Part I

MODULE 1 : LASER AND OPTICAL

FIBERS

1
Chapter 1

LASER

1.1 Introduction
LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stim-
ulated Emission of Radiation. The first LASER was built
by Theodore H Maiman in the year 1960. Thus it finds
various applications starting from industries to communi-
cation.

1.2 Characterisitcs of a LASER

beam
Figure 1.1: Induced absorption
The LASER beam has the following four characteristics.
1. LASER beam is highly monochromatic.
1.3.2 Spontaneous Emission
2. LASER beam is highly coherent.
3. LASER beam is highly directional. Spontaneous emission is the process of emission of pho-
ton, when an atom transits from higher energy level to
4. LASER is a high intensity beam of light. lower energy level without the influence of any external
energy.
1.3 Interaction of radiation with
matter
The interaction between radiation and matter occurs
through the following three processes.
1. Induced absorption
2. Spontaneous emission
3. Stimulated emission

1.3.1 Induced Absorption Figure 1.2: Spontaneous emission

When a photon of right energy is incident on the atom
then the photon is absorbed This process is induced by the
photon and hence it is called Induced Absorption.
Consider an atom in a lower energy states 𝐸 1 , it will An electron in the higher energy state of an atom makes
excite to higher energy states 𝐸 2 by absorbing the incident a transition to lower energy state without the action of any
photon of energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1 . Here 𝐸 1 energy external agency. the energy of the photon emitted is given
of the lower energy state, 𝐸 2 is the energy of the higher by 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1 . In this process the emitted photons
energy state, ℎ is the Planck’s constant 𝜈 is the frequency need not travel in the same direction. Thus the light beam
of photon. is not directional.

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1.3.3 Stimulated Emission 2. Rate of Induced absorption = 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝐸 𝜈

When a photon of suitable energy interacts with an
atom in the higher energy state then the atom is stimulated Here 𝐵12 is proportionality constant called Einsteins coef-
(Forced) to make transition from higher energy state to a ficient of Induced absorption.
lower energy state with the emission of a photon. Both
the incident photon and the emitted photons are coherent Rate of spontaneous emission:
and travel in the same direction. Thus the process is called
stimulated emission. The number of spontaneous emission per unit volume in
unit time is called rate of spontaneous emission. Rate of
spontaneous emission depends on

Since spontaneous emission is a voluntary process it is

independent of energy density 𝐸 𝜈 . The rate of sponta-
neous emission depends only on the number of atoms in
the higher energy state 𝑁2 . Thus

1. Rate of spontaneous emission ∝ 𝑁2

2. Rate of Spontaneous emission = 𝐴21 𝑁2

Here 𝐴21 is the proportionality constant called Einstein’s

Figure 1.3: Stimulated emission
co-efficient of spontaneous emission.

Rate of stimulated emission

When a photon of energy ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1 interacts with
an atom in the higher energy state the stimulated emission The number of stimulated emission per unit volume in unit
takes place with the emission of two photons of same en- time is called rate of stimulated emission. Rate of stimu-
ergy that are highly directional and coherent.Thus stimu- lated emission depends upon,
lated emission could be used to generate a highly coherent
1. Number of atoms in the higher energy state (𝑁2 )
directional beam of light.
2. The energy density (𝐸 𝜈 ).

1.4 Einstein’s A and B co-efficients Hence

and expression for energy den- 1. The Rate of stimulated emission ∝ 𝑁2 𝐸 𝜈
sity 2. Rate of stimulated emission = 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝐸 𝜈

Consider a system containing 𝑁 atoms and is under ther- Here the proportionality constant called 𝐵21 is Einstein’s
mal equilibrium. Let 𝐸 1 and 𝐸 2 be the lower and higher coefficient of stimulated emission.
energy levels that contain 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 number of atoms re- Under Thermal Equilibrium the total Energy of the Sys-
spectively. Let the incident energy density of the radia- tem remains unchanged. Hence Rate of Absorption is
tion be 𝐸 𝜈 . Hence the system absorbs and emits the en- equal to rate of emission.
ergy through the following processes. The energy of the ∴ Rate of Induced Absorption = [Rate of Spontaneous
photons absorbed and emitted by the atoms is 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = emission + Rate of Stimulated Emission]
(𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1 ) ∴
𝐵12 𝑁1 𝐸 𝜈 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 + 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝐸 𝜈 (1.1)
Rate of induced absorption
(𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 ) 𝐸 𝜈 = 𝐴21 𝑁2
The rate of induced absorption is defined as the number
of induced absorption per second per unit volume in unit
time. Rate of absorption depends on 𝐴21 𝑁2
𝐸𝜈 = (1.2)
𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2
1. Number of atoms in the lower energy state 𝑁1 .
𝐴21
𝐸𝜈 = (1.3)
2. The incident energy density 𝐸 𝜈 . 𝑁1
𝐵12 𝑁2 − 𝐵21
" #
Hence
𝐴21 1
𝐸𝜈 = (1.4)
1. Rate of Induced absorption ∝ 𝑁1 𝐸 𝜈 𝐵21 𝐵12 𝑁1
𝐵21 𝑁2 −1

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According to Boltzmann relation the we have

𝑁2 −ℎ𝜈
= 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (1.5)
𝑁1
or we can re-write as,
𝑁1 ℎ𝜈
= 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (1.6)
𝑁2
Here ℎ is the Planck’s constant, 𝑐 is the speed of light in
vacuum, 𝜆 is the wavelength of the photon, 𝑘 is the Boltz-
mann constant and 𝑇 is the absolute temperature. Substi- Figure 1.4: LASER action
𝑁1
tuting for 𝑁2
in equation 1.4
 
𝐴21  1  LASER action could be achieved through the conditions
 
𝐸𝜈 =   ℎ𝜈   (1.7)
𝐵21  𝐵12 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1  population inversion and metastable state.
 𝐵21 
 
According to Planck’s radiation law, the equation for en- 1.5.1 Population Inversion and Pumping
ergy density in the frequency domain is given by
If a system is under thermal equilibrium the number of
 
8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 1 atoms in excited state is less than the number of atoms in
𝐸𝜈 = (1.8) the lower energy state. For the production of LASER num-
𝑐3 ℎ𝜈
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1
ber of stimulated emission must be more when compared
on comparing equations 1.7 and 1.8 we can get to induced absorption and spontaneous emission. This is
possible only if the number of atoms in the higher energy
𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3
= (1.9) state is more than the number of atoms in the lower en-
𝐵21 𝑐3 ergy state and is called population inversion. The means of
and achieving population inversion by supplying energy from
𝐵12 a suitable source is called Pumping. In addition,to have
=1 (1.10)
𝐵21 more stimulated emissions, the life time of atoms in the
or 𝐵12 = 𝐵21 excited state must be longer. Thus the essential conditions
This means that Probability of Induced absorption is for population inversion are
equal to Probability of Stimulated emission. Hence 𝐴21 1. Higher energy state should posses a longer life time.
& 𝐵21 can be replaced by 𝐴 & 𝐵. Thus equation 1.7 could
be written as   2. The number of atoms in the higher energy state must
𝐴 1 be greater than the number of atoms in the lower en-
𝐸𝜈 = ℎ𝜈
(1.11)
𝐵 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1 ergy state.
Hence the expression for energy density in terms of Ein-
stein’s co-efficient 𝐴 and 𝐵. 1.5.2 Metastable state
The life time of an energy level is of the order of 10−8
1.5 LASER Action and the Condi- second. If an atom posses unusual longer life time in an
energy state such a state is referred to as a metastable state.
tions for LASER action Usually the life time of metastable state varies from 10−2 s
to 10−3 s. Population inversion could be achieved with the
Consider a LASER system. Let an atom in the excited
help of three energy state with one of them a metastable
state is stimulated by a photon of right energy so that atom
state and is as shown in the figure 1.5. The population
makes stimulated emission. Two coherent photons are ob-
inversion is achieved between the state 𝐸 2 and 𝐸 1 as state
tained. These two coherent photons if stimulate two atoms
𝐸 2 is a metastable state.
in the exited state to make emission then four coherent pho-
tons are emitted. These four coherent photons stimulate 4 Note : The principles of Laser are
more atoms in the excited state resulting in 8 coherent pho-
tons and so on. As the process continues number of coher- 1. Stimulated Emission
ent photons increases. These coherent photons constitute
an intense beam of LASER. This phenomenon of building 2. Population Inversion
up of number of coherent photons so as to get an intense 3. Metastable State
LASER beam is called lasing action.
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1.7 Semiconductor LASER or Diode

LASER
Introduction
Semiconductor diode LASER is an LED with heavily
doped P and N sections. First semiconductor LASER was
fabricated in 1962 using 𝐺𝑎 − 𝐴𝑠 by Hall with his co-
workers. It is a low cost and high efficiency LASER.

Figure 1.5: Population inversion, 𝐸 2 is Metastable state

1.6 Requisites of a LASER system

The three requisites of a LASER system are,

1. Excitation source for pumping action

2. Active medium that supports metastable states

3. LASER cavity
Figure 1.6: Semiconductor Diode LASER

1.6.1 Energy Source or Pumping Mecha-

nism Construction

In order to achieve population inversion more and more Construction

atoms are to be moved to higher energy state and is called
pumping. This is achieved by supplying suitable energy The 𝐺𝑎 − 𝐴𝑠 LASER diode belongs to direct band gap
using an energy source. If optical energy is used then the semiconductors. The 𝑛-section is derived by doping the
pumping is called optical pumping and if electrical energy substrate with Tellurium and 𝑝-section is derived by dop-
is used then the pumping is called electrical pumping. ing the substrate with Zinc. The diode used is in the form
of a cube with dimension 0.4 mm. The depletion region is
of thickness 0.1 micrometer and lies horizontal as shown
1.6.2 Active medium in the figure 1.6.The current is passed through the ohmic
Population inversion occurs at certain stage in the ac- contacts provided to the top and bottom faces. The front
tive medium due to the absorption of energy. The active and back faces are polished and made highly parallel to
medium supports metastable states. After this stage the ac- each other to have a LASER cavity. The other two faces
tive medium is capable of emitting LASER light. are roughened.

1.6.3 Resonant cavity (or) LASER cavity

The LASER Cavity consists of an active medium bound
between two highly parallel mirrors. The reflection of
photons from the mirrors results in multiple traverse of
photons through the active medium inducing more and
more stimulated emissions. Thus amplification of light is
achieved. This also helps to tap certain permissible part
of LASER energy from the active medium.The cavity res-
onates and the output will be maximum when the distance
𝐿 between the mirrors is equal to an integral multiple of 𝜆2 .
Here 𝜆 is the wavelength of incident suitable radiation.the
length of the LASER cavity is expressed as Working

𝑛𝜆 The Diode is forward biased using an external source.

𝐿= (1.12) Therefore electrons and holes flow across junction. Hence
2

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Advantages 3. Explain the terms, (i) Induced absorption, (ii) Sponta-

neous emission, (iii) Stimulated emission, (iv) Popu-
1. Laser printers are generally quiet and fast. lation inversion, (v) Metastable state & (vi) Resonant
cavity.
2. Laser printers can produce high quality output on or-
dinary papers. 4. Explain the rates of absorption and emission and
hence derive an expression for energy density using
3. The cost per page of toner cartridges is lower than Einstein’s A and B coefficients.
other printers.
5. Explain requisites of LASER system.
Disadvantages 6. What is Semiconductor LASER? Describe with en-
1. The initial cost of laser printers can be high. ergy band diagram the construction & working of
Semiconductor diode LASER along with applica-
2. Laser printers are more expensive than dot-matrix tions.
printers and ink-jet printers
7. Discuss the working of LASER barcode reader.
8. With the help of a sketch describe the principle, con-
1.8.3 LASER Cooling
struction and working of the LASER Printer.
Principle of LASER Cooling Laser cooling is the use of
9. Explain LASER Cooling and its application.
dissipative light forces for reducing the random motion and
thus the temperature of small particles, typically atoms or
ions. Depending on the mechanism used, the temperature 1.10 Numerical Problems
achieved can be in the millikelvin, microkelvin, or even
nanokelvin regime. 1. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a
LASER if the transition between them produces light
of wavelength 6493 Å, assuming the ambient temper-
ature at 27°C.
2. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a
medium at thermal equilibrium, if the wavelength of
light emitted at 291 K is 6928 Å.
3. The ratio of population of two energy levels out of
which one corresponds to metastable state is 1.059 ×
10−30 . Find the wavelength of light emitted at 330 K.
4. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a
Figure 1.10: Laser Cooling medium at thermal equilibrium, if the wavelength of
light emitted at 300 K is 10𝜇𝑚. Also find the effec-
tive temperature when energy levels are equally pop-
If an atom is traveling toward a laser beam and absorbs ulated.
a photon from the laser, it will be slowed by the fact that 5. The average power output of a LASER beam of wave-
the photon has momentum 𝑝 = 𝐸𝑐 = 𝜆ℎ . It would take a length 6500 Å is 10 mW. Find the number of photons
large number of such absorptions to cool the atoms to near emitted per second by the LASER source.
0K. The follwing are the types of laser cooling
6. The average power of a LASER beam of wavelength
• Doppler Cooling. 6328 Å is 5 mW. Find the number of photons emitted
per second by the LASER source.
• Sisyphous Cooling.
7. A pulsed LASER has an average power output 1.5
mW per pulse and pulse duration is 20 ns. The
1.9 Model Questions number of photons emitted per pulse is estimated to
be 1.047 ×108 . Find the wavelength of the emitted
1. What is LASER? Enumerate the Characteristics of a LASER.
LASER Beam.
8. A pulsed LASER with power 1 mW lasts for 10 ns.
2. Discuss the three possible ways through which radia- If the number of photons emitted per pulse is 5 ×107 .
tion and matter interaction can take place. Calculate the wavelength of LASER.

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9. A Ruby LASER emits a pulse of 20 ns duration with

average power per pulse being 100 kW. If the number
of photons in each pulse is 6.981 × 1015 , calculate the
wavelength of photons.
10. In a LASER system when the energy difference be-
tween two energy levels is 2 × 10−19 J, the average
power output of LASER beam is found to be 4 mW.
Calculate number of photons emitted per second.

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Chapter 2

Optical Fibers

2.1 Introduction 2.2 Total Internal Reflection

Optical fibers are the wires and strands made of trans- Consider a ray of light moving from a denser medium to
parent dielectrics which guide light over longer distances rarer medium. As a result the incident ray of light bends
using the phenomenon of Total Internal Reflection. Many away from the normal. Hence the angle of refraction is
optical fibers are bundled together and are given a protec- greater than the angle of incidence. As the angle of inci-
tive layer of covering using an insulating material. This dence increases the angle of refraction also increases. For
bundle is called Optical Fiber Cable or Fiber Bundle (Bun- a particular angle of incidence 𝜃 𝑐 the refracted ray grazes
dle Fiber). the interface separating the two media. The corresponding
angle of incidence 𝜃 𝑐 is called Critical Angle. If the an-
gle of incidence is greater than the critical angle then all
Construction: The sectional view of a typical optical the light is turned back into the same medium and is called
fiber is as shown in the figure. It has three regions named Total Internal Reflection.
Core, Cladding and Sheath.

1. The innermost light guiding region is called Core.

2. The layer covering core and helps in total internal re-

flection of light is called Cladding or Clad.

3. The outermost protective layer is called Sheath (Coat-

Figure 2.2: Total Internal Reflection
ing). The sheath protects the fiber from mechanical
stress and chemical reactions.

The optical fiber is designed to support total internal re- According to Snell’s law
flection and hence the RI of core𝑛1 is made greater than
the RI of cladding 𝑛2 . A typical fiber will be of the order 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2
of few microns.
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 1 = 𝜃 𝑐 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝜃 2 = 900
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛900
𝑛2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐 =
𝑛1
 
−1 𝑛2
𝜃 𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2.1)
𝑛1

2.3 Angle of acceptance and Numer-

Figure 2.1: Optical fiber construction
ical aperture
Acceptance angle (𝜃 0 ) is the maximum angle of incidence
with which the ray is sent into the fiber core which allows

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the incident light to be guided by the core. It is also called 1 p 2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2 (2.4)
as waveguide acceptance angle or acceptance cone half an- 𝑛1
gle. use equation (1.26) in equation (1.24) we have,

In optics, the numerical aperture (NA) of an optical fiber 𝑛1 1 p 2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2
is a dimensionless number that characterizes the range of 𝑛0 𝑛1
angles over which the fiber can accept light. Numerical
aperture represents the light gathering capability of optical 1 p 2
fiber and it is given by 𝑁 𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2 (2.5)
𝑛0
Numerical aperture 𝑁.𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0
2.3.1 Condition for propagation
1 p 2
𝑁.𝐴 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2 (2.6)
𝑛0

If the fiber is in air 𝑛0 = 1 then,

p
𝑁.𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 (2.7)

Light is transmitted through the fiber only when

𝜃𝑖 ≤ 𝜃0 (2.8)

Figure 2.3: Ray propagation in the fiber

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑖 ≤ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 (2.9)
Consider an optical fiber with core made of refractive
p
index 𝑛1 & cladding made of material refractive index 𝑛2 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 (2.10)
Let 𝑛0 be the refractive index of the surrounding medium.
Let a ray of light 𝐴𝑂 entering into core at an angle of in-
cidence 𝜃 0 w.r.t fiber axis. Then it is refracted along 𝑂𝐵 at 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑖 ≤ 𝑁.𝐴 (2.11)
an angle 𝜃 1 & meet core-cladding interface at critical angle
of incidence (𝜃 𝑐 = 90 − 𝜃 1 ). Then the refracted ray grazes This is the condition for propagation. Light will be trans-
along 𝐵𝐶. On applying Snell’s law at O, we get mitted through the optical fiber with multiple total internal
reflections when the above condition is satisfied.
𝑛0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1
𝑛1
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 (2.2)
𝑛0 2.4 Modes of propagation
On applying Snell’s law at point B, we get
Though optical fiber should support any numbers of rays
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(900 − 𝜃 1 ) = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛900 for propagation practically. But it is found that the opti-
𝑛1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 = 𝑛2 cal fiber allows only a certain restricted number of rays for
𝑛2 propagation. The maximum number of rays or paths sup-
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 = (2.3) ported by the fiber for the propagation of light is called
𝑛1
Modes of propagation. Based on the modes of propaga-
From trigonometric identity tion fibers are classified into Single mode and Multimode
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃 1 = 1 fibers.
p
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃 1
using equation 1.25
2.5 RI Profile
s
 2 The RI profile is a plot of variation of RI of the fiber with
𝑛2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 = 1− respect to radial distance from the axis of an optical fiber.
𝑛1 Based on the RI profile fibers are classified into Step index
s and Graded index fibers. In case of Step index fibers RI of
𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 the core is constant. In case of Graded index fibers the RI
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 =
𝑛1 2 decreses radialy outwards.

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Here 𝐿 is the length of the cable in 𝑘𝑚, 𝑃𝑖𝑛 is Power driven devices in a particular physical location. Tradition-
of optical signal at launching end (input power) & 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 is lly copper coaxial cables are used for for LAN.
Power of optical signal at receiving end (output power)

The attenuation in fibers gives is due to the following

three losses
1. Absorption losses
2. Scattering loss (due to Rayleigh Scattering)
3. Geometric Effects (Radiation losses)

2.6.1 Absorption loss

In this type of loss, the loss of signal power occurs due
Figure 2.8: Fiber Optic LAN
to absorption of photons associated with the signal. Pho-
tons are absorbed either by impurities in the glass fiber
or by pure glass material itself. Absorption loss is wave-
length dependent.Thus absorption loss is classified in to
Abbreviations
two types.
1. PON - Passive Optical Network
Extrinsic absorption : Extrinsic loss in an optical fiber
is due to the absorption of light by the impurities such 2. ONT - Optical Network Terminal
as hydroxide ions and transition metal ions such as iron, 3. ODN - Optical Distribution Network
chromium, cobalt and copper.
4. OLT - Optical Line Terminal
Intrinsic absorption Intrinsic loss in fiber is due to the
5. ONU - Optical Network Unit
absorption of light by the material of the fiber glass itself.
The intrinsic losses are insignificant.
Passive Optical LAN
2.6.2 Scattering loss A passive optical network refers to a fiber-optic network
utilizing a point-to-multipoint topology and optical split-
Light traveling through the core can get scattered by im-
ters to deliver data from a single transmission point to mul-
purities or small regions with sudden change in refractive
tiple user endpoints.Passive here refers to the unpowered
index. Rayleigh scattering varies as 𝛼 = 𝜆14 and leads to
condition of the fiber and splitting/combining components.
significant power loss at smaller wavelengths. The scat-
Passive optical LANs are built entirely using Optical fiber
tering results in loss of photons. Rayleigh scattering is re-
cables. The passive optical LAN works on the concept of
sponsible for maximum losses in optical fibers.
optical network terminals (ONT) and passive optical split-
ters. Network switches act as passive splitters and the com-
2.6.3 Geometric effects mercial media converters act as optical network terminals
in a real-time application of passive optical LAN.
These may occur due to manufacturing defects like irregu-
larities in fibre dimensions during drawing process or dur-
ing coating, cabling or insulation processes. The micro- Advantages
scopic bends are the bends with radii greater than fiber di- 1. High speeds and bandwidth
ameter. The microscopic bends couple light between the
various guided modes of the fiber and some of them then 2. Longer distances are possible
leak through the fiber.
3. Less chance of errors

2.7 Applications of Optical Fibers 2.7.2 Point to point communication using

2.7.1 Fiber Optic Networking Optical Fibers
In an optical fiber communication system, the input sig-
Local Area Network
nals (audio, video or other digital data) are used to mod-
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a type of computer net- ulate light from a source like a LED or a semiconductor
work that interconnects multiple computers and computer- LASER and is transmitted through optical fiber. At the

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receiving end the signal is demodulated to reproduce the 2.8 Model Questions
input signal. If data transfer takes place between only two
devices then, it is called point to point communication. 1. Define the terms: (i) angle of acceptance, (ii) numeri-
cal aperture, (iii) modes of propagation & (iv) refrac-
tive index profile.

2. Obtain an expression for numerical aperture and ar-

rive at the condition for propagation.

3. Explain modes of propagation and RI profile.

4. What is attenuation? Explain the factors contributing

to the fiber loss.

Figure 2.9: Point to point fiber optic communication sys- 5. Discuss the types of optical fibers based on modes of
tem propagation and RI profile.

6. Explain attenuation along with the expression for at-

tenuation co-efficient and also discuss the types of
Optical fiber communication process : The communi- fiber losses.
cation using Optical fiber is as follows. First voice is con-
7. Explain the Fiber Optic Networking and mention its
verted into electrical signal using a transducer. It is digi-
advantages.
tized using a Coder. The digitized signal, which carries the
voice information, is fed to an optical transmitter. The light 8. Discuss point to point optical fiber communication
source in optical transmitter (LED or LASER Diode) emits system and mention its advantages over the conven-
modulated light, which is transmitted through the optical tional communication system.
fiber. At the other end the modulated light signal is de-
tected by a photo detector and is decoded using a decoder. 9. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of an opti-
Finally the information is converted into analog electrical cal communication.
signal and is fed to a loud speaker, which converts the sig-
nal to voice (sound).
2.9 Numerical Problems
Advantages
1. Calculate the numerical aperture and angle of accep-
1. Optical fibers can carry very large amounts of infor- tance for an optical fiber having refractive indices
mation in either digital or analog form. 1.563 and 1.498 for core and cladding respectively.
2. The raw material for optical fiber is of low cost and
2. The refractive indices of the core and cladding of a
abundant.
step index optical fiber are 1.45 and 1.4 respectively
3. It has low cost /meter/ channel and its core diameter is 45𝜇𝑚. Calculate its fractional
refractive index change and numerical aperture.
4. Cables are very compact
3. Calculate numerical aperture, acceptance angle and
5. Signals are protected from radiation from lightning or critical angle of a fiber having a core RI 1.50 and
sparking cladding RI 1.45.

6. There is no energy radiation from fiber 4. An optical fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.32. The
refractive index of cladding is 1.48. Calculate the re-
7. No sparks are generated
fractive index of the core, the acceptance angle of the
fiber and the fractional index change.
Disadvantages
5. An optical signal propagating in a fiber retains 85%
1. The optical connectors are very costly of input power after traveling a distance of 500 m in
2. Maintenance cost is high the fiber. Calculate the attenuation coefficient.

3. They cannot be bent too sharply 6. An optical fiber has core RI 1.5 and RI of cladding is
3% less than the core index. Calculate the numerical
4. They under go structural changes with temperature aperture, angle of acceptance critical angle.

Department of Physics 15 A T M E College of Engineering, Mysuru

Applied Physics for CSE Stream Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22

7. The numerical aperture of an optical fiber is 0.2 when

surround by air. Determine the RI of its core, given
the RI of the cladding is 1.59. Also find the accep-
tance angle when the fiber is in water of RI 1.33.
8. The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber is 300
when kept in air. Find the angle of acceptance when
it is in medium of refractive index 1.33.

9. An optical fiber of 600 m long has input power of 120

mW which emerges out with power of 90 mW. Find
attenuation in fiber.

10. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is 3.6

dB/km. What fraction of its initial intensity is remains
after i) 1 km and ii) 3 km ?

11. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is 2.2

dB/km. What fraction of its initial intensity is remains
after i) 2 km and ii) 6 km ?

Department of Physics 16 A T M E College of Engineering, Mysuru