ZAKARIA, N.H., SALLEH, S.A., ISA, N.A., CHAN, A., OOI, M.C.G. and ASMAT, A. 2023.

An exploratory study on wind

speed profiling of high-rise building/monument using EnviMET. Malaysian construction research journal [online],
20(3): special issue for the 6th International conference on research methodology for built environment and
engineering 2023 (ICRMBEE 2023), 28 February - 2 March 2023, pages 123-137. Available from:
https://www.cream.my/prod/mcrj-special-issue-volume-20-no-3-2023-

An exploratory study on wind speed profiling of

high-rise building/monument using EnviMET.

ZAKARIA, N.H., SALLEH, S.A., ISA, N.A., CHAN, A., OOI, M.C.G. and
ASMAT, A.

2023

This document was downloaded from

https://openair.rgu.ac.uk
MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 20 | No. 3 | 2023 123

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY ON WIND SPEED

PROFILING OF HIGH-RISE BUILDING/MONUMENT
USING ENVIMET
Nur Hidayah Zakaria1, Siti Aekbal Salleh*1,2, Nurul Amirah Isa3, Andy Chan4, Maggie Chel Gee
Ooi5 and Arnis Asmat6
1School of Geomatics Science and Natural Resources, College of Built Environment, Universiti

Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

2Institute for Biodiversity and Sustainable Development, Applied Remote Sensing and Geospatial

Research Group, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor Malaysia

3Faculty of Asia Built Environment, Universiti Geomatika Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
4School of Engineering, Robert Gordon University, Garthdee House, Garthdee Road, Aberdeen, AB10

7QB, Scotland, UK
5Department of Earth Sciences and Environment, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Universiti

Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

6Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract
Envi-MET is a useful tool for simulating wind speed at building heights and modelling
microclimatic conditions around buildings, including wind speed around buildings and other
structures. Envi-MET is used in this study to simulate wind speed toward building heights.
When R2 = 0.8186, relative bias is -0.0775, and RMSE is 0.2578, the agreement between
Envi-MET simulation and ground observation indicates acceptable agreement. With this
establishment, it was discovered that the building's height and wind speed are not the only
factors causing destruction; the less friction of wind with surface features will also increase the
wind speed, as shown by the results of the vertical profile wind speed in relation to the toll way
building's height. At a height of 13 metres, the wind speed is 3.5 m/s. Wind circulation affects
the building at this elevation, causing damage to the roof and ceiling. Buildings and structures
can sustain significant damage as a result of high wind speeds. When wind speeds are high,
the wind's force increases, causing pressure differences on different sides of a building or
structure. The findings of this study inform relevant parties of the impact of wind on building
construction and how it may influence variations in wind speed.

Keywords: Windstorm; Envi-MET; Coriolis force; turbulent drag; Wind disaster

INTRODUCTION

Wind is the flow of air relative to the Earth’s atmosphere. It is caused by a force acting
on it, as is the case with all moving things. According to Wang et al. (2020), a force is a pull
or push that modifies the resting state, motion, or direction of an object. Wind speed can cause
building destruction in several ways. Strong winds can create high-pressure zones on one side
of a building and low-pressure zones on the opposite side, resulting in unbalanced forces that
can cause the building to sway or vibrate. This might cause structural damage, possibly even
causing a building component to crack or break or even to collapse (Taranath, 2021). Strong
winds can blow objects into buildings, such as tree branches, signboards, or loose building
parts, in addition to the direct wind pressure. This can cause physical damage to the building's
exterior and windows, and potentially cause injury to people inside the building.

Furthermore, wind-induced vibrations can cause fatigue damage to building components

over time, especially in tall buildings or those with slender components like beams or columns
(Lago, Trabucco, & Wood, 2019). Tall or slender buildings are more susceptible to wind-
induced damage or destruction due to their increased height and flexibility. Wind tunnel
MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 20 | No. 3 | 2023 124

testing and other wind engineering studies can help identify potential wind-induced damage
and provide recommendations for building design, materials, and construction methods to
reduce the risk of failure. This can lead to cumulative damage and eventual failure if not
addressed. To prevent wind-induced building destruction, building codes and standards
typically require buildings to be designed and constructed to withstand specific wind loads
based on the local wind speed and other factors (Mendis et al., 2007). Engineers use wind
speed data to calculate wind loads and design building components that can resist those loads.
In addition, regular inspections and maintenance of building components can aid in
identifying and addressing potential damage caused by wind or other elements. There are
several areas around the world that are prone to high wind speeds, including:

1. Coastal regions: Coastal regions are often subject to strong winds due to their
proximity to the ocean. Regions situated along the Gulf Coast of the United States
are subject to regular occurrences of hurricanes and tropical storms, characterised by
elevated wind velocities and storm surges.
2. Mountainous regions: Mountainous regions can also experience high wind speeds due
to the funnelling effect of the terrain. Wind speeds can increase as the wind is
channelled through mountain passes or over ridges. The Rocky Mountains in the
western United States are one example of a region prone to high wind speeds.
3. Polar regions: Polar regions can experience strong winds due to the temperature
differential between the cold air at the poles and the warmer air at lower latitudes.
The polar jet stream can bring high winds to areas near the poles as well as to areas
further south.
4. Tornado Alley: Tornado Alley is a region in the central United States that is prone to
tornadoes, which can bring high wind speeds and cause significant damage. Tornado
Alley includes parts of Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska.
5. Cyclone-prone regions: Cyclones, also known as typhoons or hurricanes, can bring
high wind speeds to coastal regions in many parts of the world, including Southeast
Asia, the Caribbean, and the Gulf of Mexico.

In areas prone to high wind speeds, building codes and regulations may require specific
wind-resistant construction. A decrease in albedo leads to an increase in mean wind speeds
and the frequency of high wind speeds along with increased turbulent energy in the planetary
boundary layer n techniques and materials to ensure building safety and prevent destruction
(FEMA, 2018). Previous study has investigated the dynamics of land surface albedo and
temperature (Salleh et al., 2022). A reduction in albedo results in elevated mean wind
velocities and heightened occurrence of strong wind speeds, accompanied by amplified
turbulent energy inside the planetary boundary layer.

Apart from that, there is no denying the benefits of wind for urban cooling purposes.
Study by Isa et al. (2020) concerns the effect of urbanisation at Greater Kuala Lumpur that
leads to Urban Heat Island (UHI). The use of wind to ventilate and cool the city was needed.
Even if the wind is less than 10 m/s, it has led to destruction of monuments and buildings in
Malaysia especially in urban areas and residential areas (Zakaria et al., 2019). The process of
wind deflation caused the land surface to become armoured, leading to a subsequent rise in
both average wind speeds and gustiness. This statement highlights that the albedo, ascertained
by analysing the surface geology in this context, may exert positive feedback on wind
MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 20 | No. 3 | 2023 125

velocities. The perturbation in albedo as a result of wind erosion activates the feedback
mechanism.

Winds are a natural disaster that almost every country on Earth has to deal with. Because
of this, there has been a lot of study and analysis. The complicated wind activity that causes
windstorms has caused damage to both public and private property. Numerous websites assert
that urban areas are frequently impacted by windstorms. More and more often, windstorms
kill people and damage or destroy both public and private property. In the Emergency
Incidents Database (EM-DAT), the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters
(CRED) revealed that storm damage was worse in 2017 than in 2016 (Kishore et al., 2018).
As an example, Hurricane Katrina in 2005 caused overall financial losses of around 108
billion USD, making it the most expensive natural disaster in the United States. The direct
and indirect damage caused by the storm halted the progress of Gulf Coast states. People
claim that Sandy and Ike were the second and third costliest storms in history. In 2012,
Hurricane Sandy cost $71.4 billion, and Hurricane Ike cost $29.5 billion (Blake et al., 2007).
About 13 billion Euros worth of economic damage was done. (Ulbrich et al., 2001).

Typhoon Haiyan, also called Super Typhoon Yolanda, hit the Philippines in 2013. It was
called the most powerful tropical storm to ever hit land. The typhoon's strong winds and storm
waves caused a lot of damage in southern Asian countries. The total cost of the damage was
expected to be about $2.86 billion. Damage from windstorms depends a lot on the physical
factors of an urban area (Střelcová et al., 2009). Small hazard events like local windstorms
are becoming more important to human security. They have the ability to cause even bigger
problems by destroying people's possessions and key infrastructure, which lowers the
threshold of resilience in local communities (Kasperson et al., 1996). Windstorms have
significant consequences in metropolitan areas. High winds may cause deaths, uproot trees,
and cause significant structural harm to homes, power and telecommunications lines, radio
masts, and other urban infrastructure. Small variations in temperature and climate extremes
have the ability to wreak havoc on structures designed to survive previous climate extremes
(Adelekan, 2012). In Australia, building damage increased by 650% for every 25% increase
in high wind gust speed (Coleman, 2003). The International Group for Wind-Related Disaster
Risk Reduction (IG–WRDRR) was started in June 2009 by the United Nations International
Strategy for Disaster Reduction Secretariat (UN–ISDR) in response to a growing
understanding of the social and economic effects of severe wind events at the international
level. One of the main goals of IG–WRDRR is to use the Hyogo Framework for Action to
reduce the risk of disasters caused by wind.

The wind is generally light and variable throughout Asia, Africa, North America, South
America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia. Throughout the observation time, an easterly
wind blew at lower latitudes. As North-eastern winds blew in the Northern Hemisphere and
southeast winds blew in the Southern Hemisphere, air converged along the equator, creating
the Intertropical Convergence Zone just north of the equator (ICTZ) (Wu, 1997). However,
there are several seasonal variations in flow patterns, and four seasons may be differentiated
from these wind flow patterns, including the Southwest Monsoon, the Northeast Monsoon,
and two shorter Inter-Monsoon seasons (Rasyidah & Othman, 2010). During the Southwest
Monsoon, the predominant wind is light, averaging less than 15 knots (7.7 m/s) (Gasing,
2015). During the Northeast Monsoon, sustained winds of 10 to 20 knots (5.2 to 10.3 m/s)
prevail, with gusts of up to 30 knots (15.4 m/s) over Peninsular Malaysia's east coast states.
MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 20 | No. 3 | 2023 126

The winds are usually light and unpredictable throughout the two Inter-Monsoon seasons
(Rasyidah & Othman, 2010). The Malaysia Meteorological Department states that on
September 15, 1992, the highest average daily wind speed was 3.8 m/s in Mersing, Johor, and
the highest maximum wind speed was 41.7 m/s in Kuching, Sarawak. (MetMalaysia)
(Nizamani et al., 2018). In 2018 total damages in Malaysia due to windstorm hazards were
53, and some of the cases resulted in fatalities.

The Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD) is the government agency in charge

of informing Malaysians about impending weather conditions, such as windstorms, through
television, social media, and websites. Malaysia currently lacks a comprehensive database of
windstorm incidence and injury (Wan Chik et al., 2014). The full extent of the windstorm's
impact will be beneficial to society, both in terms of emergency response plans and future
planning and growth. The urban metropolitan population has been significantly impacted by
the windstorm outbreak. According to a study by Zakaria et al. (2019), the seasonal monsoon
has some relationship with windstorms in Malaysia. The study looks at the effects of the
Southeast Monsoon, the Northeast Monsoon, and the time between the two. The strongest
windstorm was during the Southeast Monsoon. The Northeast Monsoon had the fastest wind
speed, which was between 5.96 and 6.23 m/s. Southeast Monsoon winds blow the fastest and
have the most effect on the land north of the peninsula. Their speeds range from 9.20 to 10.96
m/s. Windstorms in Peninsular Malaysia were to blame for 80% of roof damage. The reason
was that big towns were getting more and more people, which meant that high-impact
facilities and services were getting closer together (Tao, 2013). A study done in Pulau Pinang
between 2010 and 2013 found that steel sheet roofing caused 47% of the damage, the truss
system caused 30%, roof tiles caused 13%, and other parts caused 20% (Majid et al., 2016).

Envi-MET proposes a method for designing the metropolitan landscape to have the best
available microclimate environments for inhabitants, which is critical for human safety. It is
possible to determine the impact of wind gusts caused by jet impacts at building corners
(Huttner et al., 2008). Environmental planning and developers will get a decent standard in
urban environments and be mindful of the urban microclimate through the Envi-MET
initiative (Langer et al., 2012). The microclimate model in three dimensions Envi-MET is a
model for simulating microscale atmospheres in urban environments with a standard spatial
resolution of 0.5 to 10 m and a time resolution of 10 seconds. Envi-MET is a predictive model
focused on fluid and thermodynamic fundamental laws. Heat and water vapour exchange
processes at the ground surface and at walls, vibration, exchange at the soil, and vegetation
parameters are all simulated in this software. Under various mesoscale settings, Envi-MET
investigates the impact of small-scale improvements in urban architecture (e.g., trees,
backyard greening, modern building constellations) on microclimate.

Temperature, wind direction and intensity, evaporation, relative humidity, and sunlight
period are all important meteorological measures (Yan et al., 2019). Sealed surfaces, for
example, have a detrimental impact on the local atmosphere because they heat up quickly
during the day and cool off steadily at night. Furthermore, the ability of such areas to filter air
contaminants and attach dust particles is very limited. The removal of open/green areas,
emissions, and barriers to air exchange systems (such as building structures) all have an
adverse effect on the microclimate (Liu & Shen, 2014). Thus, this analysis looks at wind
speed on a microscale. Since there was no ground station to determine wind speed, the
alternate method of using Envi-MET to model the actual event was selected. The total number
MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 20 | No. 3 | 2023 127

of Meteorology Department stations that can record wind speed in Selangor, Malaysia, is
fewer than 20. Currently, only a few stations have complete wind speed records. Every
station's coverage area is much too broad to be useful in certain regions. In this analysis, the
effect of wind on man-made features was established.

METHODOLOGY

Study Area

Due to a storm event reported on August 24, 2018, which took place during the Southeast
Monsoon season, the Bukit Raja Toll Plaza was chosen as a study area (Harian, 2018). Bukit
Raja is located in the Klang district with latitude and longitude: 3.0734° N, 101.4752° E and
part of Klang, Selangor, as shown in Figure 1, with an average wind speed of 1.6 m/s to 2.7
m/s (METMalaysia, 2018). The studied area is surrounded by industrial zones and toll roads.
The total study area encompasses roughly 17,38 hectares. Bukit Raja Tol measured
approximately 80 metres in length and 13 metres in height.

(Google, 2020)
Figure 1. Study Area at Bukit Raja Toll

(Harian, 2018)
Figure 2. Damage at Bukit Raja Toll Plaza on 24 August 2018 Reported by Berita Harian Newspaper
MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 20 | No. 3 | 2023 128

Around 9 p.m. on August 24, 2018, a storm destroyed Bukit Raja Toll, causing damage
to the roof and structure of the building. During the event, a public witness reported that the
wind was blowing significantly harder than usual (Astro Awani, 2018). Figure 2 shows the
damages caused by the event. The report shows the top siling falling and a few monuments
damaged. Thus, the microscale simulation of wind speed in Bukit Raja Toll was carried out
on the same date of event to study the approximate wind speed during the event using Envi-
MET simulation. 24-hour data was analysed for 24 August 2018 with different heights from
0 metres to 13 metres.

Envi-MET Simulation

Envi-MET version 4.1 was used to simulate the wind speed for this study. Due to the
software's capability to simulate microclimate, Envi-MET's is used to simulate the
microclimate study. Envi-MET is a computer program designed to simulate the urban
microclimate. Envi-MET is a helpful program to simulate the urban climate in cities and can
assist with environmental planning (Chatzinikolaou, Chalkias, & Dimopoulou, 2018). The
24-hour data was simulated on 24 August 2018. The simulation size was a 50 x 50 x 40 grid
with 1 grid equivalent of 10 metres. Therefore, the total size of the simulation was 500m x
500m x 400m. This is the maximum size that can be conducted due to licensing restrictions
while using the Envi-MET. Figure 3 shows the Envi-MET simulation workflow. 3D
modelling of study area was created using Envi-MET tool, as shown in Figure 4. A Google
map image was used as a reference while designing the study area model.

Figure 3. Envi-MET Simulation Workflow

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 20 | No. 3 | 2023 129

Figure 4. Bukit Raja Toll from Google Earth Image was Modelled Into the SPACE Tool in Envi-MET
Software

The model was simulated using the real environment representation criteria, such as the
model geometry, model location, material of building, the height of building, type of
vegetation and type of soil, as well as the real meteorology data ENVI-met databases provide
a variety of materials and 3D plants, allowing the detailed reconstruction and accurate
modelling of the urban environment. The climatic data input for the simulation were the
minimum and maximum wind speeds on the day between 1 m/s and 2 m/s, the temperature
between 28˚C to 35˚C, and the direction of wind at 345° as shown in Table 1. For the height
of the building, it follows the real height in ground data, such as toll monument height of 13
metres, then, inside the model, 13-metres. The element type uses of the built environment are
illustrated in Table 2. For the building element, the concrete wall (cast dense) was selected.
For the type of soil and surface, this model uses asphalt road and soil and vegetation using
grass, vegetation with a height less than 0.5 metres and a few above 2-metre height trees.

Table 1. Data Input to Envi-MET Model

Data Input Value
Simulation Date 24 August 2018
Start & Duration of Simulation 00:00, 24h
Minimum Wind Speed 1 m/s
Maximum Wind Speed 3 m/s
Minimum Temperature 28˚C
Maximum Temperature 35˚C
Direction of the Wind 345°
Minimum Humidity 60%
Maximum Humidity 90%

Table 2. Element Type of Build Environment

Element Type
Building Wall • Concrete wall (cast dense)
Soil and Surface • Asphalt Road
• Soil
Vegetation • LAD lower 0.5 meter
• LAD above 2.5 meter
• Grass
MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 20 | No. 3 | 2023 130

Ground Station and Envi-MET Data Validation

The compatibility between ground station data and Envi-MET simulation has been
determined. This comparison to test the accuracy of Envi-MET software to conduct the
microscale simulation for wind speed. The available ground data on 24 August 2018 was used
to validate with Envi-MET simulation. This validation purposely checks the accuracy of Envi-
MET simulation compared to ground station data. Using domain 20 x 20 x 20 grids which is
1 grid equal to 2 metres, the ground station was modelled in 3D into Envi-MET software at
height 4 metres, following the real data. Figure 6 shows the study area ground station in
SPACES tool was modelled from google earth image in format .BMP.

The criteria approximated the real environment, such as the model geometry, model
location, material of building, the height of building, type of vegetation and type of soil. To
simulate the model, the real meteorology data was used. Then, the model was imported to
ENVI-Guides and given the real meteorology data configurations. The minimum and
maximum wind speed on the day between 1 m/s to 2 m/s, the temperature between 28˚C to
35˚C, and the direction of wind at 310° were used for the simulation. The simulation was
carried out using the Envi-MET tool. The map of wind speed by each height was generated,
and the analysis of data was carried out in the LEONARDO tool. The variations in the
accuracies of wind speed and energy efficiency between ground measurement and Envi-MET
simulation were quantified using statistical methods. Equations (1) and (2) were used to
quantify the bias and root mean square defect, respectively:

𝑛
1
𝑅𝑀𝑆𝐸 = √ ∑(𝑓𝑖 − 𝑜𝑖 )2 Equation 1
𝑛
𝑖=1

Where:
• n: number of samples
• f: forecasts
• o: observed values
𝑛
∑𝑖=1(𝑃𝑖 − 𝑂𝑖 )
𝑅𝐸 = Equation 2
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑂𝑖

Where:
• Oi is the observation value
• Pi is the forecast value.

METHODOLOGY

Validation of Ground Station vs Envi-MET Simulation

The calibration between ground data and the Envi-MET simulation was established. The
purpose of this calibration is to prove the efficiency of Envi-MET simulation to substituting
ground data due to the absence of data for certain areas. Generally, Malaysia lacks ground
MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 20 | No. 3 | 2023 131

stations, and some of them are unable to give continuous readings. Hence, the nearest ground
station at SK TTDI Jaya station on 24 August 2018 was used to validate the Envi-MET
simulation, and the results were compared.

Table 3. Statistical Calculation for Validation Data of Ground Observation and Envi-MET Simulation
for SK TTDI Jaya Station on 15 April 2017
Residual Square RMSE Relative Bias
0.0210 0.000441 0.2578 -0.0775

Table 3 shows the statistical result comparison between wind speed reading (m/s) from
ground observation and Envi-MET simulation. Since the height of ground station equipment
was 4 metres, the simulation at Envi-MET also used the same vertical height at 4 metres
during the simulation. The pattern of wind speed from both ground observation and Envi-
MET was shown in Figure 5. As a result, from the statistical calculation, the highest residual
was 0.266 at 4.00 a.m. and the lowest residual was -0.715 at 3.00 p.m. From the result, the
positive value shows the observation value is higher than Envi-MET and vice versa. Figure 5
shows the agreement between Ground Observation and Envi-MET simulation on 15 April
2017 (SK TTDI Jaya station). The graph indicates that the R2 value is 0.8186, which is closest
to 1. A similar study by (Bande et al., 2019), where the R2 value is more than 0.5, therefore
the reading of wind speed from Envi-MET simulation can be accepted for this study. The
Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and Bias value were 0.2578 m/s and -0.0775m/s. RMSE is
between 0.2 to 0.5 shows that the model fits this study (Chatzinikolaou et al., 2018). The
lower the RMSE, the better the model and its predictions. A lower RMSE indicates that there
is a small deviation from the residual to the ground truth (Hien, Ignatius, Eliza, Jusuf, &
Samsudin, 2012).

(a) (b)
Figure 5. (a) 24-Hour Wind Speed Pattern Between Ground Observation and Envi-MET Simulation on
24 August 2018 (SK TTDI Jaya Station) (b)The Agreement Between Ground Observation and Envi-
MET Simulation on 24 August 2018 (SK TTDI Jaya Station)

Based on the RMSE and Bias tolerance, this analysis determined the exceptional
agreement between the simulation and the ground observation. Therefore, the Envi-MET
simulation model can be used in this study to simulate the wind speed in a microclimate area.
The model was implemented for the study area, the Bukit Raja Toll Plaza on 24 August 2018.
There were windstorms reported by the media that caused destruction (Astro Awani, 2018).
Therefore, the model was used to see the vertical profiling of wind speed impacts towards the
building.
MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 20 | No. 3 | 2023 132

Wind Speed of Bukit Raja Toll from Different Height

The simulation was conducted for twenty-four hours on August 24, 2018. To determine
changes in wind speed, the model was simulated at various heights. As shown in Table 4, the
k value in Envi-MET was modified from 0 to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 10 to represent the
height of the model. Height was used to generate graph analysis. Since the destruction was
recorded at 9 p.m., the analysis focuses on that time (Harian, 2018). The minimum wind speed
at 9.00pm during the event was 0.095 m/s and the maximum wind speed was 2.149 m/s.
Generally, with the speed below 10 m/s of wind speed is considered as a light breeze following
world Beaufort scale and should not cause any destruction. Unfortunately, for this study area
and date, there was destruction recorded. Therefore, the profiling of each height was
investigated to define the factors that caused the damages to the Bukit Raja Toll Plaza on 24
August 2018 at 9.00pm.

Table 4. K Values and The Height in Metre with Wind Speed at 9.00 PM During the Event
K (Value of Height Use in Height (0-Metres from Ground in Wind Speed (m/s) at 9.00 PM
Envi-MET) Real World) Minimum Maximum
0 0.2 0.095 1.303
1 0.6 0.096 1.323
2 1 0.097 1.346
3 1.4 0.099 1.365
4 1.8 0.101 1.309
5 3 0.114 1.426
6 5 0.135 1.476
7 7 0.186 1.557
8 9 0.294 1.676
9 11 0.491 1.869
10 13 0.814 2.149

Figure 6. Wind Speed Profile Versus Building Height on 24 August 2018 (9.00 PM)
During Windstorm Event

Figure 6 shows the maximum and minimum wind speeds versus building height on
August 24, 2018, at 9.00 p.m. during the windstorm event. From the graph, it can be seen that
the wind speed increases as the height of buildings increases. The minimum and maximum
MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 20 | No. 3 | 2023 133

wind speeds show an increment as the height of the building increases. The higher the building
is, the more susceptible it is to wind loads. The wind is a complex phenomenon consisting of
an infinite range of flow situations, especially with regard to the relationship between
structures and wind flows. Wind loads exerted on a building are not stable but extremely
fluctuating and dynamic.

Figure 7 (a) shows the hourly profiles of wind speed using the simulation at height 0.2
metres. The highest wind speed was 2.5 m/s and the lowest value was 0.35 m/s. From the
Figure 7 (a), the wind speed in front of the toll plaza shows most wind speed readings less
than 1 m/s even though the surrounding area of the simulated model shows the reading is
above 2 m/s. Wind speed that is below 1 metre usually does not affect the building or
monument that is made up of concrete and cement (Atkinson et al., 2009). Similarly, as height
0.6 metres, 1.0 metres, 1.4 metres and 1.8 metres as shown in Figure 7 (b), Figure 7 (c) and
Figure 7 (d) there is no significant difference in wind speed reading since there is small
increment of wind speed. Wind speed at 2 metres (6.5 feet) height and below can cause minor
damage to buildings, especially if the wind speeds are sustained for an extended period of
time (Wen, Palanichamy, & Ramasamy, 2019). Wind speeds at these heights are typically
lower than wind speeds at higher elevations but can still cause objects such as loose roofing
material, siding, or debris to become dislodged and pose a hazard to people and property.

Building codes and regulations typically require buildings to be designed and constructed
to withstand certain wind speeds, depending on the location and wind conditions (FEMA,
2018). Wind speed studies are often conducted to assess the potential wind load on a building
and to ensure that the building is designed and constructed to withstand the expected wind
forces. It's important to note that wind speed alone may not cause significant building damage,
as other factors such as building design, materials, and construction quality also play
important roles. Additionally, wind direction and duration can also have significant impacts
on building stability and safety. The wind speed is dynamic and uncontrolled. It depends on
various situations including the high wind load. As a result, it will impact the wind speed to
become low or high (K. Kumar, Krishna, & Bhandari, 2012).

Figure 7 (f) shows the map of wind speed when simulation is at 3.0-meter height. The
lowest wind speed is about 0.40 m/s, and the highest wind speed was 2.87 m/s. In general,
wind speeds at this height are higher than wind speeds at lower elevations, as they are less
affected by friction from the ground (Wang, Liu, Li, & Zhao, 2010). In urban areas, wind
speeds can be affected by the surrounding buildings, which can cause wind to be funnelled or
accelerated through narrow streets and alleyways. However, the effect of ground friction can
still have an impact on wind speed and wind direction in urban areas or areas with complex
terrain. This can result in higher wind speeds and gusts than would be expected in open areas.
The surface roughness of the ground can cause friction and slow down the wind speed near
the ground (Zhang, Wang, Chen, Li, & Dickinson, 2019). Therefore, wind speeds at lower
elevations are generally lower than at higher elevations, where there is less friction. Wind
speed studies are often conducted to assess the potential wind load on a building and to ensure
that the building is designed and constructed to withstand the expected wind forces,
considering the ground friction and other factors that can affect wind speed and direction.
MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 20 | No. 3 | 2023 134

a. 0.2 meters b. 0.6 meters c. 1.0 meters

d. 1.4 meters e. 1.8 meters f. 3.0 meters

g. 5.0 meters h. 7.0 meters i. 9.0 meters

k. 11.0 meters l. 13 meters

Figure 7. Profile of Wind Speed from 0.2 Metre to 13 Metres Height at 9.00 P.M. During The Event
MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 20 | No. 3 | 2023 135

CONCLUSION

A study on the effects of the height of buildings on wind speed was carried out. It can be
concluded that low wind speeds can also cause wind disaster damage and loss. High wind
speeds can cause significant damage to buildings and structures, and it is important to design
and construct buildings with wind-resistant features to ensure building safety and prevent
damage. When wind speeds are high, the force of the wind increases, which can create
pressure differences on different sides of a building or structure. This can lead to structural
damage, such as bending, twisting, or buckling of walls, roofs, or supports. If the wind speeds
are strong enough, entire sections of a building or structure can be ripped off or destroyed. In
addition to structural damage, high wind speeds can also cause non-structural damage, such
as broken windows, damaged siding, or debris impacts. These types of damage can be
dangerous for the occupants of the building or for people in the surrounding area. In areas
prone to high wind speeds, building codes and regulations may require specific wind-resistant
construction techniques and materials, as well as designs that take into account the wind
direction and duration. The aim is to ensure building safety and prevent damage by designing
and constructing buildings that are resistant to the wind loads they are likely to experience.

Aside from wind speed, there are a few other factors to consider in windstorm hazard
events, such as environmental factors, other meteorological factors, the way monuments are
built, and many others. Hence, this study focuses on vertical profiles that cause the wind speed
to be high and lead to destruction. In general, wind speed increases with height above the
ground, and this effect is more pronounced in urban areas with tall buildings. This is due to
the creation of wind tunnels and other wind patterns that are unique to urban environments.
The shape and orientation of the building can also affect the wind flow around it. Tall
buildings with flat sides can create large zones of low-pressure areas on the windward side,
which can lead to strong and unpredictable wind gusts. These wind gusts can cause damage
to the building or objects in its vicinity. The proximity of other buildings can also have an
impact on the wind speed near buildings. The interaction between buildings can generate wind
vortices or eddies, which can have significant effects on the stability and safety of
neighbouring structures. Additionally, computer simulations and wind tunnel tests can be
used to model the wind flow around buildings and assess their wind resistance.

Wind speed increases with height above the ground. The wind loads are higher for bigger
office buildings because the wind speed is higher. The speed and direction of surface winds
are significantly influenced by surface friction. Because the air slows as it moves over the
ground, wind speeds are lower than predicted by the pressure difference, and the wind
direction changes so that it blows across the isobars into a centre of low pressure and out of a
centre of high pressure. Since wind in Malaysia is classified as ‘light air’ and ‘light breeze’
based on the Beaufort Scale, it should not cause harm to the environment and destruction.
However, there were several wind destruction incidents reported between 2010-2018. This
study investigated the factors that contributed to such contradictory wind behaviours. It was
identified that the buildings’ height has contributed to the severe condition of ‘light air’. When
the wind is blowing towards the house, its force increases from moderate to strong. Anything
on Earth's surface, such as grass, trees, and buildings, can cause drag by stopping and slowing
the wind. The atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) is the thin layer at the bottom of the
atmosphere. It varies in depth from 0.3 km to 3 km. Turbulence in the ABL mixes the very
MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 20 | No. 3 | 2023 136

slow movement of air near the top with the faster movement of air in the ABL and slows the
wind speed in the full ABL (Nugent & Russell, 2020).

According to the findings, the highest wind speed ranged from 1.303 m/s to 1.476 m/s
from 0.2 meters to 5 meters in height. It is brought on by rubbing against structures like
buildings, lorries, or anything else that is on the earth's surface. As can be seen from the report,
there is less damage at this height. At a height between 7 to 11 metres, the highest wind speed
during the event is between 1.557 m/s to 1.869 m/s. The less friction of wind with any
monument on the surface, has caused wind speed to increase and there is building damage
reported at this height. At the top of the building, 13 metres high, the wind speed during the
event was 2.149 m/s. The building is completely affected by the wind circulation at this
height. The ceiling and roof were falling and being uprooted from the building. In conclusion,
low wind speeds should not be ignored, especially in densely populated urban areas. Low
wind speeds can result in air stagnation, poor air quality, and ventilation problems, all of
which can be harmful to building occupants' health. Additionally, low wind speeds can also
contribute to the build-up of pollutants and heat in urban areas, creating an urban heat island
effect. Even though the wind speed was not very high, damage might have still occurred. In
the future, it will be necessary to conduct research on a variety of factors to determine what
causes wind damage, including environmental factors, meteorological factors, construction
methods, material types, and many others. It is crucial to reduce future damage and the loss
endured by relevant stakeholders and the public.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The research described in this paper was financially supported by the Universiti
Teknologi MARA and the Ministry of Higher Education under the Fundamental Research
Grant Scheme FRGS/1/2019/WAB03/UITM/02/1.

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