Language acquisition refers to the process through which humans develop the ability to

understand, produce, and use language effectively for communication. This intricate process
typically unfolds during the early years of life and is marked by several significant
developmental stages. Each stage reflects the gradual build-up of linguistic skills, from sound
production in infancy to the construction of complex sentences in early childhood. In this
elaboration, we will dive deeper into each of these stages, outlining the linguistic, cognitive,
and social dimensions that drive language development.
1. Pre-linguistic Stage (0-12 months)
The pre-linguistic stage, occurring during the first year of life, represents the earliest phase of
language acquisition, where infants primarily experiment with sounds and engage in non-
verbal communication. Although these sounds may not immediately resemble adult language,
they lay the foundation for future speech and language development. This stage is crucial for
both the physical development of speech mechanisms and the mental processes underlying
language comprehension.
Cooing (0-3 months)
Cooing typically begins within the first two to three months of life. During this period,
infants produce simple, vowel-like sounds, such as "oo" and "ah." These sounds are not yet
linked to specific meanings but are a key form of vocal experimentation. Babies use cooing
as a way to exercise their vocal cords, and this stage also helps infants begin to differentiate
between sounds. They respond to the phonetic properties of the speech they hear around
them, starting the process of tuning their ears to the sounds of their native language.
Infants at this stage are also responsive to the intonational patterns of speech. For instance,
they may smile or coo more in response to a high-pitched, singsong voice (a phenomenon
known as "infant-directed speech" or "motherese"). This interaction marks an early form of
social engagement in the language-learning process.
Babbling (4-6 months onwards)
Babbling begins around 4-6 months and continues into the infant's first year. This stage is
characterized by the repetition of consonant-vowel combinations, such as "ba-ba" or "da-da."
These utterances are still not imbued with specific meaning, but they signify an important
step towards language production. Babbling can be categorized into two types:
 Canonical Babbling: This is when infants produce well-formed syllables that contain
a consonant and a vowel, such as "ma" or "pa." Canonical babbling is a universal
phenomenon, occurring across different languages and cultures.
 Variegated Babbling: As infants approach the end of their first year, their babbling
becomes more complex and varied. Instead of repeating the same syllables, they start
to combine different sounds, such as "ba-da" or "ma-ga."
Babbling is not only about sound production but also about practice for speech. It is through
this babbling process that babies experiment with the movements of the tongue, lips, and
other articulators. This motor practice is vital for the development of speech, as it helps
infants coordinate the movements required for clear articulation.
Gestures and Non-verbal Communication
Alongside vocalization, non-verbal communication plays a crucial role in this stage. Infants
use gestures such as pointing, reaching, or waving to communicate desires or draw attention
to objects. These early gestures serve as a precursor to spoken language and reflect an infant's
growing awareness of social interactions. Importantly, gestures also help caregivers and
infants co-construct meaning, as adults often respond to these non-verbal cues with speech
that provides linguistic input.
2. Holophrastic Stage (12-18 months)
The holophrastic stage marks the onset of true language production, where infants begin to
use single words, or holophrases, to represent entire ideas or sentences. This stage typically
occurs between 12 to 18 months of age. Holophrases are often nouns and serve multiple
functions, such as labeling objects, expressing desires, or requesting actions.
Characteristics of Holophrastic Speech
A holophrase is a single word that conveys the meaning of a more complex sentence. For
instance, when a child says "milk," they could be expressing a variety of messages such as "I
want milk," "There is milk," or "Give me milk." The exact meaning of the holophrase is
usually determined by the context in which it is used, as well as the child's tone of voice or
accompanying gestures.
At this stage, children's vocabularies are relatively limited, often consisting of fewer than 50
words, but these words are highly functional and often include labels for important people,
objects, or actions (e.g., "mama," "dada," "ball," "up"). Despite the simplicity of their speech,
infants demonstrate a growing understanding of the rules of communication, including how
to use language to achieve goals and interact with others.
Comprehension vs. Production
An important feature of the holophrastic stage is the distinction between comprehension and
production. Research shows that children at this stage understand far more words than they
can produce. While a child may only be able to say a few dozen words, they might
comprehend hundreds of words and can follow simple instructions like "bring the ball" or
"give the book to daddy."
Overextension and Underextension
Two phenomena commonly observed during this stage are overextension and underextension:
 Overextension: This occurs when a child uses a single word to label multiple objects
that share a common feature. For example, a child might use the word "dog" to refer
to all four-legged animals, or "ball" for any round object. Overextension reflects the
child's attempt to categorize the world, even if their categories are not yet fully
accurate.
 Underextension: In contrast, underextension occurs when a child applies a word too
narrowly. For instance, a child may use the word "dog" only to refer to their family
pet and not other dogs. This shows that the child has not yet generalized the concept
to other instances.
Both overextension and underextension highlight the cognitive processes involved in word
learning as children attempt to map words onto the concepts and objects they encounter in
their environment.
3. Two-word Stage (18-24 months)
The two-word stage emerges around 18 to 24 months and marks a significant development in
a child's ability to combine words. During this stage, children begin to form simple sentences
by stringing together two words, creating a more structured form of communication.
Telegraphic Nature of Early Sentences
The speech produced during the two-word stage is often referred to as "telegraphic speech"
because it resembles the concise, stripped-down language used in telegrams, where non-
essential words (like articles and prepositions) are omitted. For example, instead of saying "I
want milk," a child might say "want milk" or "more milk." Other common combinations
include "big truck," "mama come," or "throw ball."
These two-word sentences are important because they demonstrate that children are
beginning to understand the basic rules of syntax, or the arrangement of words in a sentence.
Although their speech is still quite limited, children at this stage are able to convey a range of
meanings and intentions through their word combinations.
Word Order and Meaning
One of the most significant developments in the two-word stage is the emergence of
consistent word order. Even though children's sentences are short, they generally follow the
word order of their native language. For example, in English, children tend to place the
subject before the verb ("dog run") or the verb before the object ("throw ball"). This suggests
that children are starting to grasp the syntactic rules of their language, even if they are not yet
using complete sentences.
The two-word stage also reflects children's growing ability to use language to express more
complex meanings, such as possession ("my toy"), location ("book table"), or action ("kick
ball"). By combining words, children can convey relationships between objects and actions,
marking a significant advance in their communicative abilities.
Vocabulary Explosion
Around the time of the two-word stage, many children experience what is known as the
"vocabulary explosion," a rapid increase in the number of words they can produce. This
phenomenon typically occurs between 18 and 24 months and reflects the child's growing
ability to map words onto objects, actions, and concepts in their environment. During this
period, children may learn several new words each day, leading to a rapid expansion of their
expressive vocabulary.
4. Telegraphic Stage (24-30 months)
The telegraphic stage, which spans from approximately 24 to 30 months, is characterized by
the production of multi-word sentences that still omit some non-essential parts of speech.
Children at this stage continue to communicate using short, concise sentences that include
key content words but often leave out grammatical markers, such as articles ("the," "a"),
auxiliary verbs ("is," "are"), and prepositions ("on," "in").
Characteristics of Telegraphic Speech
In telegraphic speech, children focus on the most important words needed to convey
meaning. For example, a child might say "mommy go store" instead of "mommy is going to
the store" or "want cookie" instead of "I want a cookie." While these sentences are
grammatically incomplete by adult standards, they are highly functional and allow children to
communicate effectively.
The omission of function words in telegraphic speech is not random but reflects the child's
prioritization of content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives) that carry the most meaning. This
stage demonstrates that children are beginning to understand the structure of sentences but
are still in the process of mastering the full complexity of grammatical rules.
Semantic and Pragmatic Development
During the telegraphic stage, children also show significant advances in their understanding
of the meaning of words (semantics) and how to use language in social contexts (pragmatics).
They become more adept at using language to express increasingly complex ideas and
intentions.
Semantic Development
Semantic development refers to the increasing ability to understand and produce meaningful
words and phrases. At this stage, children begin to expand their vocabulary rapidly, learning
the names of objects, actions, and people in their environment. This stage is often referred to
as a “vocabulary explosion” or “word spurt,” where children may learn several new words
each day.
 Word Overextension: A common phenomenon in early semantic development is
overextension, where children apply a single word to a broader set of objects than is
appropriate. For example, a child might use the word "dog" to refer to all four-legged
animals. This overextension reflects the child’s attempt to apply newly learned words
to their surroundings, even when the precise boundaries of meaning have not yet been
fully learned.
 Word Underextension: Conversely, underextension occurs when children apply a
word too narrowly. For instance, a child may use the word "cat" only for their own
family cat and not recognize other cats as the same category. Both overextension and
underextension are indicators of the child’s active effort to map language onto their
conceptual understanding of the world.
 Fast Mapping: Another critical component of semantic development during this
period is fast mapping—the process by which children quickly connect new words to
their meanings after only a brief exposure. For example, if a child is presented with a
novel object and hears it named just once, they can often remember and use that word
correctly in future contexts. This ability to rapidly link words to meanings is a key
mechanism driving vocabulary growth during early childhood.
  Word Combinations and Semantic Relationships: As children progress from single
words to multi-word utterances, they begin to combine words in meaningful ways.
These early combinations often reflect simple semantic relationships, such as "agent-
action" ("Mommy go"), "action-object" ("throw ball"), or "possessor-possessed" ("my
toy"). Over time, children’s word combinations become more sophisticated, and they
start to grasp the relationships between words and their roles in sentences.
Pragmatic Development
Pragmatic development refers to the ability to use language effectively in social situations,
adapting communication to fit the context and the listener's needs. While children are
learning the rules of grammar and vocabulary, they are also learning how to use language in
socially appropriate ways.
 Turn-Taking in Conversation: One of the first pragmatic skills children develop is
the ability to engage in turn-taking during conversations. Initially, children may
interrupt or speak over others, but with practice and social modeling, they learn the
social conventions of waiting for their turn to speak. Turn-taking is an essential skill
that underpins effective communication in both informal conversations and more
structured social settings.
 Politeness and Social Norms: As children's pragmatic skills develop, they become
aware of the social rules governing language use, such as politeness. They start to
understand that different situations may require different forms of speech. For
example, a child might learn to say “please” and “thank you” when making requests,
recognizing that these politeness markers are expected in certain social contexts. They
also begin to grasp the concept of adjusting their tone and language when speaking to
different people, such as using simpler language when addressing a younger sibling or
more formal language with a teacher.
 Conversational Repair: Another aspect of pragmatic development is the ability to
engage in conversational repair. This means that when a child realizes that their
message was not understood by the listener, they can rephrase or clarify it. For
example, if a child says, “I want that,” and the listener does not understand, the child
might point to the object or provide additional information, such as, “I want the blue
cup.”
 Understanding and Using Nonverbal Cues: Pragmatic development also involves
learning to interpret and use nonverbal cues such as gestures, facial expressions, and
eye contact. Children learn that these nonverbal signals play a critical role in
communication. For instance, a child might recognize that a listener’s confused
expression indicates the need for further explanation, or they might use gestures like
pointing to supplement their verbal communication.
 Adjusting Language to Context: As children’s pragmatic understanding matures,
they become better at adjusting their language to suit different contexts. This includes
modifying their speech based on the listener’s knowledge or needs (known as
audience design). For example, a child might provide more detailed explanations to
someone unfamiliar with a particular topic, while offering less information to
someone they know is already familiar. Similarly, they learn to switch between more
 formal or casual language depending on the situation (e.g., talking differently to a
peer versus a grandparent).
 Theory of Mind and Perspective-Taking: An important aspect of pragmatic
development is the growing ability to understand others' perspectives, a cognitive skill
known as Theory of Mind. Children begin to realize that other people have thoughts,
knowledge, and emotions that may differ from their own, and this understanding
influences how they communicate. For example, a child may explain something in
more detail to a person they know is unfamiliar with the topic, recognizing that the
listener does not share their knowledge.
Development of Narratives
As children's semantic and pragmatic skills improve, they also become more proficient in
producing and understanding narratives. Storytelling requires the ability to structure language
in a coherent sequence and use language to convey meaning about past events, fictional
scenarios, or imagined experiences.
 Early Narratives: In the early stages, children's narratives may be relatively simple,
often focusing on a series of events without much attention to causality or the
relationships between events. For example, a child might recount their day by listing
activities: "I played. I ate lunch. I went outside."
 Coherence and Causality: As their language skills develop, children's narratives
become more coherent and structured. They begin to use language to explain the
relationships between events, including causal links (e.g., "I fell because the ground
was slippery") and temporal sequencing (e.g., "First, we went to the park, and then we
had ice cream"). This ability to produce coherent, well-organized narratives is an
important milestone in both semantic and pragmatic development.
 Understanding Audience Needs in Storytelling: Pragmatic development also plays
a role in how children tell stories. They become more aware of their audience's needs
and adjust their storytelling accordingly. For example, they might provide more
background information to someone who is unfamiliar with the events being
described, or they might focus on more exciting or dramatic elements to engage their
listener.