x) is strictly increasing.

Proof. Let x1 < x2 be any two different points in (a, b). By the Mean Value Theorem for
x1 < x < x 2 ,
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
= f ′ (x) > 0.
x2 − x1
Thus f (x2 ) > f (x1 ) for x2 > x1 and so f (x) is strictly increasing.

0.12 Indeterminate Forms

f (x) 0 ∞ f (x) 0
Happens when lim tends to or as x → a. Think of the situation lim →
x→a g(x) 0 ∞ x→a g(x) 0
where f (x) and g(x) are differentiable (and therefore continuous so f (a) = lim f (x) = 0 and
x→a
g(a) = lim g(x) = 0.), then
x→a

f (x) f (x) − f (a)

lim = lim
x→a g(x) x→a g(x) − g(x)
f (x) − f (a)
= lim x−a (provided the denominator is not zero)
x→a g(x) − g(a)

x−a
f (x) − f (a)
lim
=
x→a x−a
g(x) − g(a)
lim
x→a x−a
f ′ (a) lim f ′ (x)
x→a
= ′ = (provided f ′ (x) and g ′ (x) are also continuous.)
g (a) lim g ′ (x)
x→a

Example:
x2 − 4 (x2 − 4)′ 2x
lim = lim ′
= lim = 2 · 2 = 4.
x→2 x − 2 x→2 (x − 2) x→2 1

f (x) f ′ (x) f (x) 0 ∞

Theorem 0.12.1. If lim = lim ′ provided that lim is of the type or , this is
g(x) g (x) g(x) 0 ∞
f (x) 0 ∞
called L’Hôpital’s Rule: if either lim = or .
g(x) 0 ∞

20
 sin 2x 2 cos 2x 2·1 2
Examples: (a) lim = lim = = .
x→0 sin 5x x→0 5 cos 5x 5·1 5
e3x 3e3x
(b) lim = lim = ∞.
x→∞ x x→∞ 1
x x
e −1 e
(c) lim 3
= lim 2 = ∞.
x→0 x x→0 3x

0 ∞
The form ∞ − ∞. A given limit that is not immediately or can be converted to one of these
0 ∞
forms by combination of algebra and a little cleverness.
 
1 + 3x 1
Example: Evaluate lim − .
x→0 sin x x

1 + 3x 1
Solution: We note → ∞ and → ∞. However, after writing the difference as a single
sin x x
0
fraction, we recognize the form .
0
3x2 + x − sin x
 
1 + 3x 1
lim − = lim
x→0 sin x x x→0 x sin x
6x + 1 − cos x
= lim
x→0 x cos x + sin x
6 + sin x
= lim
x→0 −x sin x + 2 cos x
6+0
= = 3.
0+2

The form 0 · ∞. By suitable manipulation, L’Hôpital’s Rule can sometimes be applied to the limit
form 0 · ∞.
 
1
Example: Evaluate lim x sin .
x→∞ x

Solution: Write the given expression as

 
1
sin
x
lim
x→∞ 1
x
0
and recognize that we have the form . Hence,
0
(−x−2 cos x1 )
 
1
lim x sin = lim
x→∞ x x→∞ (−x−2 )
1
= lim cos = 1.
x→∞ x

21
The form 00 , ∞0 , 1∞ . Suppose y = f (x)g(x) tends towards 00 , ∞0 , 1∞ as x → a or x → ∞. By
taking the natural logarithm of y ;

ln y = ln f (x)g(x) = g(x) ln f (x)

and we see
lim ln y = lim g(x) ln f (x)
x→a x→a

is of the form 0 · ∞. If it is assumed that lim ln y = ln(lim y) = L, then lim = eL or

x→a x→a x→a

lim f (x)g(x) = eL .
x→a

1
Example: Evaluate lim+ x ln x .
x→0

1
Solution: The form is 00 . Now, if we set y = x ln x , then
1
ln y = ln x = 1.
ln x
Notice we do not need L’Hôpital’s Rule in this case since

lim ln y = 1.
x→0+

1
Hence, lim+ y = e1 or equivalently lim+ x ln x = e.
x→0 x→0

1
Example: Evaluate lim (1 + x) x .
x→0

1
Solution: The limit form is of the form 1∞ . If y = (1 + x) x , then
1
ln y = ln(1 + x).
x
ln(1 + x) 0
Now, lim has the form and so
x→0 x 0
1
ln(1 + x)
lim = lim 1+x
x→0 x x→0 1
1
= lim = 1.
x→0 1 + x

Thus,
1
lim (1 + x) x = e.
x→0

 2x
3
Example: Evaluate lim 1 − .
x→∞ x

22
  2x  
∞ 3 3
Solution: The limit form is 1 . If y = 1 − then ln y = 2x ln 1 − . Observe that the
x x
2 ln(1 − x3 )
 
3 0
form lim 2x ln 1 − is ∞ · 0, whereas the form of lim 1 is . Therefore,
x→∞ x x→∞
x
0
3
x2
2 ln(1 − x3 ) (1 − x3 )
lim 1 = lim 2
x→∞
x
x→∞ − x12
−6
= lim = −6.
x→∞ (1 − 3 )
x

Finally, we conclude that  2x

3
lim 1 − = e−6 .
x→∞ x

0.13 Extrema of Functions

Suppose a function f is defined on an interval I. The maximum and minimum values of f on I

(if there are any) are said to be extrema of the function.

Definition 0.13.1. (i) A number f (c1 ) is an absolute maximum of a function f if f (x) ≤

f (c1 ) for every x in the domain of f .

(ii) A number f (c1 ) is an absolute minimum of a function f if f (x) ≥ f (c1 ) for every x in the
domain of f .

23
 good.png

Example: The function f (x) = x2 has the absolute minimum f (0) = 0 but has no absolute
maximum.

1
Example: f (x) = has neither an absolute maximum nor an absolute minimum.
x

The interval on which a function is defined is very important in the consideration of extrema.

Example: f (x) = x2 defined only on the closed interval [1, 2], has the absolute maximum f (2) = 4
and the absolute minimum f (1) = 1. On the other hand, if f (x) = x2 is defined on the open interval
(1, 2), then f has no absolute extrema. In this case, f (1) and f (2) are not defined.
Theorem 0.13.1 (Extreme Value Theorem). A function f continuous on [a, b] always has an
absolute maximum and an absolute minimum on the interval.
Definition 0.13.2. (i) A number f (c1 ) is a relative maximum of a function f if f (x) ≤ f (c1 )
for every x in some open interval that contains c1 .
(ii) A number f (c1 ) is a relative minimum of a function f if f (x) ≥ f (c1 ) for every x in some

24
 open interval that contains c1 .

Definition 0.13.3. A critical value of a function f is a number c in its domain for which
f ′ (c) = 0 or f ′ (c) does not exist.

Example: Find the critical values of f (x) = x3 − 15x + 6.

Solution:
f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 15.
√
The critical values are those numbers for which f ′ (x) = 0, namely ± 5.

2
Example: Find the critical value of f (x) = (x + 4) 3 .

Solution: By power rule for functions,

2 1 2
f ′ (x) = (x + 4)− 3 = 1 .
3 3(x + 4) 3

In this instance we see that f ′ (x) does not exist when x = −4. Since −4 is in the domain of f , we
conclude it is a critical value.

Theorem 0.13.2. If a function f has a relative extremum at a number c, then c is a critical value.

0.14 Graphing and the First Derivative

Knowing that a function does, or does not, possess relative extrema is a great aid in drawing its
graph.

Theorem 0.14.1. Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), except possibly at the
critical value c.

(i) If f ′ (x) > 0 for a < x < c and f ′ (x) < 0 for c < x < b, then f (c) is a relative maximum.

(ii) If f ′ (x) < 0 for a < x < c and f ′ (x) > 0 for c < x < b, then f (c) is a relative minimum.

(iii) If f ′ (x) has the same algebraic sign on a < x < c and c < x < b, then f (c) is not an extremum.

25
 min.png

Example: For each of the following functions, find all the critical points and classify each as a
5 2
relative maximum, relative minimum or neither. (a) f (x) = 3x 3 − 15x 3 and (b) f (x) = x3 − 3x2 +
3x − 1.

Solution: (a) Critical points:

2 1
f ′ (x) = 5x 3 − 10x− 3
1
= 5x− 3 (x − 2)
5(x − 2)
= 1 ,
x3
which is zero when x = 2 and undefined when x = 0. Therefore x = 0 is a relative maximum and
x = 2 is a relative minimum.

26
(b) Critical points:

f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 6x + 3
= 3(x2 − 2x + 1)
= 3(x − 1)2 ,

which is defined everywhere and zero when x = 1. Therefore x = 1 is neither.

Sometimes there is an easier way to test a critical point. Our goal is to relate the concept of the
concavity of a graph with the second derivative of a function. Often a shape that is concave upwards
is said to “hold water” whereas a shape that is concave downwards “spills water”.

Definition 0.14.1. Let f be differentiable on (a, b).

(i) If f ′ is an increasing function on (a, b), then the graph of f is concave upwards on the
interval.

(ii) If f ′ is a decreasing function on (a, b), then the graph of f is concave downwards on the
interval

great.png

Theorem 0.14.2 (Test for Concavity). Let f be a function for which f ′′ exists on (a, b).

(i) If f ′′ (x) > 0 for all x in (a, b), then the graph is concave upward on (a, b).

(ii) If f ′′ (x) < 0 for all x in (a, b), then the graph is concave downward on (a, b).

27
Example: Determine the intervals on which the graph of f (x) = −x3 + 92 x2 is concave upward and
the intervals for which the graph is concave downward.

Solution: From

f ′ (x) = −3x2 + 9x
 
′′ 3
f (x) = −6x + 9 = 6 −x + ,
2

we see that f ′′ (x) > 0 when 6 −x + 32 > 0 or x < 23 and that f ′′ (x) < 0 when 6 −x + 23 < 0

or x > 32 . It follows that the graph of f is concave upward on (−∞, 23 ) and concave downward on
( 32 , ∞).

0.14.1 Point of Inflection

Definition 0.14.2. Let f be continuous at c. A point (c, f (c)) is a point of inflection if there
exists an open interval (a, b) that contains c such that the graph of f is either

(i) concave upward on (a, c) and concave downward on (c, b) or

(ii) concave downward on (a, c) and concave upward on (c, b).

As a consequence, we observe that a point of inflection (c, f (c)) occurs at a number c for which
f ′′ (c) = 0 or f ′′ (c) does not exist.

Example: Find any points of inflection of f (x) = −x3 + x2 .

Solution: The first and second derivatives of f are, respectively,

f ′ (x) = −3x2 + 2x and f ′′ (x) = −6x + 2.

28
Since f ′′ (x) = 0 at 13 , the point ( 13 , 27
2
) is the only possible point of inflection. Now,
 
′′ 1 1
f (x) = 6 −x + > 0 for x <
3 3
 
1 1
f ′′ (x) = 6 −x + < 0 for x > ,
3 3

implies that the graph of f is concave upward on (−∞, 31 ) and concave downward on ( 13 , ∞). Thus
( 13 , f ( 13 )) or ( 31 , 27
2
) is a point of inflection.

Second Derivative Test. If c is a critical value of y = f (x) and, say, f ′′ (c) > 0, then the graph
of f is concave upward on some interval (a, b) that contains c. Necessarily then, f (c) is a relative
minimum. Similarly, f ′′ (c) < 0 at a critical value c implies f (c) is a relative maximum.

Theorem 0.14.3 (Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema). Let f be a function for which f ′′
exists on an interval (a, b) that contains the critical number c.

(i) If f ′′ (c) > 0, then f (c) is a relative minimum.

(ii) If f ′′ (c) < 0, then f (c) is a relative maximum.

point.png

However, if f ′′ (c) = 0 then nothing can be concluded about the nature of the critical point.

Example: for each of the following functions, find all of the critical points and classify each as
relative maximum, relative minimum or neither. (a) f (x) = x3 − 3x + 2 (b) f (x) = 21 x − sin x
on 0 < x < 2π.

Solution: (a)

f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 3
= 3(x2 − 1) = 3(x − 1)(x + 1),

29
which is defined everywhere and zero at x = 1 and x = −1. Computing f ′′ (x) = 6x, then

f ′′ (−1) = −6 < 0 ⇒ relative maximum at x = −1.

f ′′ (1) = 6 > 0 ⇒ relative minimum at x = 1.

(b) f ′ (x) = 21 −cos x which is defined everywhere and zero when cos x = 21 ⇒ x = π3 , 5π
3
. Computing
f ′′ (x) = sin x, then
π  √
π 3 π
f ′′ = sin = > 0 ⇒ relative minimum at x = .
3 3 2√ 3
 
5π 5π 3 5π
f ′′ = sin =− < 0 ⇒ relative maximum at x = .
3 3 2 3

ALL THE BEST FOR YOU IN THIS CHAPTER AND THE LAST CHAPTER ON
INTEGRATION TO COME!!!

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