12/17/2022

2-1 Boolean Constants and Variables

Chapter 2 – Describing Logic Circuits
• Boolean algebra allows only two values—0 and 1.
– Logic 0 can be: false, off, low, no, open switch.
– Logic 1 can be: true, on, high, yes, closed switch.

• The three basic logic operations:

– OR, AND, and NOT.
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Chapter 2 Objectives 2-2 Truth Tables

• Selected areas covered in this chapter: • A truth table describes the relationship between
– Operation of truth tables for AND, NAND, OR, and the input and output of a logic circuit.
NOR gates, and the NOT (INVERTER) circuit. • The number of entries corresponds to the number
– Boolean expression for logic gates. of inputs.
– DeMorgan’s theorems to simplify logic expressions. – A 2-input table would have 22 = 4 entries.
– Universal gates (NAND or NOR) to implement a – A 3-input table would have 23 = 8 entries.
circuit represented by a Boolean expression.
– Concepts of active-LOW & active-HIGH logic signals.
– Describing and measuring propagation delay time.

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 12/17/2022

2-2 Truth Tables 2-3 OR Operation With OR Gates

Examples of truth tables with 2, 3, and 4 inputs. • An OR gate is a circuit with two or more inputs,
whose output is equal to the OR combination
of the inputs.

Truth table/circuit symbol for a two input OR gate.

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2-3 OR Operation With OR Gates 2-3 OR Operation With OR Gates

• The Boolean expression for the OR operation is: • An OR gate is a circuit with two or more inputs,
X=A+B — Read as “X equals A OR B” whose output is equal to the OR combination
The + sign does not stand for ordinary of the inputs.
addition—it stands for the OR operation

Truth table/circuit symbol for a three input OR gate.

• The OR operation is similar to addition, but when
A = 1 and B = 1, the OR operation produces:
1 + 1 = 1 not 1 + 1 = 2

In the Boolean expression x = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1…

x is true (1) when A is true (1) OR B is true (1) OR C is true (1)

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 12/17/2022

2-3 OR Operation With OR Gates 2-4 AND Operations with AND gates

Example of the use of an OR • The AND operation is similar to multiplication:

gate in an alarm system.
X=A•B•C— Read as “X equals A AND B AND C”

The + sign does not stand for ordinary

multiplication—it stands for the AND operation.
x is true (1) when A AND B AND C are true (1)

Truth table — Gate symbol.

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2-4 AND Operations with AND gates

Problems

Truth table/circuit symbol for a three input AND gate.

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AND / OR 2-5 NOT Operation

A NOT circuit—commonly called an INVERTER.

The AND symbol on a logic-
circuit diagram tells you
output will go HIGH only
when all inputs are HIGH.

The OR symbol means the

output will go HIGH when
any input is HIGH.
This circuit always has only a single input, and the out-put
logic level is always opposite to the logic level of this input.

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2-5 NOT Operation

The INVERTER inverts (complements) the

input signal at all points on the waveform.
Problems

Whenever the input = 0, output = 1, and vice versa.

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2-5 NOT Operation 2-6 Describing Logic Circuits Algebraically

Typical application of the NOT gate. • If an expression contains both AND and OR
gates, the AND operation will be performed first.

• Unless there is a parenthesis in the expression.

This circuit provides an expression that

is true when the button is not pressed.

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Boolean Operations 2-6 Describing Logic Circuits Algebraically

• Whenever an INVERTER is present, output is

Summarized rules for OR, AND and NOT
equivalent to input, with a bar over it.
– Input A through an inverter equals A.

These three basic Boolean operations

can describe any logic circuit.
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2-6 Describing Logic Circuits Algebraically 2-7 Evaluating Logic Circuit Outputs

• Further examples… • The best way to analyze a circuit made up of

multiple logic gates is to use a truth table.
– It allows you to analyze one gate or logic
combination at a time.
– It allows you to easily double-check your work.
– When you are done, you have a table of tremendous
benefit in troubleshooting the logic circuit.

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2-6 Describing Logic Circuits Algebraically 2-7 Evaluating Logic Circuit Outputs

• Further examples… • The first step after listing all input combinations
is to create a column in the truth table for each
intermediate signal (node).

Node u has been filled as the complement of A

Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc. Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2-7 Evaluating Logic Circuit Outputs 2-7 Evaluating Logic Circuit Outputs

• The next step is to fill in the values for column v. • The final step is to logically combine columns v
and w to predict the output x.

v =AB — Node v should be HIGH

when A (node u) is HIGH AND B is HIGH Since x = v + w, the x output will be HIGH when v OR w is HIGH
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2-7 Evaluating Logic Circuit Outputs 2-7 Evaluating Logic Circuit Outputs

• The third step is to predict the values at node w • Output logic levels can be determined directly
which is the logical product of BC. from a circuit diagram.
– Output of each gate is noted until final output is found.
• Technicians frequently use this method.

This column is HIGH whenever B is HIGH AND C is HIGH

Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc. Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2-7 Evaluating Logic Circuit Outputs

Problems

Table of logic state

at each node of the
circuit shown.

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Problems

Problems

31 33
 12/17/2022

2-8 Implementing Circuits From Boolean Expressions

Problems
A circuit with output y = AC + BC + ABC
contains three terms which are ORed together.

…and requires a three-input OR gate.

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2-8 Implementing Circuits From Boolean Expressions 2-8 Implementing Circuits From Boolean Expressions

• It is important to be able to draw a logic circuit • Each OR gate input is an AND product term,
from a Boolean expression. – An AND gate with appropriate inputs can be
– The expression X = A • B • C, could be drawn used to generate each of these terms.
as a three input AND gate.
– A circuit defined by X = A + B, would use a two-
input OR gate with an INVERTER on one of
the inputs.

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2-8 Implementing Circuits From Boolean Expressions 2-9 NOR Gates and NAND Gates

• Combine basic AND, OR, and NOT operations.

– Simplifying the writing of Boolean expressions
• Output of NAND and NOR gates may be found
Circuit diagram to implement x = (A + B) (B + C) by determining the output of an AND or OR
gate, and inverting it.
– The truth tables for NOR and NAND gates show the
complement of truth tables for OR and AND gates.

Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc. Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2-9 NOR Gates and NAND Gates

• The NOR gate is an inverted OR gate.

Problems – An inversion “bubble” is placed at the output
of the OR gate, making the Boolean output
expression x = A + B

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 12/17/2022

2-9 NOR Gates and NAND Gates 2-9 NOR Gates and NAND Gates

Output waveform of a NOR gate for

the input waveforms shown here.
Logic circuit with the expression x = AB • (C + D)
using only NOR and NAND gates.

Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc. Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2-9 NOR Gates and NAND Gates

Output waveform of a NAND gate for

the input waveforms shown here. Problems

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Problems 2-10 Boolean Theorems

Theorem (1) states that if any variable

is ANDed with 0, the result must be 0.

Theorem (2) is also obvious

by comparison with ordinary
multiplication.

Prove Theorem (3) by trying each case.

If x = 0, then 0 • 0 = 0
If x = 1, then 1 • 1 = 1
Thus, x • x = x

Theorem (4) can be proved

in the same manner.

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2-10 Boolean Theorems 2-10 Boolean Theorems

The theorems or laws that follow may represent an Theorem (5) is straightforward,
as 0 added to anything does not
expression containing more than one variable. affect value, either in regular
addition or in OR addition.

Theorem (6) states that if any variable

is ORed with 1, the is always 1.
Check values: 0 + 1 = 1 and 1 + 1 = 1.

Theorem (7) can be proved by

checking for both values of x:
0 + 0 = 0 and 1 + 1 = 1.

Theorem (8) can be proved similarly.

Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc. Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2-10 Boolean Theorems Problems

Multivariable Theorems
Commutative laws

Associative laws

Distributive law

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2-10 Boolean Theorems 2-11 DeMorgan’s Theorems

Multivariable Theorems • DeMorgan’s theorems are extremely useful in

Theorems (14) and (15) do not have counterparts simplifying expressions in which a product or
in ordinary algebra. Each can be proved by sum of variables is inverted.
trying all possible cases for x and y.
Analysis table & factoring
for Theorem (14) Theorem (16) says inverting the OR sum of two variables is the same as
inverting each variable individually, then ANDing the inverted variables.

Theorem (17) says inverting the AND product of two variables is the
same as inverting each variable individually and then ORing them.

Each of DeMorgan’s theorems can readily be proven

by checking for all possible combinations of x and y.

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2-11 DeMorgan’s Theorems 2-12 Universality of NAND and NOR Gates

Equivalent circuits implied by Theorem (16) • NAND or NOR gates can be used to create the
three basic logic expressions.
– OR, AND, and INVERT.
• Provides flexibility—very useful in logic circuit design.

The alternative symbol

for the NOR function.

Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc. Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2-11 DeMorgan’s Theorems 2-12 Universality of NAND and NOR Gates

Equivalent circuits implied by Theorem (17) How combinations of NANDs or NORs are
used to create the three logic functions.

The alternative symbol

for the NAND function.

It is possible, however, to implement any logic expression using

only NAND gates and no other type of gate, as shown.
Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc. Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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 12/17/2022

2-12 Universality of NAND and NOR Gates 2-12 Universality of NAND and NOR Gates

How combinations of NANDs or NORs are Possible Implementations # 1

used to create the three logic functions.

NOR gates can be arranged to implement

any of the Boolean operations, as shown.
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2-12 Universality of NAND and NOR Gates 2-12 Universality of NAND and NOR Gates

A logic circuit to generate a signal x, that will go HIGH Possible Implementations #2

whenever conditions A and B exist simultaneously, or
whenever conditions C and D exist simultaneously.

The logic expression will be x = AB + CD.

Each of the TTL ICs shown here will

fulfill the function. Each IC is a quad,
with four identical gates on one chip

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 12/17/2022

Problems 2-13 Alternate Logic-Gate Representations

• Points regarding logic symbol equivalences:

– The equivalences can be extended to gates with
any number of inputs.
– None of the standard symbols have bubbles on
their inputs, and all the alternate symbols do.
– Standard & alternate symbols for each gate represent
the same physical circuit.
– NAND and NOR gates are inverting gates.
• Both the standard and the alternate symbols for each
will have a bubble on either the input or the output.
– AND and OR gates are noninverting gates.
• The alternate symbols for each will have bubbles
on both inputs and output.

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2-13 Alternate Logic-Gate Representations 2-13 Alternate Logic-Gate Representations

• To convert a standard symbol to an alternate: • Active-HIGH – an input/output has no inversion

– Invert each input and output in standard symbols. bubble.
• Add an inversion bubble where there are none. • Active-LOW – an input or output has an inversion
• Remove bubbles where they exist. bubble.

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 12/17/2022

2-13 Alternate Logic-Gate Representations 2-14 Which Gate Representation to Use

Proper use of alternate gate symbols in the circuit

diagram can make circuit operation much clearer.
Interpretation of the two NAND gate symbols.
Original circuit using
standard NAND
symbols.

Equivalent representation
where output Z is
active-HIGH.

Equivalent representation
where output Z is
active-LOW.

Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc. Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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2-13 Alternate Logic-Gate Representations 2-14 Which Gate Representation to Use

• When a logic signal is in the active state (HIGH or

LOW) it is said to be asserted.
Interpretation of the two OR gate symbols.
• When a logic signal is in the inactive state (HIGH
or LOW) it is said to be unasserted.

A bar over a signal Absence of a bar

means asserted
(active) LOW.
RD means asserted
(active) HIGH
RD

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2-14 Which Gate Representation to Use 2-14 Which Gate Representation to Use

• An output signal can have two active states, The logic circuit shown activates an
with an important function in the HIGH state, alarm when output Z goes HIGH.
and another in the LOW state.
– It is customary to label such signals so both Modify the circuit diagram
active states are apparent. so it represents the circuit
operation more effectively.

A common example is the read/write signal.

RD/WR The NOR gate symbol should be

changed to the alternate symbol
When this signal is HIGH, the read operation (RD) is performed; with a nonbubble (active-HIGH)
when it is LOW, the write operation (WR) is performed. output to match the nonbubble
input of AND gate 2.
The circuit now has nonbubble outputs
connected to nonbubble inputs of gate 2.

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2-14 Which Gate Representation to Use 2-15 Propogation Delay

• When possible, choose gate symbols so bubble • Propagation delay is the time it takes for a system
outputs are connected to bubble input. to produce output after it receives an input.
– Bubble outputs are connected to bubble inputs. – Speed of a logic circuit is related to propagation
– Nonbubble outputs connected to nonbubble inputs. delay.
• Parts to implement logic circuits have a data
sheet that states the value of propagation delay.
– Used to assure that the circuit can operate fast
enough for the application.

Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc. Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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