Journal of Structural Geology 25 (2003) 575±589

www.elsevier.com/locate/jstrugeo

Asymmetric boudins as shear sense indicatorsÐan assessment

from ®eld data
Ben D. Goscombe a,*, Cees W. Passchier b
a
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Adelaide University, Adelaide, S.A. 5005, Australia
b
Institut fuÈr Geowissenschaften, Johannes Gutenberg UniversitaÈt, Becherweg 21, 55099 Mainz, Germany
Received 22 February 2001; received in revised form 31 October 2001; accepted 1 December 2001

Abstract
Asymmetric boudins are potential but problematic shear sense indicators. They can be divided into two groups, with slip on the inter-
boudin surface that is either synthetic (S-slip) or antithetic (A-slip) with respect to bulk shear sense. Since both groups have mirror-image
symmetry, independent geometric criteria are needed to distinguish them if they are to be used as shear sense indicators. Investigation of
asymmetric boudins in trains parallel to the main foliation from the Kaoko Belt in Namibia and elsewhere indicate that the geometry of both
groups is in most cases different. Shearband boudins (formed by S-slip) have a long, curved lenticular shape and large relative displacement
and synthetic drag on an inter-boudin surface that is gently inclined to the boudin exterior surface. Domino boudins (formed by A-slip) have
an angular shape, an inter-boudin surface steeply inclined to the boudin exterior surface with small relative displacement and unique
antithetic ¯anking folds instead of synthetic drag. Gash boudins are a special type of domino boudin with sigmoidal or forked inter-boudin
surfaces; they form mostly as foliation boudinage. In boudin trains that were highly oblique to the attractor eigenvector (usually traced by the
main foliation), all asymmetric boudin geometries formed by S-slip. Such foliation-oblique boudin trains can, nevertheless, be employed as a
second class of shear sense indicator, as in all cases the boudin train as a whole must verge in the same direction as bulk shear sense.
q 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Asymmetric boudins; Shear sense; Inter-boudin surface; Synthetic; Antithetic

1. Introduction grade metamorphic rocks and low-strain terranes they are

the only potential shear sense indicators available.
Asymmetric boudins, ®rst described in detail by Cloos In a section normal to the long axis of individual boudin
(1947), Rast (1956) and Uemura (1965) are strips of rock blocks, asymmetric boudins can be classi®ed according to
with a rectangular or lozenge-shaped cross-section, sepa- the two possible senses of slip-direction on the surface
rated at regular intervals by interboudin surfaces in the separating boudins, compared with bulk shear sense (Swan-
form of veins, fractures or small shear bands. The boudins son, 1992). These are synthetic slip (S-slip) boudinage and
are arranged in a planar zone, the boudin train, but have antithetic slip (A-slip) boudinage, which are mirror images
usually been displaced with respect to each other along of each other (Fig. 1a). This implies that in order to use
the interboudin surfaces (Fig. 1). Asymmetric boudins are asymmetric boudins as shear sense indicators, their S-slip-
common in high strain zones and shear zones and are or A-slip-nature needs to be somehow established, after
amongst the few potential shear sense indicators that are which bulk shear sense can be determined (Fig. 1a). Several
widely developed, of a size useful in the ®eld and which authors have worked on this problem, but no suitable all-
form across a wide range of rock-types, metamorphic grade, encompassing model has yet emerged (Etchecopar, 1974,
bulk strain and ¯ow regimes (e.g. Hanmer, 1986; Gaudemer 1977; Hanmer, 1984, 1986; Simpson, 1984; Malavieille,
and Taponnier, 1987; Malavieille, 1987; Marcoux et al., 1987; Goldstein, 1988; Waldron et al., 1988; Goscombe,
1987; Goldstein, 1988; Malavieille and Lacassin, 1988; 1991; Mandal and Khan, 1991; Swanson, 1992; McNicoll
Hanmer and Passchier, 1991). In many medium- to high- and Brown, 1995).
One possible method to establish slip-sense vergence,
investigated in this paper, is to see if the `kinematic' groups
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 161-8-8339-1504; fax: 161-8-8339-5758.
E-mail addresses: ben.goscombe@adelaide.edu.au (B.D. Goscombe), of antithetic- and synthetic-slip boudinage have characteristic
cpasschi@mail.uni-mainz.de (C.W. Passchier). geometric features, which could be used to subdivide
0191-8141/03/$ - see front matter q 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0191-814 1(02)00045-7
576 B.D. Goscombe, C.W. Passchier / Journal of Structural Geology 25 (2003) 575±589

grouped into geometric classes de®ned by shape parameters

that are easily identi®able in the ®eld. Our examples are
mainly from the Neoproterozoic Kaoko Belt in Namibia,
augmented from other areas and from the literature. The
appendix brie¯y describes the geology of the Kaoko Belt
as a background to this study. We measured geometric para-
meters and recorded qualitative features for 995 boudins
either directly in the ®eld, or on photographs. A summary
of the data is given in Table 1.

2. Geometric parameters of boudins

We use the term inter-boudin surface (Sib) to indicate

either a discrete slip-surface separating boudins, or an
imaginary `skeletal' median surface through the centre of
a matrix- or mineral-®lled inter-boudin gap or thinned
boudin neck (Fig. 1b). Sib does not propagate beyond the
boudinaged layer (in contrast to faults) and usually swings
into and terminates parallel to the enveloping surface (Se) of
the boudinaged layer at the edge of individual boudin
blocks. If individual boudin blocks (strips) have been
displaced relative to another along Sib, this leads to `block
rotation', i.e. the orientation of the boudin exterior (Sb), the
outer surface of the individual boudin blocks, will differ
from the enveloping surface (Se) of the boudinaged layer,
also known as the boudin train (Fig. 1b). In this study,
boudins with block rotation .58 are treated as asymmetric
boudins. A linear feature Lb is de®ned by the long axis, edge
Fig. 1. (a) Asymmetric boudinage is de®ned either by a deviation of the or neck-zone of the boudin (Fig. 1b).
boudin shape from a rectangle, expressed as forward or backward vergence
Sib and Lb are commonly highly oblique or normal to a
of the inter-boudin surface; or by the slip-sense on the inter-boudin surface,
compared with bulk shear sense in the host rock. Four possible categories of stretching or mineral lineation (Fig. 1b). Most boudins
asymmetric boudins are de®ned in this way, of which one is never observed, investigated have monoclinic symmetry and we therefore
and a second one is rare. The two remaining cases are each other's mirror restrict our study to 2D-geometry in the pro®le plane,
image, and therefore need other, independent geometric criteria to be distin- normal to Lb. In the pro®le plane, boudin asymmetry can
guished in the ®eld. (b) Nomenclature and symbols used for boudin struc-
have two types of vergence compared with bulk shear sense
tural elements and geometric parameters in asymmetric boudin structures.
Explanation in text. (Fig. 1a). These can be de®ned by (1) the sense of slip on Sib
(A-slip, S-slip) or the sense of block rotation with respect to
Se and; (2) the inclination of Sib with respect to Sb being
boudin structures into corresponding geometric classes. If either forward-vergent or backward-vergent (Fig. 1b) in the
this could be established, the geometry of boudins could be same sense as `backward-tilted' and `forward-tilted' of
used in the ®eld to predict whether they formed by S-slip or Swanson (1992).
A-slip boudinage, and they could then be used as indepen- The geometry of asymmetric boudins can be uniquely
dent shear sense indicators. described in the pro®le plane by the following minimum
Features characteristic of boudin geometric classes can be number of parameters (Fig. 1b); (1) length (L) measured
found by experimental or numerical studies and this has parallel to Sb; (2) width (W) measured normal to Sb; (3)
been attempted to some extent (Hanmer, 1986; Goldstein, relative displacement (D) between individual boudins
1988; Mandal and Karmakar, 1989; Mandal and Khan, measured parallel to Sib and normal to Lb; (4) dilation of
1991). However, the number of parameters that can in¯u- Sib (N) measured normal to Sib and (5) the angle u
ence the geometry of developing boudins is so great as to be (0 > u > 908) between Sib and Sb.
a serious limitation to experimental and theoretical work. Another important aspect besides the geometry and
We therefore decided to investigate the range of possible mutual arrangement of individual boudins is the orientation
geometries of natural boudins in relation to bulk shear sense, of the boudin train with respect to the main foliation in the
where the latter is known by independent means. To this rock matrix. The foliation may be approximately parallel to
end, we determined the geometry and kinematics of a large the boudin train (foliation-parallel boudin trains) or oblique
number of natural boudin structures to see if they can be (foliation-oblique boudin trains). We found that 96% of
Table 1
Mean values of parameters and diagnostic features of boudins in both foliation-parallel and foliation-oblique boudin trains

Foliation-parallel boudin trains Foliation-oblique boudin trains

B.D. Goscombe, C.W. Passchier / Journal of Structural Geology 25 (2003) 575±589

Domino boudins Shearband boudins Domino boudins Shearband boudins

Normal domino Gash

Number of observed boudins 399 56 310 191 39

Boudin shape and nature
Inter-boudin surface (Sib) Sharp, straight Sharp, sigmoidal or forked Ductile/sharp, sigmoidal/straight Sharp plane Sharp/ductile
Sib ±Se relationship Sib terminates as Se Sib discordant to Se Sib terminates as Se Sib curves into Se Sib curves into Se
Boudin shape Angular rhomb Angular rhomb to sigma lens Sigma lens or rhomb Angular rhomb Angular rhomb to sigma lens
Associated kinkbands None None Rare None None
Inter-boudin zone ®ll Host (68%), vein (32%) Vein (75%), host (25%) Host (96%), vein (4%) Vein (60%), host (40%) Host (100%)
Foliation boudinage 3.5% 94.6% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Boudinage with respect to tectonic transport
Slip on Sib A-slip (100%) A-slip (100%) S-slip (100%) S-slip (100%) S-slip (100%)
Sib inclination vergence Forward (100%) Forward (91%) Backward (100%) Forward (100%) Backward (100%)
Flanking fold on Sib 42% 62% 0% 6% 0%
Synthetic drag on Sib 13% 0% 98% 0% 100%
No de¯ection on Sib 45% 38% 2% 94% 0%
D3 ±D4 episode of boudinage a 9.9% 5.0% 11.3% 0% 40%
Angular and dimensional parameters (mean)
u -block shape 71.58 81.88 39.38 77.68 47.28
L/W (aspect ratio) 2.12 1.39 3.62 3.48 3.22
D/W (normalised displacement) 0.47 0.08 2.25 0.38 1.52
% with displacement on Sib 100% 73% 100% 99% 100%
N/L (Sib dilation, if present) 0.17 0.05 0.02 0.1 ±
% with dilation across Sib 24% 77% 2% 48.5% 0%
Stretch (extension of Se) 123% 105% 160% 113% 138%
% with isolated boudins 15% 0% 58% 26% 62%
a
Data from Kaoko Belt only. Brackets indicate proportion of data in indicated category.

577
578 B.D. Goscombe, C.W. Passchier / Journal of Structural Geology 25 (2003) 575±589

with u of 10±658. A-slip boudins have backward-vergent

Sib from 70 to 908 or forward-vergent Sib from 20 to 908 (Fig.
2). This applies not only for 540 boudins from the Kaoko
Belt, but also for 172 additional ones where bulk shear sense
has been independently determined, observed elsewhere in
the ®eld or obtained from the literature (Fig. 2). Although
this separation is an interesting result, it is unfortunately not
of much direct use to ®eld geologists since shear sense, and
therefore the forward- or backward-vergent nature of Sib,
cannot be determined independently in most ®eld situations.
We therefore plotted all measured data in diagrams of u
against normalised boudin parameters where we neglect
the forward or backward-vergent nature of boudins, to see
if there is still some separation of the ®elds of S- and A-slip.
This is the case for diagrams of u against D/W, L/W and N/L
(Fig. 3). The advantage of these plots is that they spread out
the measurements and so allow investigation of a possible
relationship between the boudin parameters and slip type.
Two populations are apparent in each combination plot in
Fig. 3: those containing more than 98% S-slip boudins, more
Fig. 2. Histogram showing the frequency of observed boudins in foliation- than 98% A-slip boudins and a zone of overlap containing
parallel boudin trains for speci®c values of u , the angle between the inter-
boudin surface Sib and the boudin exterior, Sb. u shows either forward or
both. S-slip boudins dominantly have low u values and none
backward vergence with respect to bulk shear sense. At u ˆ 908, boudins plot at angles over 648 while A-slip boudins have u . 418
with backward- and forward-vergent Sib have the same geometry and there- (Fig. 3a±c). D/W and N/L have a relationship with boudin
fore the horizontal axis represents a continuous gradient of all possible slip type. All A-slip boudins have small relative displace-
orientations of Sib. Boudins with S-slip and A-slip are separated in the ment (D/W values ,1.8) and S-slip boudins show higher
diagram. 540 boudins from the Kaoko Belt, 172 boudins from elsewhere
and from the literature. Further explanation in text.
relative displacement mostly exceeding 1.8 (Fig. 3a). S-slip
coincides with very low or no dilation across Sib (N/L), while
A-slip coincides more commonly with some dilation of Sib.
boudins in the Kaoko Belt are foliation-parallel boudin The identi®ed domains and trends discussed above apply
trains. It is these foliation-parallel boudin trains that are not only to the boudins observed in the Kaoko Belt, but
described in the next paragraphs, unless stated otherwise. also to the 172 boudins from other locations (Fig. 3). Never-
theless, it may be dangerous to try and predict the S-slip or
A-slip nature of asymmetric boudins from the size of D/W,
3. Methodology N/L and u alone. We therefore tried to characterise the
geometry of boudins in the dominant (98%) S-slip and
All boudins from the Kaoko Belt were measured in pro®le dominant (98%) A-slip domains in Fig. 3 more precisely
section, orthogonal to the long axis of the boudins. Through- based on our observations in the Kaoko Belt and elsewhere,
out the area investigated, only sinistral strike-slip shear spanning a wide range in ¯ow regimes, strain, metamorphic
sense has been found (Appendix A; Fig. A1) but neverthe- grade and rock-types.
less, care was taken that at each locality shear sense was
determined independently, based on mantled porphyroclasts
of s -type and d -type (Passchier and Simpson, 1986), C 0 - 4. Geometry of asymmetric boudins
and C-type shear band cleavages (Berthe et al., 1979; Platt
and Vissers, 1980; Passchier and Trouw, 1996) and ¯anking 4.1. Introduction
folds (Hudleston, 1989; Passchier, 2001).
As a ®rst approach, we expressed boudin geometry in Careful investigation of the boudins in our data set from
foliation-parallel boudin trains by the minimum number of the dominant S-slip and dominant A-slip domains of Fig. 3
normalised parameters that fully describe boudin-outline (as show that boudins in each group not only differ by the main
explained above), i.e. L/W, D/W, N/L, and u . Fig. 2 shows shape parameters, but also by a large number of minor
the frequency of u for boudins with monoclinic symmetry, structural features that may prove crucial for their recogni-
with synthetic (S-slip) or antithetic slip (A-slip) on Sib and tion (Fig. 4). In order to separate the kinematic description
forward- or backward-vergent Sib (Fig. 1a) as determined (S-slip, A-slip) from purely geometrical descriptions (not
from independent shear sense indicators. We found that associated with boudin development mechanisms) we use
boudins with S- and A-slip are clearly separated without separate names for these two categories. In the literature, a
an overlap. S-slip boudins all have backward-vergent Sib number of names have been proposed for asymmetric
 B.D. Goscombe, C.W. Passchier / Journal of Structural Geology 25 (2003) 575±589 579

Fig. 3. Measurement plots of the main parameters that describe boudin geometry from our data set of foliation-parallel boudin trains. Open symbols indicate S-
slip; closed symbols A-slip. A subdivision can be made based on the dominant presence (.98%) of A-slip and S-slip boudins, indicated by shading. The closed
and open symbols have been differentiated to show the distribution of S-slip and A-slip over the geometric types of boudins. Large symbols indicate
measurements from the Kaoko Belt; small symbols measurements from elsewhere. (a) D/W± u plot; (b) L/W± u plot; (c) N/L± u plot. 540 boudins from
the Kaoko Belt, 172 boudins from elsewhere and from the literature. Further discussion in the text.

boudins. For those in the dominant S-slip domain these are; domino boudins; the typical geometry of each type is
shear fracture boudinage (Mandal and Khan, 1991; Swan- described in the next sections.
son, 1992; Mandal et al., 2000); Type III boudinage (Gold-
stein, 1988); Type 2B pull-aparts (Hanmer, 1986); 4.2. Shearband boudins
asymmetric extension boudinage (Gaudemer and Tapon-
nier, 1987); antithetically rotated asymmetric pull-aparts Shearband boudins (Fig. 4a; name inspired by Swanson
(Jordan, 1991) and counter-rotating boudinage (Grasemann (1992)) have the following properties. Boudin blocks have
and StuÈwe, 2001). For those in the dominant A-slip domain an asymmetric, rhomb to lens-shape similar to that of s -type
earlier proposed names are: domino- or bookshelf structure mantled porphyroclasts (Passchier and Simpson, 1986; Gold-
(Etchecopar, 1977); Type 1 asymmetric pull-aparts stein, 1988); shapes with tapering wings are typical (Figs. 4a
(Hanmer, 1986); forward rotated extension fracture boudi- and 5a±c). Sib is typically a discrete surface in the ®eld, mostly
nage (Swanson, 1992) and co-rotating boudinage (Grase- recognisable in thin section as a thin (,1 mm) ductile shear
mann and StuÈwe, 2001). zone with associated ductile grain-re®nement and a grain-
Many of these names are either not strictly geometric, or shape fabric. In some cases Sib constitutes a wider ductile
may cause confusion with other systems in structural geol- zone. The obtuse edge of the boudin is commonly rounded
ogy. We therefore propose to call structures as found in the and the acute edge is drawn into a tapering wing by drag on Sib.
dominant S-slip domains of Fig. 3 shearband boudins and Sib is straight to curvi-planar (Fig. 5c) and at a low angle to Sb
those found in the dominant A-slip domains of Fig. 3 (u averaging 398) (Figs. 3 and 5a±c). Aspect ratios of the
580 B.D. Goscombe, C.W. Passchier / Journal of Structural Geology 25 (2003) 575±589

Fig. 4. Sketch illustrating the salient features of (a) shearband boudins and (b) domino boudins, based on average angular and dimensional parameters and
annotated with the most diagnostic features.

boudin blocks are high, L/W averaging 3.6 (Table 1; Fig. surface (Sb) (Fig. 4). Kink band axial surfaces are inclined
5a). Dilation across Sib and vein-in®ll is very rare and where at a high angle to Sib. Shearband boudins with a geometry as
present is very small (Table 1). Lateral displacement on Sib de®ned above were earlier described in papers by Cloos
is the highest of all boudin-types, D/W averaging 2.25. (1947), Ramberg (1955), Malavieille (1987), Marcoux et
Consequently, extension of Se is high and results in al. (1987), Malavieille and Ritz (1989) and Stock (1989).
complete isolation of adjacent boudin blocks in more than
half of the investigated cases (Table 1). Shearband boudins 4.3. Domino boudins
have antithetic block rotation with respect to shear sense in
all investigated cases and all have backward-vergent Sib Domino boudins are named after Etchecopar (1977) for a
(Table 1). The degree of relative block rotation is typically resemblance with tumbling domino stones (Figs. 4b and 6),
lower than for domino boudins, but this is not diagnostic although the similarity is lost when boudins have high L/W
(Table 1). Synthetic drag on Sib is evident in nearly all cases ratio. In most cases Sib is a discrete, sharp surface except
(Table 1). This is a diagnostic feature of shearband boudins where there has been dilation across Sib, resulting in two
and is responsible for the typical, tapering shapes of the parallel terminal faces either side of the inter-boudin zone.
boudin block. In some cases, kink bands are associated Domino boudins have rhomb shapes with low aspect ratio
with shearband boudins (cf. Gaudemer and Taponnier, (L/W averaging 2.1; Table 1), typically with angular boudin
1987), but never with other types of asymmetric boudins. edges and sharp, straight to rarely curvi-planar Sib (Fig. 6).
These kink bands have a wavelength of 2±5 mm and axes Sib is at a high angle to Sb, with u averaging 728 (Table 1;
parallel to Lb, and occur in the inter-boudin zone in the Fig. 3). Lateral displacement (D) along Sib is low (Fig. 3a).
domain of ¯attening immediately adjacent to the boudin Low D and high u imply low extension of the enveloping
 B.D. Goscombe, C.W. Passchier / Journal of Structural Geology 25 (2003) 575±589 581

Fig. 5. Photographs of shearband boudins, all with sinistral bulk shear sense. (a) Foliation-parallel train of shearband boudins of quartz-vein in biotite±sericite
schist. Note associated kink bands. Notebook for scale. (b) Foliation-parallel train of shearband boudins of quartzo-feldspathic gneiss in schistosic host. (c)
Foliation-parallel train of shearband boudins of quartz-vein in meta-greywacke schist. Pencil for scale. (d) Foliation-oblique boudin train of shearband boudins
of quartz-vein in quartz±sericite schist. Width of view 50 cm. Note that the boudin geometry with respect to the enveloping surface is similar in both foliation-
oblique (d) and foliation-parallel boudin trains (a±c). All photographs from the Kaoko Belt, Namibia.

surface and as a result, complete isolation of boudins is thetic slip on Sib and low-vortical ¯ow inside the boudin in a
relatively uncommon. In contrast to shearband boudins, narrow strip along Sib, leading to development of ¯anking
dilation across Sib, with or without vein-in®ll does occur folds when Sib rotates with respect to Se (Grasemann and
(24% of investigated cases) and is diagnostic. Block rotation StuÈwe, 2001; Passchier, 2001). In general, ¯anking folds
is inversely proportional to aspect ratio, with strong rotation occur more frequently and are better developed in domino
of up to 548 occurring only for equant boudins with L/W boudins with a high aspect ratio (L/W) than in those with a
near one. In nearly all domino boudins, vergence de®ned by low aspect ratio. Probably, those with low aspect ratio can
Sib inclination is forward-vergent, as shown in Fig. 1a. accommodate external non-coaxial ¯ow in the matrix
Where de¯ection of internal planar structures along Sib is entirely by block rotation while boudins with high aspect
present in boudins, it is antithetic to slip on Sib resulting in ratio cannot rotate at the same rate and deform internally,
¯anking folds (Figs. 4b and 6b; Hanmer, 1986, ®g. 3b; leading to development of ¯anking folds. The half wave-
Hudleston, 1989; Swanson, 1992; Grasemann and StuÈwe, length of ¯anking folds averages 0.65 of the layer width W.
2001; Passchier, 2001). Flanking folds occur in 42% of Domino boudins of a geometry described above were earlier
cases and are unique and diagnostic for domino boudins; described by Etchecopar (1977), Mawer (1987), Malavieille
they were not observed in shearband boudins. The ¯anking (1987), McLellan (1988) and further studied and classi®ed
folds probably form in response to internal ductile deforma- by Hanmer (1986), Malavieille and Lacassin (1988),
tion of the boudins in shear, causing rotation of Sib from an Waldron et al. (1988) and Swanson (1992).
original orthogonal or backward-vergent orientation to the
typical forward-vergent orientation of domino boudins (Fig. 4.3.1. Gash boudins
7). Following the model of Hudleston (1989), this happens Normal domino boudins have a straight unbranched
by local ¯ow partitioning in the inter-boudin zone into anti- inter-boudin surface or gap, but some are characterised by a
582 B.D. Goscombe, C.W. Passchier / Journal of Structural Geology 25 (2003) 575±589

Fig. 6. Photographs of domino boudins, all with sinistral bulk shear sense. (a) Foliation-parallel train of planar domino boudins of ma®c layer in quartzo-
feldspathic gneiss. Kaoko Belt, Namibia. (b) Typical domino boudins in layered quartzo-feldspathic gneiss with ¯anking fold indicated. Kaoko Belt, Namibia.
(c) Typical blocky domino boudins with low L/W developed in calc±silicate layers within a carbonate matrix. Arunta Block, Central Australia. (d) Foliation-
oblique boudin train of domino boudins blocks in a quartz-feldspar vein in meta-greywacke. Adelaidean Fold Belt, South Australia.

Fig. 7. Schematic presentation of the inferred sequence of development of different types of boudins. (a)±(c) Foliation-parallel boudin trains where a foliation
develops parallel to boudin trains during progressive deformation. (a) Original high or orthogonal u and little internal deformation leads to domino boudins
with A-slip. (b) Original high-angle backward-vergent Sib can develop into domino boudins with high u , A-slip, and ¯anking folds. (c) Original low-angle
backward-vergent Sib leads to development of shearband boudins with S-slip. (d)±(f) Foliation-oblique boudins where an older foliation is cut by a planar
body, which is subsequently subject to boudinage. (d) Original high or orthogonal u and little internal deformation leads to domino boudins, but with S-slip.
(e) Original high-angle backward vergent Sib can develop into domino boudins with high u and S-slip. Flanking folds are rare because of the gentle dip of
the Sib with respect to the extensional eigenvector. (f) Original low-angle backward-vergent Sib leads to development of shearband boudins with S-slip.
 B.D. Goscombe, C.W. Passchier / Journal of Structural Geology 25 (2003) 575±589 583

prominent strongly curved or segmented gash, separating from the literature, based on experimental work and theo-
the boudins and are therefore named gash boudins (Fig. retical considerations.
4b). These boudins are almost exclusively developed by Boudins can be separated based on the dominant nature of
foliation boudinage (Lacassin, 1988; Swanson, 1992) and deformation in the boudin neck on the grain scale: brittle,
can be further subdivided into sigmoidal- and forked-gash brittle±ductile or ductile. This difference is partly based on
boudins (Fig. 4b). Sigmoidal gash boudins (sigmoidal metamorphic grade, strain, ¯ow regime and lithology, but
boudin partings of Swanson (1992)) have a smooth sigmoi- may also be in¯uenced by strain rate, pore ¯uid pressure and
dal Sib trace (Fig. 4b). Forked-gash boudins (reoriented the presence and distribution of melt.
extension fractures of Swanson, 1992) have an angular Sib Boudinage by brittle fracturing can initiate as tensile frac-
trace comprised of a straight central section and forked or tures initially normal or oblique to layering, or along obli-
inclined crack terminations (`Swordtail' and `Fishmouth' que shear fractures (e.g. Tvergaard et al., 1981; Lloyd et al.,
terminations of Swanson (1992)). Forked terminations are 1982; Gaudemer and Taponnier, 1987; Goldstein, 1988;
asymmetric; the dominant branch (longer and more dilated) Jordan, 1991; Swanson, 1992; Mandal et al., 2000). The
is in the opposite direction of bulk shear sense, typically length±width ratio of the resulting boudins decreases with
forming the larger acute angle to the central Sib trace (Fig. increasing strain by repeated fracturing up to some equili-
4b). In our data set, the Sib trace of both types is not only brium value (Lloyd et al., 1982). Once normal or shear
sigmoidal or angular in the pro®le plane normal to Lb, but fractures have formed, boudins can start to separate and
also in the Se plane of view, indicating a complex three- rotate with respect to Se to develop the characteristic
dimensional form with triclinic symmetry. synthetic or antithetic slip of asymmetric boudins (Fig. 7).
The aspect ratio of gash boudins is extremely low, L/W The type of asymmetric boudin to form and boudin separa-
averaging only 1.39 (Table 1). The length of gash boudins tion N will mostly depend on the initial boudin aspect ratio
along Lb averages only 1.2 times L. Other observed boudin- L/W, u and the orientation of the layer with respect to the
types mostly extend along Lb at least beyond the scale of the extensional eigenvectors of ¯ow in the rock (StroÈmgaÊrd,
outcrops and their dimension along Lb exceeds L by at least 1973; Goldstein, 1988; Passchier and Druguet, 2002).
a factor of 10. Dilation and associated vein-in®ll is common Other factors of importance are ¯ow parameters such as
in gash boudins (77% of investigated cases), but with very the kinematic vorticity number (Means et al., 1980; Passch-
small dilation (Table 1). Small dilation coupled with small ier and Druguet, 2002) and the rheology of layering and
displacement on Sib results in very low extension of the matrix. For boudin trains parallel to the extensional ¯ow
enveloping surface (Table 1). Displacement on Sib is recog- eigenvector, boudins can accommodate all shear deforma-
nised in 73% of cases and almost all are A-slip boudins. tion in the matrix by block rotation and deform into domino
Displacement with respect to dilation is low compared boudins without ¯anking folds if u is high (close to ortho-
with all other asymmetric boudins. gonal) and aspect ratio L/W is small (Fig. 7a; Goldstein,
Flanking folds are common in the central portion of Sib in 1988; Mandal and Karmakar, 1989; Mandal and Khan,
62% of investigated cases, with synthetic drag of the envel- 1991); `rigid' domino boudins of little block rotation can
oping foliation only evident at the tips of Sib, resulting in the also form if L/W is high, but if the boudins can deform
`kink-band' terminations described by Swanson (1992). internally in response to non-coaxial ¯ow in the matrix
Block rotation is low and synthetic to bulk shear sense (simple shear or general ¯ow) the inter-boudin surface
(Table 1). The central portion of Sib is nearly orthogonal rotates with respect to Se congruent with shear sense and
to the boudin exterior (Sb), with u averaging 828. Vergence ¯anking folds develop as outlined above (Fig. 7b; Hudle-
de®ned by both inclination-direction and sigmoidal shape of ston, 1989; Swanson, 1992; Grasemann and StuÈwe, 2001;
Sib is the same in nearly all cases and synthetic with bulk Passchier, 2001). The presence of ¯anking folds illustrates
shear sense, that is forward-vergent (Fig. 4b). The degree of that in many domino boudins, internal ductile deformation
curvature of Sib, from the central straight portion to the tips, was important despite their angular aspect and the fact that
has a large range of 10±668, but consistently averages 328 in the boudins apparently initiated by brittle fracturing.
both the pro®le and Se planes of view for gash boudins. If the aspect ratio L/W is high and u is low and backward-
vergent (Swanson, 1992), slip on Sib leads to only minor
block rotation, forward or even backward with respect to
5. Discussion Se (Ghosh and Ramberg, 1976; Passchier, 1987; Passchier
and Druguet, 2002). Synthetic slip on the interboudin
5.1. Mechanisms of boudinage surfaces produces shearband boudins in this case (Fig. 7c).
Even if such boudins can deform internally, Sib can only
Although the aim of this paper is to present ®eld data on rotate slowly forward, and will in general not rotate at all,
the geometry of asymmetric boudins and their relationship or even backward (Swanson, 1992). Therefore, ¯anking
to shear sense, the observations may also bear some rele- folds will not form. On the other hand, separation is less
vance to the mechanisms by which asymmetric boudins on shearband boudins than on domino boudins (Swanson,
form. The following general scheme can be summarised 1992), and therefore synthetic `drag' in the slip-direction
584 B.D. Goscombe, C.W. Passchier / Journal of Structural Geology 25 (2003) 575±589

along Sib will be stronger for shearband- than for domino controlled by pre-existing mineral cleavage planes, both
boudins (Figs. 4 and 7a±c). This may explain why synthetic shearband- and domino-type structures can form. Where
drag is common in shearband boudins, and ¯anking folds mineral cleavage is at low angles to the extensional ¯ow
are common in domino boudins. Flanking folds and eigenvector, the result is shearband boudin geometry such
synthetic drag may therefore be the most important features as for mica-®sh (Lister and Snoke, 1984) or orthopyroxene-
for distinguishing between shearband- and domino boudins ®sh (Goscombe and Everard, 2001). Mineral grains with
(cf. Swanson, 1992; Grasemann and StuÈwe, 2001). less well-developed cleavage planes crack more randomly,
The scheme outlined above is supported by our observa- commonly at a high angle to the extensional ¯ow eigenvec-
tions, as follows. For almost all geometric parameters there tor, resulting in domino boudins in garnet, feldspar and
is a continuous range from symmetric boudins to domino sillimanite grains (Simpson and Schmid, 1983; Simpson,
boudins manifested by an increase in D, in ¯anking fold 1984; Goscombe, 1991, 1992; Yamamoto, 1994).
half-wavelength and a decrease in u (Fig. 3). Sense of slip
and vergence of Sib, where present, are the same for these 5.2. Foliation-oblique boudin trains
boudin-types. The continuous range of geometric para-
meters suggest that angular symmetric boudins with high All observations on asymmetric boudins discussed above
u evolved by block rotation and further stretch to domino were made on foliation-parallel boudin trains, which appar-
boudins with forward-vergent Sib. This is supported by the ently experienced the entire deformation history of the rock
strong asymmetry of the curve for A-slip boudinage in and developed together with the main foliation. This is typi-
Fig. 2 with a leading edge at u ˆ 908, trailing to lower cally boudinage of bedding during development of the
forward-vergent values. This probably results from an initial pervasive layer-parallel foliation. There are also boudin
orthogonal Sib and subsequent decrease of u by internal trains, however, which lie oblique to the main foliation in
deformation of part of the boudins. the rock, in some cases up to 608 (Figs. 5d and 6d). This
Gash structures can develop in foliation boudinage, evol- happens, for example, where, during ongoing deformation, a
ving from symmetric boudins in the same way as other dyke intruded oblique to the already developed foliation and
domino boudins, but with a complex evolution of Sib. was boudinaged in the last stages of the deformation event
Where there is no dilation, the initial crack is `forward- (Goldstein, 1988; Hanmer and Passchier, 1991; Jordan,
tilted' to a forked-gash boudin geometry (Lacassin, 1988; 1991), or where bedding has been rotated by folding into
Swanson, 1992) or ordinary domino boudin. Where dilation an angle oblique to the extensional ¯ow eigenvector. In the
across Sib is present, sigmoidal-gash or dilational domino Kaoko Belt, 4% of observed asymmetric boudins are such
boudins develop. Sigmoidal-gash boudins form by lateral foliation-oblique boudin trains. They have also been
growth of Sib where it is laterally unconstrained in foliation observed in other areas, and we have data on a total of
boudinage (Swanson, 1992). In contrast, lateral growth of 230 foliation-oblique boudin trains (Table 1).
Sib is inhibited by layer width in normal domino boudins. As described above, we found that in foliation-parallel
Since drag on Sib is synthetic to slip in shearband boudins, boudin trains, shearband boudins with small u form by S-
the Sib surface can be regarded as a discrete shear zone of slip boudinage, whereas stocky domino- or gash boudins
®nite length that terminates at the boudin edge, swinging with high u (near orthogonal) form by A-slip boudinage.
into parallelism with the enveloping surface (Se). Shearband Foliation-oblique boudin trains developed in a different
boudins are analogous to shear band cleavage (C 0 -type), and way. Asymmetric boudins of either domino- or shearband
in fact the average geometries of both are very similar (Mala- geometry as shown in Fig. 4 also develop in foliation-obli-
vieille, 1987; Goldstein, 1988; Swanson, 1992). Where both que boudin trains (Fig. 5d), but all 230 foliation-oblique
are developed in the same outcrop, the orientation of both Sib boudin trains investigated formed by S-slip irrespective of
and C 0 are identical, although C 0 -cleavage is not necessarily their domino-, gash or shearband geometry (Fig. 7; Table 1).
related to a speci®c layer and is laterally continuous. High D/W Therefore, the distinction of A-slip and S-slip boudins by
indicates that slip on Sib is the dominant mechanism of layer boudin geometry does not work, apparently, for foliation-
extension in shearband boudin trains. oblique boudin trains.
Although some shearband boudins may develop from This aberrant behaviour can be explained as follows.
brittle fractures (Goldstein, 1988), most probably form by Material lines such as boudin trains rotate towards the
nucleation and growth of minor ductile shear zones or bands extensional eigenvector or eigenvectors of bulk ¯ow such
of the same sense as bulk shear that develop at a small angle as those in the `¯ow plane' of simple shear (Ghosh and
to Se. Once such shear bands develop in this orientation, Ramberg, 1976). Such `attractor' eigenvectors seem to lie
they could grow further into shearband boudins. The typi- commonly parallel to the shear zone boundary (Passchier,
cally large aspect ratio of shearband boudins may imply that 1997, 1998). If the initial angle between a boudin train and
the shear bands nucleate at a relatively large distance from the attractor eigenvector is small, less than 308, the initial
each other, and less frequently than the initial fractures in angle u mainly determines the slip direction on the inter-
brittle boudin types. boudin surface, as discussed above. In this case, the boudin
On the mineral grain-scale, where initiation of Sib is train experiences the entire deformation history and
 B.D. Goscombe, C.W. Passchier / Journal of Structural Geology 25 (2003) 575±589 585

Fig. 8. Proposed procedure to use asymmetric boudins for determining sense of shear. (I) Only boudins with a pro®le section parallel to the stretching lineation
in the rock and strip-shaped boudins are suitable for the analysis. (II) Boudin geometry should be compared with Fig. 4 to determine whether boudins classify
as shearband or domino types. In doubt the geometry can be tested against Fig. 3. Any suspect boudins should not be analysed further. (III) In the next step, the
foliation-parallel or oblique nature of the boudin trains is considered. (IV) In nearly all cases, boudins can now be used to determine shear sense as shown,
except for trains of domino boudins of uncertain orientation with respect to a foliation in the host rock; they cannot be used. Notice that foliation-oblique trains
of domino boudins can be used to determine shear sense since the trains must lie in the extensional part of the ¯ow ®eld. Further explanation in the text.

develops into a foliation-parallel boudin train. If, however, and the main foliation in the rock can be taken as a guide
the initial angle between a boudin train and the attractor (Fig. 8). If the angle is negligible or small, the boudin train
eigenvector is high, e.g. 708, not only boudins with low u , probably initiated at a small angle to the attractor eigenvec-
but also those with high u and domino-type geometry will tor and rotated into an orientation close to the attractor
be affected by S-slip boudinage (Fig. 7d±f; Ghosh and eigenvector. In this case, the interpretation as foliation-
Ramberg, 1976; Goldstein, 1988). There will be a ªcritical parallel boudin trains is as given in Section 4. If the angle
initial angleº between attractor eigenvector and boudin with the foliation is high, asymmetric boudins should be
train, which depends on ¯ow parameters, boudin shape, interpreted with more care. High-u boudins of this type
mechanical contrasts and probably other factors, where rota- are dif®cult to interpret while low-u boudins can be inter-
tion rate of boudins and the boudin train is equal. This preted as S-slip boudins without reserve (Fig. 8). Conse-
critical angle is the boundary between S-slip and A-slip quently, if the angle of a boudin train with respect to the
boudinage for all boudins with high u , such as domino- foliation is unclear, for example, if no foliation is developed
and gash boudins. By contrast, all boudins with low u and as in many marbles, boudins with shearband geometry may
forward-vergent Sib such as shearband boudins are less still be reliable shear sense markers, but boudins with
sensitive to the angle between the attractor eigenvector domino-geometry are not (Fig. 8).
and the boudin train, and form by S-slip. Despite the dif®culties discussed above, the vergence of a
Obviously, the behaviour of foliation-oblique boudin foliation-oblique boudin train itself with respect to the
trains diminishes the reliability of employing asymmetric attractor eigenvector can be employed as a different type
boudin geometry as a shear sense indicator in these boudin of shear sense indicator, which is independent of the geome-
trains. However, the situation is not so bad in practice. try of the boudins (cf. `oblique boudin trains' in Hanmer and
Although position of the attractor eigenvector of ¯ow cannot Passchier (1991)). Where it is possible to show that a boudi-
normally be found, the ®nal angle between the boudin train naged layer did develop at a high angle to the attractor
586 B.D. Goscombe, C.W. Passchier / Journal of Structural Geology 25 (2003) 575±589

eigenvector, it must have rotated towards the attractor 4. (a) In foliation-parallel boudin trains, all shearband
eigenvector in the direction of bulk shear sense (Fig. boudins will be S-slip and most domino boudins will
7d±f). This is because, for boudinage to occur in a be A-slip. This can be checked by measuring L, D, W,
high-angle layer, the layer must have been forward- N and u , and determine where the boudins plot in the
vergent towards the attractor eigenvector and contained diagrams of Fig. 3. If the inferred shearband boudins, or
within the extensional ®eld of the strain ellipsoid (Fig. inferred domino- or gash boudins fall in their respective
7d±f). Any layer that is backward-vergent towards the ®elds out of the ®eld of overlap, they are probably reli-
attractor eigenvector will be shortened and not manifest able. If they consistently fall in the ®eld of overlap, they
as a boudin train. This holds for all geometries of must be disregarded. (b) In foliation-oblique boudin
boudins developed in the boudin train and for folia- trains, shearband boudins will be S-slip, but domino
tion-oblique boudin trains formed in both coaxial and types can be either S- or A-slip and boudin block geome-
non-coaxial progressive deformation. try in this case is not a reliable indicator of shear sense
(Fig. 8). Regardless of boudin geometry, the vergence of
foliation-oblique boudin trains as a whole can be
6. Evaluation of asymmetric boudins as shear sense employed as a second class of shear sense indicator,
indicators where the boudin train must verge in the same direction
as bulk shear sense (Figs. 7 and 8).
Asymmetric boudins within all foliation-parallel and
many foliation-oblique boudin trains can be applied as A further word of caution should be given here: our data
shear sense indicators if natural boudin structures can be are mostly from one orogenic belt and although we have
con®dently identi®ed as domino- or shearband boudins made an effort to include all asymmetric boudins that we
(Figs. 4 and 8). Despite differences in metamorphic grade, could ®nd, further work might show that the boundaries in
kinematics of deformation and other factors it is usually Fig. 3 should be shifted, or that other parameters must be
possible to separate asymmetric boudins into these two included as well.
geometric classes. There is overlap in individual geometric In our work, we have not made an attempt to subdivide
parameters (Fig. 3), but if a suite of the most diagnostic boudins further according to additional parameters such as
geometric criteria is considered (Fig. 4), boudins can be metamorphic grade, inferred kinematic vorticity number of
classi®ed in most cases. We propose that the most success- ¯ow, ®nite strain intensity, boudin and matrix lithology etc.
ful attempt to use asymmetric boudins as shear sense Such a subdivision could help to decrease the size of the
markers is in four steps (Fig. 8): overlap domains in Fig. 3 and make more boudins available
for shear sense analysis. However, some of these additional
1. Con®rm that the boudin axis (Lb) is at high angle to the parameters are dif®cult to establish with con®dence and
stretching lineation in the rock. If this is not the case, most are dif®cult to establish in the ®eld. In this work, we
boudins may have developed in triclinic ¯ow or have therefore restricted ourselves to parameters that can easily
been modi®ed by polyphase deformation, and no attempt be collected in the ®eld.
should be made to use them as shear sense indicators.
However, boudin structures can be employed in poly-
deformed terranes provided that the boudin structure
can be related to fabrics of speci®c deformation events Acknowledgements
(Goscombe and Passchier, 2001).
2. Determine whether the boudins correspond to the Roy Miller, Rudolph Trouw, Fabio Pentagna, Andre
secondary shape characteristics of shearband- or domino Ribeiro, Chris Wilson, Thomas Bekker, Dave Gray,
boudins as discussed above and shown in Fig. 4. Shape of Elena Druguet, Paul Bons, Pat James, Martin Hand,
the boudin blocks and presence of synthetic drag in David and Audrey Goscombe, Helmut Garoeb, Zigi
shearband boudins versus ¯anking folds in domino Baugartner, Pete and Alex Siegfried, Murray Haseler
boudins are the most diagnostic and easily recognised and Bonza are all thanked for their discussions, efforts
criteria. Boudin shape is quanti®ed by u ; most shearband spying out elusive boudins and great company in the
boudins have u , 588 and tapering shapes and most ®eld. Martin Hand provided a photograph of domino
domino boudins and all gash boudins have u . 588 and boudins. This study resulted from regional mapping
angular blocky shapes (Fig. 3). Shearband boudins are work undertaken for the Namibian Geological Survey
also characterised by a higher aspect ratio (L/W), greater and self-funded ®eldwork elsewhere (BG). The ®eld-
displacement along Sib (D) and stretch, commonly result- work associated with this study was supported to
ing in isolated boudin blocks. Dilation across Sib (N) is CWP by the SchuÈrmann Foundation. Mimi Duneski is
restricted almost entirely to domino boudins (Fig. 4). sincerely thanked for her considerable administrative
3. Establish whether the boudin trains are foliation-parallel support and humour in Namibia. Ben Grasemann is
or foliation-oblique (Fig. 8). thanked for providing us with his manuscript in press.
 B.D. Goscombe, C.W. Passchier / Journal of Structural Geology 25 (2003) 575±589 587

Fig. A1. Schematic geological map of the Kaoko Belt. Areas mapped in detail are outlined and sense of D2 transport is indicated.

Appendix A (Fig. A1). The Damara Sequence is comprised of meta-

greywacke, quartz-mica schists, meta-arenites and meta-
A.1. Geology of the Kaoko Belt turbidites with numerous meta-diamictite, amphibolite
schist, quartzite and carbonate units. The Damara Sequence
The Kaoko Belt is the northern coastal arm of the Neo- rests unconformably on a highly variable basement com-
proterozoic±Palaeozoic Damara Orogen within Namibia plex dominated by Palaeoproterozoic quartzo-feldspathic
588 B.D. Goscombe, C.W. Passchier / Journal of Structural Geology 25 (2003) 575±589

tional episodes have tectonic transport directions at high

angles to each other (Fig. A2). Later deformation events
are insigni®cant and involved limited N±S shortening and
formation of rare conjugate kink bands and E±W-trending
upright folds (D5). The Kaoko Belt was exhumed by passive
uplift and erosion, without further compressional orogenesis
and a later period of limited extension (rare normal faults
and dolerite dykes) during the Cretaceous break up of South
America and Africa.

A.2. Boudinage

There are two clearly recognisable episodes of boudinage

Fig. A2. Lower-hemisphere, equal-angle stereoplots comparing the orien- in the Kaoko Belt, D2 ±D3 and D4, with approximately ortho-
tation of D2 and D4 boudin extension axes and mineral stretching lineations. gonal extension axes. 88% of all boudins investigated are
(a) Boudin extension axes (Le). The spread in extension axes is due to a D2 ±D3 boudins and are clearly related to formation of the
change from D2 ±D3 transpressional movement to E-directed D4 over- pervasive and penetrative S2 ±L2 fabric. Nearly all boudin
folding; (b) L2 and L4 stretching lineations and the average shortening
trains (with the exception of those described in Section 5.2)
axis during D4 over-folding.
are parallel to the main foliations (foliation-parallel boudin
trains). Lb is symmetrically distributed around L2 for each
paragneisses with granitoid orthogneisses of 1970± boudin type with an orthogonal mean orientation. Therefore
1977 Ma age, and a terrane containing Archaean orthog- D2 ±D3 boudin extension axes (Le), de®ned as the line
neisses of 2585±2645 Ma age (Seth et al., 1998) (Fig. normal to Lb within Se, coincide with the L2 stretching linea-
A1). The Kaoko Belt trends NNW±SSE and can be divided tion (Fig. A2) and this is consistent with monoclinic boudin
into three parallel zones. The East Kaoko Zone, east of the symmetry.
thrust faults in Fig. A1, comprises the sub-greenschist D4 boudins have Lb at high angles to the sub-horizontal D4
Damara platform sequence dominated by carbonates and shortening axis associated with W over E over-folding (F4)
resting on the Palaeoproterozoic Kamanjab Inlier. The and boudin extension axes (Le) are sub-parallel to L4 mineral
Central Kaoko Zone is highly deformed and ranges from lineations (Fig. A2). F4 fold axes are sub-parallel to L2 and
lower greenschist to upper amphibolite grade in the west. therefore D4 boudin extension axes are at high angles to
The Western Kaoko Zone, west of the Purros mylonite zone those developed during D2 and form a distinct orientation
(Fig. A1), is a complex of Damaran granitoids of 656 Ma population (Fig. A2). D4 boudins form in two distinct
and 552±580 Ma ages (KroÈner, 1982; Miller and Burger, scenarios: on the long limbs of F4 folds, where the D4
1983; Seth et al., 1998) and upper-amphibolite to granu- main foliation is sub-parallel to layering (i.e. foliation-paral-
lite-grade Damara Sequence rocks. lel boudin trains) and in over-turned limbs, where layering is
In the basement complexes, one or more pre-Damaran steeper than the D4 main foliation and therefore foliation-
tectono-thermal cycles (collectively described as D1) are oblique boudin trains form.
inferred by high-grade early parageneses, gneissic textures,
abundant partial melt segregations and Proterozoic grani-
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