6/3/2024

Understanding
the Self
RETENTION NOTES

Lucy Faith F. Juarbal

BEED 1-A
 CHAP 1: LESSON 1
The Self from Various Philosophical Perspectives

➢ Key Points
1. Historical Context: The inquiry into the nature of the self has been a
central theme in philosophy, dating back to ancient Greek thinkers who
moved away from mythological explanations.
2. Socrates and Plato:
o Socrates was the first philosopher to systematically question the
nature of the self. He emphasized self-knowledge as essential.
o Plato, Socrates's student, expanded on this idea, describing the
human person as composed of body and soul, with the soul having
three components: rational, spirited, and appetitive.
3. Augustine and Aquinas:
o Augustine, influenced by Plato and Christianity, viewed humans as
having a dual nature, with the body being mortal and the soul
seeking communion with the Divine.
o Aquinas, building on Aristotle, posited that humans are composed
of matter (body) and form (soul), with the soul animating the
body.
4. Descartes:
o Descartes proposed a mind-body dualism, asserting that the mind
(thinking thing) and body (extension) are distinct entities. He
famously stated, "I think, therefore I am."
5. Hume:
o Hume rejected the notion of a unified self, viewing it as a bundle
of perceptions and impressions derived from sensory experiences.
6. Kant:
o Kant acknowledged the role of perception but argued that the
mind organizes these perceptions, suggesting an active
intelligence that synthesizes knowledge and experience.
7. Ryle:
o Ryle challenged the concept of a non-physical self, proposing that
the self is merely a label for observable behaviors rather than an
entity.
8. Merleau-Ponty:
o Merleau-Ponty rejected Cartesian dualism, emphasizing the
inseparability of mind and body, viewing all experiences as
embodied.
 LESSON 2
The Self, Society, & Culture

➢ Definition: The self refers to an individual's identity and sense of being,

encompassing characteristics such as separateness, consistency, unity, and
privacy.

➢ Characteristics of the Self

1. Separate: Distinct from other selves, each individual possesses a unique
identity.
2. Self-contained and Independent: The self exists independently and has
its own thoughts and characteristics.
3. Consistent: The self exhibits enduring personality traits and behaviors
over time.
4. Unitary: Acts as the central focal point for all experiences and thoughts
within an individual.
5. Private: The internal processes of the self, including thoughts and
emotions, are inaccessible to others.

➢ Social Constructionist Perspective

o Argues that the self is in constant flux, shaped by interactions with
external reality and social influences.
o Views the self as dynamically responding to societal expectations and
norms.
➢ Self and Culture
o Marcel Mauss distinguishes between "moi" (basic identity) and
"personne" (social concepts of identity).
o Individuals adapt personas to fit social contexts, reflecting cultural norms
and expectations.
➢ Language and Identity
o Language reflects cultural values and shapes self-expression.
o Cultural differences influence self-perception and interpersonal
relationships.
➢ Self in Families
o Families play a critical role in shaping self-identity through socialization
and role modeling.
o Individuals internalize familial values, behaviors, and norms, impacting
their development.
➢ Gender and the Self
o Gender influences self-concept and societal roles, shaping behaviors and
attitudes.
o Social expectations regarding gender roles impact self-expression and
identity formation.
➢ Mead and Vygotsky
o Language acquisition and social interactions shape cognitive and
emotional development.
o Internalization of societal norms occurs through imitation and role-
playing.

LESSON 3
The Self as Cognitive Construct

➢ Definition of Self: The self encompasses personal identity and defines

who we are as individuals (Jhangiani and Tarry, 2014).
➢ William James's Concept: James divided the self into two aspects, the "I"
and the "me." The "I" refers to the thinking, acting, and feeling self, while
the "me" represents physical and psychological characteristics (Gleitman,
Gross, and Reisberg, 2011).
➢ Identity and Self-Concept: Identity includes personal characteristics,
social roles, affiliations, and responsibilities, while self-concept refers to
one's perception of themselves (Oyserman, Elmore, and Smith, 2012).
➢ Dynamic Nature: The self, identity, and self-concept are not static; they
change over time and are influenced by social and environmental factors
(Jhangiani and Tarry, 2014).

➢ Social Construction of Self

o Symbolic Interactionism: G.H. Mead argued that the self is developed
through social interaction, emphasizing the role of society in shaping
individual identity.
o Social Context: Society contributes to the formation of the self through
social interaction, historical context, and group affiliation
o Self-Awareness: Individuals may possess private and public selves,
and self-awareness can impact behavior and emotions.

➢ Self-Esteem and Social Comparison

o Definition of Self-Esteem: Self-esteem reflects an individual's positive
or negative evaluation of themselves.
 o Social Comparison Theory: People evaluate themselves by comparing
with others, influencing self-esteem.
o Downward and Upward Comparison: Downward comparison
enhances self-esteem by comparing with those worse off, while upward
comparison may lead to lowered self-esteem.
o Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory: Threats to self-esteem arise
when others outperform us, leading to various reactions.

➢ Narcissism and Self-Esteem

o Narcissism Definition: Narcissism involves high self-esteem, self-
admiration, and self-centeredness (Jhangiani and Tarry, 2014).
o Behavioral Characteristics: Narcissists may prioritize their image over
relationships and exhibit self-centered behavior (Jhangiani and Tarry,
2014).
o Correlation with Self-Esteem: While high self-esteem is associated with
positive traits, it doesn't necessarily cause them (Jhangiani and Tarry,
2014).

LESSON 4
The Self in Western & Eastern Thoughts

➢ Cultural Perspectives on Self

o Cultural Influence: Different cultures and countries depict the concept
of "self" through various mediums like literature, social organization, art,
and clothing.
o Eastern Philosophies: Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism offer
unique perspectives on the self, contrasting with Western scientific
research.

➢ Confucianism
o Ethical Code: Emphasizes proper conduct in relationships and societal
harmony, with self-cultivation as a central goal.
o Subdued Self: Individuals repress personal needs for the greater good,
contributing to a hierarchical and ordered society.

➢ Taoism
o Living in Harmony: Rejects rigid structures and hierarchy, advocating
for a simple, balanced lifestyle in tune with the universe.
o Ideal Self: Strives for selflessness and acceptance of change, aiming for
harmony with society and nature.
➢ Buddhism
o Illusion of Self: Views the self as an illusion, source of suffering, and
emphasizes detachment and renunciation to attain Nirvana.
o Community Focus: The self is not the central focus, but rather situated
within a broader context, emphasizing harmony with others and nature.

➢ Cultural Contrasts
o Western vs. Eastern Perspectives: Western culture emphasizes
individualism, personal attributes, and equality, while Eastern culture
values collectivism, social roles, hierarchy, and cooperation.
o Communication Styles: Westerners tend to be direct and assertive,
while Asians prefer indirect communication and prioritize harmony.
o Hierarchy and Respect: Westerners often address seniors informally,
while Asians use respectful terms and maintain hierarchical
relationships.
o Cultural Variation: Differences and similarities exist within and
between cultures due to historical, geographical, and social factors.

➢ Impact of Globalization
o Blurring Boundaries: Social media, migration, and intermarriages
contribute to the blending and highlighting of cultural differences.
o Promoting Understanding: Despite conflicts, peace is possible through
mutual understanding and respect for diverse cultural perspectives.

CHAP 2: LESSON 1
The Physical & Sexual Self

➢ Abstraction
o Gonads: Reproductive glands that produce gametes; testes in males and
ovaries in females.
o Embryonic development: Early stage where reproductive structures
are alike, called the indifferent stage.
o Testosterone: Hormone determining development of male reproductive
structures.
o Puberty: Period of life when reproductive organs grow and become
functional under hormonal influence.
o Cryptorchidism: Condition where testes fail to descend into the
scrotum, leading to sterility.
➢ Diseases Associated with the Reproductive System
o Infections: Vaginal infections caused by various microorganisms,
including STDs.
o Neoplasms: Abnormal growths or tumors, such as breast, cervical, and
prostate cancers.
o Menopause: Natural cessation of menstruation due to declining
estrogen production.

➢ Erogenous Zones
o Areas: Mouth, breasts, genitals, anus; regions that increase sexual
arousal when stimulated.
o Individual Variation: Preferences for specific areas vary among
individuals.

➢ Human Sexual Behavior

o Patterns: Inherited sexual response patterns shaped by evolution and
societal influences.
o Types: Solitary behavior involves individual arousal, while sociosexual
behavior involves interactions between individuals of the same or
opposite sex.

➢ Physiology of Human Sexual Response

o Stages: Excitement, plateau, climax, resolution; sequential phases of
sexual activity.
o Nervous System: Autonomic nervous system controls involuntary
responses during sexual activity.
o Reflex Response: Involuntary responses mediated by the lower spinal
cord, leading to genital arousal and lubrication.

➢ Sexual Problems
o Physiological: Conditions affecting genital development or function,
such as infections and hormonal imbalances.
o Psychological: Mental or emotional factors influencing sexual response,
including inhibitions and maladaptive attitudes.
o Examples: Premature ejaculation, erectile impotence, vaginismus.

➢ Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

o Infections transmitted through sexual contact.
o Examples: Gonorrhea, genital herpes, human papillomavirus (HPV)
infection, HIV/AIDS, chlamydia, syphilis.
 o Can cause long-term health problems like pelvic inflammatory disease,
infertility, cervical cancer, and perinatal infections.
o HIV/AIDS weakens the immune system and is transmitted via body
fluids.

➢ Specific STDs
1. Chlamydia: Most common, affects young females most.
2. Gonorrhea: Rates increased, particularly among men and African
Americans.
3. Syphilis: Increased rates, highest among young adults and certain ethnic
groups.
4. Chancroid: Declining cases reported.
5. Human Papillomavirus (HPV): Most common STD, linked to cancer and
genital warts.
6. Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV): Causes recurrent genital or anal lesions.
7. Trichomonas Vaginalis: Protozoal infection causing adverse health
outcomes.

➢ Natural and Artificial Contraception: Natural Methods

o Abstinence: Most effective, involves refraining from sexual intercourse.
o Calendar Method: Avoiding intercourse during fertile days.
o Basal Body Temperature Method: Monitoring temperature changes.
o Cervical Mucus Method: Monitoring changes in cervical mucus.
o Symptothermal Method: Combining temperature and mucus methods.
o Ovulation Detection: Using kits to predict ovulation.

➢ Artificial Methods
o Oral Contraceptives: Pills containing synthetic hormones.
o Transdermal Patch: Weekly application of hormone patches.
o Vaginal Ring: Inserted for three weeks, releases hormones.
o Subdermal Implants: Rods inserted under the skin, effective for years.
o Hormonal Injections: Given every 12 weeks to prevent ovulation.
o Intrauterine Device (IUD): T-shaped device inserted into the uterus.
o Chemical Barriers: Spermicides, gels, and creams.
o Diaphragm: Circular disk placed over the cervix.
o Cervical Cap: Soft rubber cap fitted on the cervix.
o Male Condoms: Latex sheath placed on the erect penis.
o Female Condoms: Latex sheaths inserted into the vagina.
o Surgical Methods: Vasectomy for males, tubal ligation for females.
 LESSON 2
To Buy or Not to Buy? That is the Question!

➢ Material Self
➢ The material self, a concept articulated by William James in the late 19th
century, encompasses the tangible aspects of an individual's identity,
including their body, clothing, immediate family, and home. It represents
the possessions and physical entities to which individuals attach personal
significance, considering them integral parts of their self-concept.

➢ Components of Material Self

1. Body: The physical form, considered the innermost aspect of the material
self, is deeply invested in and indispensable to an individual's existence.
Specific body parts may hold varying degrees of importance based on
their perceived value.
2. Clothing: Influenced by Herman Lotze's "Philosophy of Dress," clothing is
seen as a significant extension of the self, affecting attitudes and behavior
through its fabric and style. It serves as a means of self-expression,
reflecting one's identity and personal tastes.
3. Immediate Family: Parents and siblings play a crucial role in shaping an
individual's sense of self, with their experiences and achievements closely
intertwined with one's own emotional responses and actions.
4. Home: The physical space of one's residence, often regarded as the
ultimate manifestation of personal identity and comfort, serves as a
repository of memories and experiences, connecting directly to an
individual's selfhood.

➢ Significance of Possessions
o Investment of Self: Possessions represent invested aspects of the self,
with the degree of attachment correlating to the level of personal
identification.
o Symbolism: Belk suggests that possessions are intertwined with one's
sense of identity, serving as reflections of self-concept, past experiences,
and aspirations.
o Evolution of Attachment: While the importance of material possessions
may diminish with age, their significance can be amplified through
associations with significant events, accomplishments, or individuals,
continuing to shape an individual's identity even after their passing.
➢ Examples
o Celebrity Insurance: Instances such as Mariah Carey's insurance of her
vocal cords and legs exemplify the high value attributed to specific body
parts.
o Symbolic Possessions: Objects like cherished vehicles or favorite pets
serve as enduring symbols of personal identity, maintaining significance
even after the owner's demise.
➢ Key Concepts
o Self-Concept: The material self contributes to an individual's
understanding of their own identity, encompassing both tangible
possessions and intangible qualities.
o Investment Theory: Belk's theory posits that possessions are
integrated into an individual's self-concept, shaping perceptions of
identity and personal worth.

LESSON 3
Supernaturals: Believe It or Not!

➢ Religion
o A set of cultural beliefs and practices that typically include the following
characteristics:
1. Anthropomorphic supernatural beings: Belief in spirits or gods.
2. Sacred supernatural: A focus on sacred elements, inducing reverence
and awe.
3. Supernatural power: Presence of power or energy in supernatural
and physical beings/objects.
4. Ritual activities: Performing rituals to communicate with or influence
supernatural beings/events.
5. Worldview and moral codes: Articulating beliefs and morals through
narratives and other means.
6. Social bonds and control: Creating social bonds and mechanisms of
control; explaining unknowns and providing a sense of control.

➢ Ritual
o Performance of ceremonial acts prescribed by tradition or sacred law.
Fundamental characteristics include:
1. Emotion of respect/awe: In relation to the sacred.
2. Belief system dependence: Usually expressed through myths.
3. Symbolic reference: Rituals are symbolic acts based on arbitrary
rules.
➢ Major World Religions: Beliefs and Practices
1. Buddhism
o Beliefs: Life involves suffering, which can be alleviated through
meditation, wisdom, and acceptance.
o Practices:
­ Meditation: Samatha (mindfulness of breathing, loving-kindness)
and Vipassana (insight into reality).
­ Moral Path (Eightfold Path): Includes right view, intention, speech,
action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration.
o Major Celebrations: Parinirvana Day, Buddha Day (Wesak), Dharma
Day, Padmasambhava Day, Sangha Day.
2. Christianity
o Beliefs: Trinitarian God (Father, Son, Holy Spirit), eternal life through
faith in Jesus Christ, Bible as sacred text.
o Practices:
­ Sacraments: Baptism and Communion.
­ Teachings: Unconditional love, support for the poor and outcast.
o Major Celebrations: Christmas (birth of Jesus), Easter (resurrection of
Jesus).
3. Hinduism
o Beliefs: Cycle of birth, death, rebirth governed by Karma, sacred texts
include Vedas, Mahabharata, and Ramayana.
o Practices: Festivals like Diwali (Festival of Lights) and Navrati (festival
of nine nights).
4. Islam
o Beliefs: Unity and universality of God (Allah), community (ummah),
Prophet Mohammed as the last prophet, Quran as sacred text.
o Practices:
­ Five Pillars: Shahadah (faith), Salat (prayer), Zakat (charity), Hajj
(pilgrimage), Sawm (fasting during Ramadan).
o Major Celebrations: Eidul-Fitr (end of Ramadan), Eidul-Adha (during
Hajj).
5. Judaism
o Beliefs: God of Abraham, liberation of Hebrew slaves, coming of the
Messiah, Torah as sacred scripture.
o Practices: Festivals such as Rosh Hashanah (New Year), Yom Kippur
(Day of Atonement), Pesach (Passover), Shavuot (Pentecost), Sukkot
(Tabernacles), and Shabbat (Sabbath).
➢ Viktor Frankl
o Biography: Psychiatrist, Holocaust survivor, developed logotherapy.
o Logotherapy:
­ Main Belief: Man’s primary motivational force is the search for
meaning.
­ Discovering Meaning: Through work, experiences, attitudes towards
suffering.
­ Basic Concepts: Life has meaning under all circumstances; main
motivation is finding meaning; freedom to find meaning.
➢ Logotherapy Assumptions
1. Human Entity: Consisting of body, mind, and spirit.
2. Meaning Under All Circumstances: Even the most miserable ones.
3. Will to Meaning: Main motivation for living.
4. Freedom to Find Meaning: In any circumstances.
5. Demand Quality of Life: Responding to life’s demands gives meaning.
6. Individual Uniqueness: Each person’s sense of meaning is unique.
➢ Sources of Meaning (Popova, 2017):
1. Purposeful Work: Holding a future goal.
2. Courage in Difficulty: Facing suffering and pain.
3. Love: Enables the realization of potential in the beloved person; love as
salvation and joy.

LESSON 4
The Political Self & Being Filipino

➢ The idea that a Filipino's identity is not solely based on physical

characteristics, but also includes values, traits, culture, and history.
o Colonial Mentality: A lack of patriotism and preference for foreign
products and standards over local ones, rooted in the history of
colonization by Spain, America, and Japan.
o Bayanihan: A spirit of communal unity and cooperation, helping others
without expecting anything in return.
o "Bahala Na" Attitude: A Filipino outlook similar to "Hakuna Matata,"
meaning leaving everything to God and not worrying about the future.
o Mañana Habit: Procrastination; putting off tasks for later, resulting in
heavier workloads.
o Ningas Kugon: Starting projects with enthusiasm but quickly losing
interest and abandoning them.
o Crab Mentality: Resenting others' success and attempting to pull them
down rather than supporting them.
Important Concepts
➢ National Identity: Not limited to race, ethnicity, and physical
characteristics but includes shared values, traits, and cultural practices.
➢ Filipino Citizenship: Defined by the 1987 Philippine Constitution,
including those born to Filipino parents and naturalized citizens.

➢ Filipino Traits and Values:

o Hospitality: Welcoming guests warmly, often going to great lengths to
ensure their comfort.
o Respect for Elders: Using respectful terms and gestures, such as "Mano
po," "po," and "opo."
o Close Family Ties: Maintaining strong family bonds and preferring to
care for elders at home rather than in nursing homes.
o Cheerful Personality: Smiling and maintaining a positive outlook, even
during difficult times.
o Self-Sacrifice: Willingness to sacrifice personal comfort for the benefit
of family, such as working abroad to provide for loved ones.
o Bayanihan: Helping others in the community selflessly.

➢ Negative Traits to Address

o Colonial Mentality: Preference for foreign products and standards over
local ones.
o Mañana Habit: Procrastination leading to inefficiency.
o Ningas Kugon: Starting strong but not finishing tasks.
o Crab Mentality: Bringing others down instead of supporting their
success.
o Pride: Holding grudges and finding it difficult to apologize.
o Filipino Time: Tendency to arrive late, especially for social events.

➢ Cultural Markers
o Proverbs (Salawikain): Short sayings that convey lessons and reflect
Filipino values.
o Superstitions: Beliefs passed down through generations, often
influencing behavior.
o Myths and Legends: Stories explaining the origins of things and
teaching moral lessons, such as the legend of the pineapple.
o Heroes and Icons: Figures like Jose Rizal and Manny Pacquiao who
embody Filipino values and have contributed significantly to national
pride.
➢ How to Be a Good Filipino
1. Be an Active Citizen: Participate in government programs and exercise
your right to vote.
2. Study Philippine History: Understand the country's past to appreciate
its present and future.
3. Support Local Products: Strengthen the local economy by buying locally
made goods.
4. Speak the Filipino Language: Embrace the national language as a
symbol of national identity.
5. Avoid Spreading Fake News: Verify information before sharing it and
engage respectfully in discussions, recognizing different political views.

LESSON 5
Who Am I in the Cyberworld? (Digital Self)

➢ Over half the world's population uses the Internet; the Philippines has a
high number of active users. Nearly two-thirds of the global population has
a mobile phone; over half of web traffic is from mobile phones.
➢ Philippines Data: Significant growth in media and mobile social users.

➢ Digital Indicator
o Online Identity: Comprised of all characteristics and interactions.
Partial identity and persona are subsets used in specific contexts.
o Self-Presentation: Key to relationships, involves selective information
sharing for positive image construction.
o Public Nature of Posts: Anything online can become public; privacy
settings do not guarantee confidentiality.
o Personal vs. Social Identity: Personal identity differentiates an
individual, while social identity is tied to group memberships.
➢ Selective Self-Presentation and Impression Management
o Self-Presentation Theory: Goffman and Leary emphasize controlling
others' perceptions.
o Online Sharing: Extends beyond close circles; digital devices facilitate
broad information sharing.
o Selfies and Digital Albums: Shift from traditional photo albums to
individual-centric digital galleries.
o Oversharing Risks: Can lead to vulnerability, compulsive behavior, and
the "fear of missing out."
o Disinhibition Effect: Anonymity and lack of face-to-face interaction led
to greater self-disclosure and potential conflicts.
➢ Self-Disclosure and Online Behavior
o Therapeutic Sharing: Online self-revelation can be therapeutic and
foster self-reflection.
o Identity Work: Much identity work is done online; the Internet prompts
continual self-presentation.
o Confession and Vulnerability: Confessing online can be freeing but also
binds individuals to self-governance and vulnerability.
o Technologies of the Self: Includes contemplation, self-examination, and
public confessions as a form of self-purging.

➢ Gender and Sexuality Online

o Definitions: Sex is biological, gender is a social construct, and sexuality
is the expression of desire.
o Gender as Performance: Butler's theory; gender is performative and
produced through actions, not inherently natural.
o Internet and Gender Fluidity: The Internet allows for experimentation
with gender identities.
o Social Media Participation: Women are more active on social networks;
men dominate platforms like Wikipedia.

➢ Performing Gender Online

o Cultural Participation: Social media fosters creativity and cultural
production.
o Gender Clustering: Men and women use similar technologies
differently; certain types of content are gendered.
o Blogging and Content Creation: Similar numbers of male and female
bloggers, but topics vary by gender.

➢ Smart Sharing and Online Safety

o Pre-Posting Considerations: Evaluate necessity, benefit,
appropriateness, and long-term impact before posting.
o Rules for Sharing:
o Stick to safer sites. o Avoid being mean or
o Guard passwords. embarrassing others.
o Limit sharing. o Report strange behavior.
o Recognize permanence of o Be selective about online
online content. friends.
o Practice patience.
 CHAP 3: LESSON 1
Learning To Be a Better Learner

➢ Definition and Importance

o Metacognition: "Thinking about thinking." It involves being aware of
your own knowledge and cognitive processes, and adjusting them to
enhance learning.
o Self-Appraisal: Reflecting on your knowledge and capabilities.
o Self-Management: Planning and adapting cognitive strategies to learn
effectively.

➢ Components of Metacognition
1. Metacognitive Knowledge
o Personal Variables: Self-assessment of strengths and weaknesses in
learning.
o Task Variables: Understanding the nature of the task and required
strategies.
o Strategy Variables: Knowledge of strategies or skills for specific
tasks.
2. Metacognitive Regulation
o Adjusting cognitive processes to enhance learning.

➢ Emotional and Motivational Factors

o Emotions and motivations play a critical role in learning.
Understanding and managing these can enhance the learning process.

➢ Skills to Enhance Metacognition

1. Knowing Your Limits: Honest assessment of knowledge and resources.
2. Modifying Your Approach: Adjusting strategies when comprehension is
lacking.
3. Skimming: Quickly identifying key concepts and sections in the material.
4. Rehearsing: Repeatedly practicing and summarizing learned material.
5. Self-Testing: Creating tests to evaluate comprehension and strategies.
6. Asking Questions: Reflecting on learning methods.
7. Finding Mentors or Support Groups: Seeking external guidance.
8. Thinking Out Loud: Articulating thought processes (considerately).
9. Welcoming Errors: Learning from mistakes rather than avoiding them.
➢ Types of Metacognitive Learners (Perkins, 1992)
1. Tacit Learners: Unaware of metacognitive processes but know their
knowledge extent.
2. Aware Learners: Know some metacognitive strategies but don’t plan
their use.
3. Strategic Learners: Plan and strategize learning experiences.
4. Reflective Learners: Reflect on and adapt strategies based on the
situation.

➢ Goals of Metacognition
o To become a self-regulated learner capable of independent study and
accurate self-assessment.
o Compensating and developing cognitive limitations through self-
awareness.
o Improving academic performance across subjects and ages.
o Transferring knowledge between contexts.

➢ Outline: Structure the topics you want to learn.

1. Break Down Tasks: Manageable segments help avoid overwhelming.
2. Variation: Rotate subjects and include physical activities.
3. Incubation: Write drafts without editing, take a break, and then revisit
with a fresh perspective.
4. Revision and Notes: Regularly revise, summarize, and note key points.
5. Engagement: Actively interact with the material (e.g., highlighting,
diagramming, discussing).

➢ Reflective Practice
o Continuously assess your metacognitive processes and adapt strategies
for better learning outcomes.
o Find enjoyment and success in learning through the application of
metacognitive techniques.

LESSON 2
Do Not Just Dream, Make It Happen

➢ Albert E. Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory

o Biography: Born in Mundare, Alberta on December 4, 1925.
o Graduated from University of British Columbia with The Bolocan Award
in Psychology in 1949.
 o Earned a Master's degree in 1951 and a Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology in
1952 from the University of Iowa.
o Postdoctoral position at Wichita Guidance Center; faculty member at
Stanford University since 1953.
o Most influential psychologist, APA President in 1974, and received the
National Medal of Science in 2015.

➢ Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's capabilities to organize and execute actions

required to manage situations.
➢ Outcome Expectancy: Estimate that a given behavior will lead to specific
outcomes.
➢ Efficacy Expectation: Belief that one can successfully execute behaviors
required for desired outcomes.
➢ Bobo Doll Experiment
o Conducted in the 1950s to study social modeling.
o Showed children violent/nonviolent models with a Bobo doll.
o Result: Children mimicked the behavior of the models, validating social
learning theory.

➢ Sources of Self-Efficacy
1. Performance Accomplishments/Mastery Experiences: Successes
build efficacy, failures can undermine it.
2. Vicarious Experiences: Observing similar others succeed can
strengthen belief in one's capabilities.
3. Verbal/Social Persuasion: Encouragement can temporarily boost
self-efficacy.
4. Physiological/Emotional States: Stress and physical responses can
influence self-efficacy perceptions.

➢ Impact on Behavior
o High self-efficacy leads to challenging goal setting, sustained efforts, and
resilience.
o Low self-efficacy leads to avoidance of challenging tasks, low aspirations,
and susceptibility to stress and depression.

➢ Quotes by Bandura
o "Self-belief does not necessarily ensure success, but self-disbelief
assuredly spawns failure."
o "By sticking it out through tough times, people emerge from adversity
with a stronger sense of efficacy.
➢ Carol S. Dweck's Fixed and Growth Mindset Theory
o Biography: Born October 17, 1946.
o Graduated from Bernard College in 1967 and earned PhD from Yale
University in 1972.
o Taught at Columbia, Harvard, University of Illinois, and Stanford since
2004.
o Leading researcher in motivation, published Mindset: The New
Psychology of Success in 2006.
➢ Key Concepts
o Fixed Mindset: Belief that abilities are static traits.
o Growth Mindset: Belief that abilities can be developed through effort
and learning.

➢ Impact on Behavior
o Fixed mindset individuals fear failure as it reflects on their abilities.
o Growth mindset individuals view failure as a learning opportunity.
o Environmental cues and feedback play a role in developing mindsets
(e.g., praising effort vs. intelligence).
➢ Quotes by Dweck
o "In a growth mindset, students understand that their talents and abilities
can be developed through effort, good teaching, and persistence."

➢ Edwin A. Locke's Goal Setting Theory

o Biography: Born January 5, 1938.
o Dean's Professor (Emeritus) at University of Maryland.
o BA from Harvard (1960) and Ph.D. in Industrial Psychology from Cornell
(1964).
o Published over 300 articles and 12 books on work motivation and goal
setting.
➢ Goal Setting Theory: Focuses on the relationship between conscious
performance goals and performance on tasks.
➢ Attributes of Effective Goals:
o Specificity: Clear and specific goals lead to higher performance.
o Difficulty: Challenging but attainable goals improve performance.
o Commitment: Goal commitment strengthens goal attainment.
o Feedback: Regular feedback enhances goal achievement.
o Task Complexity: More complex tasks require careful planning and
greater goal commitment.
➢ Impact on Behavior
o Conscious goal setting leads to purposeful actions and improved task
performance.
o Effective goal setting requires a combination of specificity, challenge,
commitment, feedback, and manageable complexity.
➢ Quotes by Locke
o "Goal setting theory is based on what Aristotle called final causality, that
is, action caused by a purpose.

➢ Goal Attributes
1. Internal and External Aspects
o Internal: Ideas Idea guides action to attain the object (desired ends)
o External: Objects or conditions sought (job, sale, performance level)
2. Attributes of Goals
o Content: Actual object sought.
­ Qualitative: What the person is seeking.
­ Quantitative: Difficulty and specificity.
o Intensity: Scope, focus, complexity of the choice process.

➢ Research Findings (Locke, 2017)

1. Goal Difficulty
o The more difficult the goal, the greater the achievement.
o Assumes commitment and requisite ability and knowledge.
o Performance drops without these.
2. Goal Specificity
o More specific or explicit goals precisely regulate performance.
o Achieved through quantification or enumeration.
o Not always desirable in creative situations.
o Specific and difficult goals lead to highest performance.
3. Goal Commitment - Critical when goals are specific and difficult and
higher commitment results in better performance.
4. High Commitment Factors
o Importance of the goal and attainability or progress toward it.
o Influenced by:
­ Supervisor’s legitimate authority.
­ Incentives like supportiveness, recognition, rewards.
­ Participation in setting goals.
5. Leadership Techniques for Commitment
o Inspiring vision.
o Role modeling.
 o Expecting outstanding performance.
o Delegating responsibility for key tasks.
o Confidence in employee capabilities.
o Training and asking for public commitment.
6. Self-Efficacy (Bandura, 1986)
o Task-specific confidence.
o Raised by enactive mastery, persuasion, and role modeling.
o Influence’s goal difficulty, commitment, response to feedback, and
task strategies.
o High self-efficacy leads to setting high goals, commitment, and
effective strategy search.
7. Feedback
o Essential for tracking progress.
o Effective when it shows progress relative to goals.
o Mediates effect of knowledge of past performance on subsequent
performance.
o Negative feedback impacts self-efficacy and subsequent goals.
8. Direct and Indirect Effects of Goals
o Affects action direction, effort, and persistence.
o Stimulates planning and the use of task-specific strategies.
o Persistence usually higher with difficult goals.
9. Complex Tasks - Direct goal mechanisms less effective & necessity to
discover new strategies under pressure.
10. Goal Mediators - Goals and self-efficacy mediate the effects of values,
personality, and feedback on performance.
11. Self-Management - Goals can be self-imposed for personal regulation.
12. Affect and Emotions - Goals lead to satisfaction or dissatisfaction based
on achievement & higher goals lead to less satisfaction due to higher
standards.
13. Goal-Setting Dilemmas
o Balancing high performance and satisfaction.
o Reward systems in organizations:
­ Incentives for difficult goals might lower motivation if goals are
unattainable.
­ Piece-rate systems or multiple goal levels could be effective.
14. Growth Mindset - Specific, achievable goals with high self-efficacy led to
higher success.
 LESSON 3
Less Stress, More Care

1. Stress Types and Responses

➢ Definition & Differentiation
o Hans Selye's Definition: Stress as the body's nonspecific response to
any demand, pleasant or unpleasant.
o Types of Stress:
­ Eustress: Positive stress (e.g., marriage, promotion, new friends).
­ Distress: Negative stress (e.g., divorce, injury, financial problems).
➢ Body's Response
o Similar physiological responses to both eustress and distress.
o Eustress causes less damage than distress.
o Successful adaptation to stress depends on individual perception.

2. Stress Response Mechanisms

➢ Brain's Role
o Hypothalamus: Command center, communicates via the autonomic
nervous system (ANS Components):
­ Sympathetic Nervous System: Triggers fight-or-flight response.
­ Parasympathetic Nervous System: Promotes rest-and-digest
response.
➢ Physiological Changes
o Amygdala Distress Signal: Activates hypothalamus, releasing
epinephrine.
o HPA Axis Activation: Hypothalamus releases CRH, pituitary gland
releases ACTH, adrenal glands release cortisol.
➢ Long-term Effects
o Chronic stress can lead to health issues like hypertension, heart
attacks, and weight gain due to elevated cortisol levels.

3. Techniques to Counter Chronic Stress

➢ Relaxation Response
o Methods: Deep breathing, visualization, repetitive prayer, yoga, tai chi.
o Effectiveness: Proven to lower blood pressure in hypertensive patients.
➢ Physical Activity- Exercise relieves muscle tension and induces
calmness.
➢ Social Support -Emotional support from close relationships can buffer
against chronic stress.
4. Cultural Dimensions of Stress and Coping
➢ Cultural Influence - Internalized cultural values shape stress appraisal
and coping responses.
➢ Coping Strategies by Culture
o Asians: Emotion-focused, avoidance, spiritual coping.
o African-Americans: Spiritual and religious coping.
o Latinos: Family support and religious coping.
➢ Collective Coping
o Emphasizes interdependence and community support in coping
strategies.

5. Self-Care Therapy
➢ Steps for Self-Care
o Immediate Response: Stop, breathe, focus on one step at a time.
o Acknowledge Feelings: Recognize and accept all emotions.
o Find a Listener: Share your story without seeking advice.
o Maintain Routine: Helps retain a sense of control.
o Self-Care Practices
­ Get enough sleep, eat healthily, know your limits, create a
nurturing space, practice relaxation or meditation.

6. Self-Compassion Therapy
➢ Being kind and understanding towards oneself during times of suffering
or failure.
➢ Self-Compassion Phrases
o "This is a moment of suffering."
o "Suffering is a part of life."
o "May I be kind to myself."
o "May I give myself the compassion I need."
➢ Benefits of Self-Compassion
o Linked to less anxiety and depression.
o Encourages emotional coping and clarity.
➢ Motivation and Health
o Enhances intrinsic motivation and personal initiative.
o Associated with better emotional intelligence and reduced negative
emotions.
➢ Self-Compassion vs. Self-Esteem
o Self-compassion predicts greater well-being and less narcissism
compared to self-esteem.
 ➢ Self-Compassionate Letter Exercise
o Write a letter to yourself from the perspective of an unconditionally
compassionate friend.

➢ Key Researchers and Findings

o Hans Selye: General adaptation syndrome, stress responses.
o Ben Kuo (2010): Cultural dimensions of stress and coping.
o Kristin Neff (2012): The science of self-compassion, its benefits, and
practical exercises.
o Nancy Apperson (2008): Steps for self-care during stress.