Grammar

Part One
Speech (any utterance) consists of the following:
Speech is usually divided into some main parts, these are:
 Auxiliary Verbs (Functions)
• He has written a • Auxiliary
letter. • Auxiliary
• He is reading a novel. • Auxiliary
• He did not come to
the library yesterday.

• She did her job • Lexical and auxiliary

perfectly
• He is a teacher • Lexical and auxiliary
• He has three books. • Lexical and auxiliary
Forms of
Verb to
(Be)
 The uses of verb (to Be) :

• As an auxiliary , verb (to Be ) is used in :

• The form of the continuous tense :
• 1. Present continuous tense as in :
• He is reading a book.
• She is writing a letter.
• They are cleaning the room.
• 2. Past continuous tense as in :
• He was eating his meal.
• We were playing football .
 Uses of Verb to (Be)
• forming the passive voice as in:
• The book is written by Ann.
• Three letters are written by Jane.
• This city was built in 1700.
• These papers were printed in 1990.
Passive voice
 Uses of Verb to (Be)
• 2 . When comes alone in the sentence , verb (to Be ) is
used as a lexical verb as in:

• Characteristics: She is happy.

• Condition: He is ill.
• Color: This book is green.
• Nationality: Ali is Iraqi.
• Size : This hall is large.
• Place : They are in the library.
• Age : He is twenty years old.
Forms of Verb to (do)
 The uses of verb (to Do) :

• 1.As an auxiliary , verb (to Do ) is used in:

–Interrogation :
• a. WH questions as in :
• Where did you go last week?
• When do you come to the library?
• What does he do for living ?
b. Yes/ No questions as in :
Do you study English ?
Did you come here yesterday ?
Does he know the truth ?
 The uses of verb (to Do) :

– Negation as in:
• They did not study well last year.
• She does not speak English.
• He does not play football.
̶ Emphasis of predication as in :
• I do want to help you.
• John does sing
 The uses of verb (to Do) :
When it comes alone in the sentence, verb
(to Do ) is used as a lexical verb as in:
• He does his work properly .
• She did her homework last night .
• They do many jobs .
Forms of Verb to (have)
 The uses of verb (to have ) :

As an auxiliary , verb (to Have ) is used in :

• The perfective form :
– The present perfect tense as in :
• They have seen him recently .
• He has written a letter lately .
• When comes alone, verb (to Have)
is used as a lexical verb with
different meaning as in :
• I have three books .
• He has a nice car .
• They had a terrible holiday.
 Modal Auxiliary Verbs
• Modal auxiliary are helping verbs that come
with the main verb (lexical verb) to achieve
some purpose, to indicate some meaning.
They include:
(Modals) 1.Will
Would
Shall
Should
can
could
may, might, must
Grammar
Part Two
 Declarative

Interrogative
Types of
Sentences
Imperative

Exclamatory
 Noun
Subject
phrase

Sentence Verb Verb phrase

Object, Complement,
Adverb
Patterns of Declarative
Sentences
The Realization of the Verb Phrase
 present
tense
past
 simple progressive
aspect
complex perfect

perfect
progressive
 active
voice
passive
 singular
number
Plural
 ability Can/could

permission May/might/can

modality possibility May/might/can

necessity must

obligation
must/should
 Present
imperative
base
infinitive
3rd person
S -form
singular

Forms of past Past tense

the
verb Progressive
-ing aspect
participle -ing (non
finite)clauses
-ed Perfective
participle aspect
 Tense and Aspect
Aspect Tense
Simple Present Past
V V (ed1)
V(s)

Continuous Be(is,am,are) Be(was,

+ V+ing were)+
V+ing
Complex
Prefect Have(has)+ Had
V(ed2) +V(ed2)

Perfect Have(has) Had

continuous been+V+ing been+V+
ing
 1. Present Simple Tense

The uses of the simple present tense :

1.Unrestrictive use
We live in London.
2. The instantaneous use :
Bill passes the ball to Jack.
3. The habitual use :
Sam walks to work every day.
 1. Present Simple Tense:
4. Referring to future :
I start work next week.
5. Referring to past :
Cathy wants him to see her .
6. Instruction :
You test an air leak by disconnecting
the delivery pipe.
 1. Present Simple Tense:
7. to express facts as in :
The sun rises in the east
8. other examples:
Ben comes early to school
They play football everyday .
Mary studies English every week.
I come here everyday .
 2. Past Simple Tense

Words that indicate reference to time may be

used:
He came here yesterday .
They cleaned their class last week .
She bought a book two days ago.
Last Monday, Jack ---------------- a
wallet on a lonely street.

saw is seeing

has seen sees

Shakespeare --------- more than 30
plays.

is writing writes

wrote write
Jill didn't ------------- her father last
night.

visit visits

visited to visit
The uses of the simple past :
1. Referring to the past time .
David was born in 1990.
2. Habitual past :
In those days , I enjoyed a game of tennis .
3. Hypothetical meaning .
It is time we had a holiday .
4. Referring to present (politeness )
Did you want me ? Yes , I hoped you would help me.
I hope you will help me .
I hoped you would help me . (more polite )
5. Indirect speech :
He said that he came here yesterday .

Certain adverbs are used with this tense :

yesterday
last---- ( year, week, Christmas, holiday, Friday)
(three, four, five) (days, weeks, years) ---- ago
3. Present Progressive (continuous) Tense:

((be) ( am, is , are )) + V + ing

Certain adverbs are used with this tense ( now,
at present , at this moment )
They are studying now.
He is reading now.
She is writing now.
Other uses of the progressive aspect :
1. Habitual uses :
I am taking computer lessons this winter .
2. Repetition of events of limited duration .
Whenever I visit him, he is mowing his lawn .
3. Anticipated happening in the future.
Mike is buying a new car for her birthday .
 Meaning of the different tenses 1:

I raise my arm ! (a sudden movement )

I am raising my arm (gradual movement )
The house falls down ! (a sudden movement )
The house is falling down.( gradual
movement )
I am living in London now. (Temporary residence)
I live in London. ( Permanent residence )
The man drowned. ( The man died)
The man was drowning. ( Can be saved )
He nodded. ( a single movement )
He was nodding. ( a repeated movement )
He is ill. ( unrestrictive present )
He is being ill. ( Temporary )
He told me the story.
(he told the whole story )
He was telling me the story when the
door was open. ( he told only part of it )
We have lived in London since last
September . (we still live in London )
We lived in London last year .
(We do not live in London anymore).
We have lived in London .(an event in
the indefinite past )
He has gone to America. ( He is still there )
He has been to America. ( He has since
returned )
Has Ali written any novels? (Ali is still alive )
Did Ali write any novels? ( Ali is now dead )
I have seen him this March. (said in
March)
I saw him this March. ( March is over)
 Past progressive (continuous) Tense :

Actions or events are not complete:

He was reading a story .
While they were playing football, their
father came .
As she was eating her dinner, the
phone rang .
 5. Present Perfect Tense :

(have ) + (V ed2 )
He has written a letter recently.
They have done their work lately.
I have read a book recently .
Adverbs used with the perfect:
(recently, lately, yet , just ,for , since )
They have seen him lately .
She has just opened the door .
He has bought a car recently .
They have studied English since 1990 .
He has worked here for three years .
She has just opened the door .
He has bought a car recently .
They have studied English since 1990 .
He has worked here for three years .
 Uses of present perfect :
1. state up to the present:
We have lived in London since last September.
2. Indefinite past:
Have you been to America ?
3. Habit in a period leading up to the present.
Ali has sung in this hall for fifty years.
4. Indirect speech as in
Tom said to me "I was here last week."
Tom told me that he had been there the
week before .
She has not been to Paris -----
along time

till for

since to
 6. Past Perfect Tense :
Had + ( V ed 2 )
They had written a letter before they
came here .
He had cleaned the room before he left
it.
7. Present Perfect Continuous Tense :

(have + been + V + ing )

He has been studying English for 30 years.

Compare with:

He has studied English for 30 years .

Compare :
Who has been eating my dinner?
( some of it is left )
Who has eaten my dinner ?
(It is all gone )
They have been eating rice -------
yesterday

so for

since along
 8. Past Perfect Continuous Tense:
(Had+ been+V+ing)

He had been working in Baghdad at

that time .
 Forms of Expressing Futurity

1. Will/ shall + Infinitive as in :

I shall go to the university tomorrow
He will go to the university tomorrow
2. Present Simple Tense as in :
They visit us next week .
3. Present Continuous Tense as in :
He is leaving to Baghdad next month.
 Forms of Expressing Futurity
4. (be ) + about to + Infinitive as in :
They are about to come
5. Will + be + V + ing as in :
He will be eating his dinner at 5 o'clock
6. (be ) + (going to ) + Infinitive as in:
It is going to rain
7. (be) + (to ) + Infinitive as in :
She is to clean the room
 Forms of Expressing Futurity in the Past

1.Would + Infinitive as in:

I would go to the university the next
day
2.Past Continuous Tense as in:
He was leaving to Baghdad the next
month
3.(be ) + (going to ) + Infinitive as in:
It was going to rain
 Forms of Expressing Futurity in the Past

4.(be) + (to ) + Infinitive as in :

He was to pay the bill.
5.(be ) + about to + Infinitive as in:
They were about to come.
6.Would + be + V + ing as in:
He would be eating his dinner at 5
o'clock.