XII/PHY/CH- 10

PHYSICS
CLASS XII: 2018 -19
STUDY MATERIAL: REFERENCE: NCERT PHYSICS (PG: 352 – 381)
CHAPTER 10: Wave optics

Wave optics describes the connection between waves and rays of light. According to wave theory of light,
the light is a form of energy which travels through a medium in the form of transverse wave motion. The
speed of light in a medium depends upon the nature of medium.

Newton’s Corpuscular Theory

Light consists of very small invisible elastic particles which travel in vacuum with a speed of 3 x 108 m/s.
The theory could explain reflection and refraction.
The size of corpuscular of different colours of light is different.
It could not explain interference, diffraction, polarization. Photoelectric effect and Compton effect. The
theory failed as it could not explain why light travels faster in a rarer medium than in a denser medium.

Wave front
A wave front is defined as the continuous locus of all the particles of a medium, which are vibrating in the
same phase.
These are three types
(i) Spherical wave front (ii) Cylindrical wave front (iii) Plane wavefront

Huygen’s Wave theory

Wave theory of light was proposed by Huygens in 1678. The following are the assumptions of the theory:
• Each point on the source of light acts as centre of disturbance from which the waves spread out in
all directions. They are called secondary wave fronts.
• The locus of all the particles in a medium vibrating in the same phase is called wave front.
• The wave front due to point source is spherical and due to a line source is cylindrical. The wave
front corresponding to a parallel beam of light rays is plane.
• The direction of propagation of the light (ray of light) is perpendicular to the wave front.
• Secondary wavelets spread out as spherical secondary wave fronts with the speed of light.
• The tangential surface to all the secondary wave fronts gives the new wave front.
• The wave theory explains the laws of reflection, refraction, rectilinear propagation, interference,
diffraction, photoelectric effect as well as dispersion of light.
In the given figure, F1F2 represents the spherical wave front (with O as centre) at t = 0. The envelope of
the secondary wavelets emanating from F1F2 produces the forward moving wave front G1G2. The back
wave D1D2 does not exist.

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Huygens’ principle

(i) Every point on given wave front (called primary wave front) acts as a fresh source of new
disturbance called secondary wavelets which travel in all the directions with the speed of light in the
medium.
(ii) A surface touching these secondary wavelets tangentially in the forward direction at any
instant gives the new (secondary) wave front of later instant.

Refraction of a plane wave using Huygens’ principle

A plane wave AB is incident at an angle I on the surface PP′ separating medium 1 and medium 2. The
plane wave undergoes refraction and CE represents the refracted wave front. Since v2 < v1 so that the
refracted waves bends towards the normal.
Let be the time taken by the wave front to travel the distance BC. Thus, BC = v1 
In order to determine the shape of the refracted wave front, we draw a sphere of radius v 2 from the point
A in the second medium (the speed of the wave in the second medium is v2).
Let CE represent a tangent plane drawn from the point C on to the sphere. Then, AE = v2 τ and CE would
represent the refracted wave front.
If we consider the triangles ABC and AEC, we obtain

where i and r are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively.

Thus we get Sin i /Sin r = v1 / v2

From the above equation, we get the important result that if r < i (i.e., if the ray bends toward the normal),
the speed of the light wave in the second medium (v2) will be less than the speed of the light wave in the
first medium (v1).
If c represents the speed of light in vacuum, in terms of the refractive indices,
V1 = c/n1 and v2 = c/n2, therefore by substituting these values we get
n1 sin i = n2 sin r. [Snell’s law of refraction.]
Note 2
If the distance BC is equal to λ 1 then the distance AE will be equal to λ2 (because if the crest from B has
reached C in time τ, then the crest from A should have also reached E in time τ ); thus,

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The above equation implies that when a wave gets refracted into a denser medium (v1 > v2) then
wavelength and the speed of propagation decrease but the frequency ν (= v/λ) remains the same.

Reflection of a plane wave by a plane surface using Huygen’s principle

Consider reflection of a plane wave AB by the reflecting surface MN. AB and CE represent incident and
reflected wave fronts.

If v represents the speed of the wave in the medium and if  represents the time taken by the wave front to
advance from the point B to C then the distance
BC = v

Let CE represent the tangent plane drawn from the point C to this sphere. Therefore,
AE = BC = v
Consider the triangles EAC and BAC, we will find that they are congruent and therefore, the angles i
and r would be equal. This is the law of reflection.

Super position principle

When two similar waves propagate in a medium simultaneously, then at any point the resultant
Displacement is equal to the vector sum of displacement produced by individual waves.

Coherent sources of light

Two sources are said to be coherent if they emit continuous light waves of the same wavelength, same
frequency, and have zero or constant phase difference. Most of the light sources around us - lamp, sun,
candle etc are combination of multitude of incoherent sources of light.
Interference of light
When two light waves having same frequency superimpose, regions of maximum intensity and minimum
intensity are formed. This is called interference of light.

Importance of coherent sources in the phenomenon of interference

If sources are not coherent, the superposition pattern is not stable. The phase difference between the
two interfering waves will change rapidly with time and interfering pattern will be lost.

Constructive and Destructive interference

-When two light waves of similar frequency having a zero or constant phase difference propagates in a
medium simultaneously in the same direction, then due to their superposition maximum intensity is
obtained at few points and minimum intensity at other few points.

-The interference taking place at points of maximum intensity is called constructive interference.

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-The interference taking place at points of minimum intensity is called destructive interference

Conditions for Constructive and Destructive Interference

For Constructive Interference
Phase difference,  = n2π [ I = 4I0 (cos2π/2)2 ] = 4I0 x1 = 4I0 for phase difference 2π
Path difference, Δx = nλ - maximum intensity
where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…

For Destructive Interference

Phase difference,  = π,3π,5π, …. [Here I = 4I0 (cos π/2) 2 = 0] – minimum intensity
Path difference, Δx = (n + 1/2) or (2n+1)λ/2
where, n = 1, 2, 3, …

Conditions to obtain sustained interference

• To obtain a sustained interference, we must have:

• The sources of light must be monochromatic and of the same frequency.

• Two sources must be coherent.

• The amplitudes of the two sources should preferably be equal.

• The distance between the two sources must be small.

• The sources must be narrow.

• The distance between the sources and the screen should be large.

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Fringe Width
The distance between the centres of two consecutive bright or dark fringes is called the fringe width.
The angular fringe width is given by θ = λ / d.
Where λ is the wavelength of light d is the distance between two coherent sources.

Relation between amplitude and intensity of light

Intensity of light I0 = a2 [ square of the amplitude]

Resultant intensity of a beam of light I = 4 I0 cos2 ϕ/2

Interference of light and Young’s double slit Experiment

It was by this experiment; the wave theory of light came into existence. In this experiment, Thomas
Young used one single light source and it was passed through two slits to obtain two coherent sources.
Thus each slit act as a light source.

Consider two slits S1 and S2 on a screen which is separated by a distance d kept parallel and very close to
each other. These slits are illuminated by other narrow slit S. Light spreads out fromS1 and S2 and falls
on a screen. When both slits are open, there is a formation of interference fringes.
Let D be the distance between the screen and the plane of slits.
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lf light waves emitted from both slits S1 and S2 reach point O on the screen after travelling equal
distances, then path difference and phase difference are zero. Therefore they meet at O in same phase and
hence constructive interference takes place, and O will be the central bright fringe which seen as a bright
spot at O.
Let the light from both slits at a point P on the screen at a distance xn from O.

where S2 P – S1 P = path difference between both

waves

Hence;

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Figure: shows the interference pattern of two light waves to produce dark or bright fringes. Bright fringe(at
P) is formed due to the overlap of two maxima or two minima. Figure a,b . Dark fringe(at P) is formed due
to the overlap of maxima with minima. Figure c.
We can increase fringe width β by:
(i) Increasing the wavelength of light (λ); Fringe width will be greater for red than violet and blue.
(ii) Increasing the distance between the sources and screen (D).
(iii) By decreasing the distance between the two coherent sources.

Intensity distribution of light on the screen in Young’s double slit experiment.

*NOTE
Consider the source is shifted from S to S’ and Q is the midpoint of two narrow slits, then angle SQS is , and
the central bright fringe occurs at an angle –, on the other side. Thus, if the source S is on the perpendicular
bisector,then the central fringe occurs at O, also on the perpendicular bisector.
If S is shifted by an angle  to point S, then the central fringe appears at a point O at an angle –, which
means that it is shifted by the same angle on the other side of the bisector. This also means that the source
S, the mid-point Q and the point O of the central fringe are in a straight line.

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Difference between diffraction and interference

Interference Diffraction
The width of central maxima is same as The width of central maxima is more than of
(i) that of the other. the other fringes

All bright fringes are of equal intensity The intensity of secondary maxima keeps on
(ii) decreasing
(iii) Large number of fringes Only a small number of fringes
(iv) All fringes are of same width All secondary fringes are of same width but
central maximum of double the width
(v) Interference is due to superposition of 2
distinct waves coming from 2 coherent Diffraction is due to superposition of the
sources. secondary wavelets coming from different
parts of the same wave front.

Note
• If we use two point sources we get straight-line fringes.
• If we use two slits instead of point sources, each pair of points would have produced straight line

Fringes resulting in straight line fringes with increased intensities.

Diffraction

•
The diffraction is the phenomenon of bending of waves around the corners of obstacles or the
apertures.
• The extent of bending depends upon the diameter of the slit.
• Both Interference and Diffraction are closely related to each other.
• Young replaced the two slits by a single slit in his single slit experiment.Therefore this experiment
is also referred as Young’s single slit experiment.
• When the light passed through one slit a different type of pattern was observed on the screen.
• The pattern which was observed had a central maximum band and which was very wide as
compared to interference pattern.
Types of diffraction

(i) Fresnel class of diffraction phenomenon where the source of light and screen are in general at a
finite distance from the diffracting aperture.

(ii) Fruanhofer class of diffraction phenomenon where the source and the screen are at infinite distance
from the aperture, this is easily achieved by placing the source on the focal plane of a convex lens and
placing screen on focal plane of another convex lens. This class of diffraction is simple to treat and easy
to observe in practice

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Characteristics of diffraction

• Due to the diffraction, the waves encroach into the geometrical shadow of the obstacle or
aperture.

• Due to larger wavelength of sound, its diffraction can be easily detected in daily life around the
windows, doors, buildings, etc. The same is not the case with light, due to its shorter wave length.

• The diffraction of ultrasonic waves cannot be heard around ordinary obstacles due to their shorter
wavelength.

• The diffraction of radio waves can be observed even around hills, due to their much longer
wavelength.

• When the size of the obstacle is much larger as compared to the wavelength, only a geometrical
shadow of the obstacle is obtained.

• The centre of the geometrical shadow is a bright spot due to the diffraction at the edges. The
intensity of this bright spot increases as the size of the obstacle decreases.

• The centre of the diffraction pattern due to a circular aperture, when no lenses are used (Fresnel)
may be bright or dark depending on the position of the screen.

• The centre of the diffraction pattern due to a circular aperture, when lenses are used (Fraunhoffer)
is always bright.

• Fraunhoffer diffraction is a special case of Fresnel diffraction when the incident and diffracted
beams are made parallel.

• The resolving power of electron microscope is about 4000 times that of an ordinary microscope.

• X -rays are diffracted by the crystals because the separation between the atoms is of the order of

the wavelength of X- rays.

• The phenomenon of diffraction is higher for longer wavelengths and therefore, the deviation of
the light waves from rectilinear path is greater.

• Due to the lower degree of diffraction, the light waves appear to be travelling in straight lines.

Factors affecting diffraction

• Size of the aperture of obstacle and

• Wavelength.

Diffraction through a single slit

Consider a parallel beam of light incident normally on a slit LM of width 'a' which is of order of the
wavelength of light as shown below in the figure.

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Problem:- A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths, 650 nm and 520 nm, is used to obtain
interference fringes in a Young’s double-slit experiment.
(a) Find the distance of the third bright fringe on the screen from the central maximum for wavelength 650
nm

b) What is the least distance from the central maximum where the bright fringes due to both the
wavelengths coincide?

Answer:-
Wavelength of the light beam, λ1 =650nm
Wavelength of another light beam,λ2 =520nm
Distance of the slits from the screen = D

Distance between the two slits = d

(a) Distance of the nth bright fringe on the screen from the central maximum is given by the relation,
x=nλ1(D/d)
For third bright fringe, n=3

Therefore x=3x650(D/d) =1950(D/d) nm

(b) Let the nth bright fringe due to wavelength and (n − 1)th bright fringe due to wavelength λ1coincide on
the screen. We can equate the conditions for bright fringes as:
nλ2=(n-1)λ1
520n=650n-650

650=130n

Therefore, n=5.

Hence, the least distance from the central maximum can be obtained by the relation:

Note: The value of d and D are not given in the question.

Resolving power
• When two objects are very close to each other they may appear as one and we might not see them as
separate objects just by magnifying them.

• To separate two objects which are very close together, optical instrument such as telescope,
microscope, prism, grating etc are employed.

• The separation of such close object is termed as resolution and the ability of an optical instrument to
produce distinctly separate images of two close objects is called its resolving power.

• Every optical instrument has a limit up to which it can produce distinctly separate images to two
objects placed very close to each other.

• The minimum distance between two point object which can just appear to be as separate by optical
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•
• instrument is called the limit of resolution of the instrument.

Polarization of light

• The ordinary light which contains the vibrations of electric field vector in every plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation is called unpolarised light.

[‘.’ represents the vibrations of the electric field vector perpendicular to the plane of the paper.]
.
• Ordinary light has electric vectors in all possible directions in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of light.
• A plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration is called plane of polarisation.
• When ordinary light passes through certain crystals like tourmaline crystal, the vibrations of
electric field vector are restricted. This phenomenon is called polarization.
• Plane polarized light which contains the vibrations of electric field vector in a single plane.

Experimental set up to explain the phenomenon of polarisation of light.

When unpolarized light passes through polarizer the light coming out of it is plane polarized. If the
polarizer and analyser are paralle;l the intensity of light coming through the analyser will be maximum. If
the analyser is rotated through 90˚ the intensity of light coming out of it becomes zero.
The crystal which produces polarised light is called a polariser.
The crystal which is used to check whether the light is polarized or not is called analyzer or detector.

Malus’s law
Malus’s law states that when a beam of plane polarised light of intensity I0 is incident on the
analyser, then the intensity I of the emergent light is directly proportional to square of the cosine of the
angle (θ) between the (polarizing directions of ) polariser and analyser.
I = I0cos2 

Plane of vibration
It is the plane in which the vibrations of the polarized light take place.

Plane of polarization
It is the plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration of the plane polarized light.

The importance of polarization

Polarization reveals the transverse wave nature of light.

Polaroid and the uses of polaroids

Polaroid is an artificially made polarising material that produces selective absorption. Polaroids are used
to control the intensity of light in sunglasses, windowpanes, etc. Polaroids are also used in photographic
cameras and 3D movie cameras.

Distinguish between polarized light and unpolarized light

When we observe unpolarised light (ordinary light) through a Nicol prism (tourmaline crystal), the
intensity of the light coming out of the prism does not change if the crystal is rotated.
But when we observe polarized light through a Nicol prism, the intensity of the light coming out of the
prism changes if the crystal is rotated.
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Polarization by reflection
When ordinary light falls on a surface separating two transparent media, a part of the light is reflected
and the other part is transmitted (refracted).
For a particular angle of incidence, the reflected ray is fully polarized. This angle of incidence is called
polarizing angle or Brewster’s angle. At the polarizing angle, the reflected ray and the refracted ray are
mutually perpendicular.
We get, r + ip = 90
Here r is the angle of refraction and ip is the polarising angle.

Brewster’s law
Brewster’s law state that “the tangent of the polarizing angle is equal to the refractive index of the
material of the reflector.”
Refractive index, n21 = tan ip

Polarization of light reflected from a transparent medium at the Brewster angle[ Reflected ray
perpendicular to refracted tray]

Polarization by Scattering

The light from a clear blue portion of the sky shows a rise and fall of intensity when viewed through a
polaroid which is rotated. This is because sunlight, which has changed its direction (having been scattered) on
encountering the molecules of the earth’s atmosphere by vibrating in the directions of vibrating electric c
field of incident light. Hence electrons vibration perpendicular to the plane of paper radiate energy towards
observer or at 900 is strongly polarized.

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PHYSICS
CLASS XII: 2018 -19
STUDY MATERIAL: REFERENCE: NCERT PHYSICS (PG: 352 – 381)
CHAPTER 10: Wave optics

Wave optics describes the connection between waves and rays of light. According to wave theory of light,
the light is a form of energy which travels through a medium in the form of transverse wave motion. The
speed of light in a medium depends upon the nature of medium.

Newton’s Corpuscular Theory

Light consists of very small invisible elastic particles which travel in vacuum with a speed of 3 x 108 m/s.
The theory could explain reflection and refraction.
The size of corpuscular of different colours of light is different.
It could not explain interference, diffraction, polarization. Photoelectric effect and Compton effect. The
theory failed as it could not explain why light travels faster in a rarer medium than in a denser medium.

Wave front
A wave front is defined as the continuous locus of all the particles of a medium, which are vibrating in the
same phase.
These are three types
(i) Spherical wave front (ii) Cylindrical wave front (iii) Plane wavefront

Huygen’s Wave theory

Wave theory of light was proposed by Huygens in 1678. The following are the assumptions of the theory:
• Each point on the source of light acts as centre of disturbance from which the waves spread out in
all directions.
• The locus of all the particles in a medium vibrating in the same phase is called wave front.
• The wave front due to point source is spherical and due to a line source is cylindrical. The wave
front corresponding to a parallel beam of light rays is plane.
• The direction of propagation of the light (ray of light) is perpendicular to the wave front.
• Each point on a wave front acts as a source of new disturbance called secondary wave front.
• Secondary wavelets spread out as spherical secondary wave fronts with the speed of light.
• The tangential surface to all the secondary wave fronts gives the new wave front.
• The wave theory explains the laws of reflection, refraction, rectilinear propagation, interference,
diffraction, photoelectric effect as well as dispersion of light.
• Light wave propagate in hypothetical medium called ether. It was supposed to possess very high
elasticity and very low density. However, later on it was found that no material medium is
required for the propagation of light.

• Light waves are of longitudinal nature. As such it could not explain the polarisation of light.Later
on it was found that the light propagates as transverse waves and that the transverse waves can be
polarized.

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F1F2 represents the spherical wave front (with O as centre) at t = 0. The envelope of the secondary
wavelets emanating from F1F2 produces the forward moving wave front G1G2. The back wave D 1D2
does not exist.

Huygens’ principle

(i) Every point on given wave front (called primary wave front) acts as a fresh source of new
disturbance called secondary wavelets which travel in all the directions with the speed of light in the
medium.
(ii) A surface touching these secondary wavelets tangentially in the forward direction at any
instant gives the new (secondary) wave front of later instant.

Refraction of a plane wave using Huygens’ principle

A plane wave AB is incident at an angle I on the surface PP′ separating medium 1 and medium 2. The
plane wave undergoes refraction and CE represents the refracted wave front. Since v2 < v1 so that the
refracted waves bends towards the normal.
Let be the time taken by the wave front to travel the distance BC. Thus, BC = v1 
In order to determine the shape of the refracted wave front, we draw a sphere of radius v2 from the point
A in the second medium (the speed of the wave in the second medium is v2).
Let CE represent a tangent plane drawn from the point C on to the sphere. Then, AE = v2 τ and CE would
represent the refracted wave front.
If we consider the triangles ABC and AEC, we obtain

where i and r are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively.

Thus we get Sin i /Sin r = v1 / v2

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From the above equation, we get the important result that if r < i (i.e., if the ray bends toward the normal),
the speed of the light wave in the second medium (v2) will be less than the speed of the light wave in the
first medium (v1).
If c represents the speed of light in vacuum, in terms of the refractive indices,
V1 = c/n1 and v2 = c/n2, therefore by substituting these values we get
n1 sin i = n2 sin r. [Snell’s law of refraction.]
Note 2
If the distance BC is equal to λ 1 then the distance AE will be equal to λ2 (because if the crest from B has
reached C in time τ, then the crest from A should have also reached E in time τ ); thus,

The above equation implies that when a wave gets refracted into a denser medium (v1 > v2) then
wavelength and the speed of propagation decrease but the frequency ν (= v/λ) remains the same.

Reflection of a plane wave by a plane surface using Huygen’s principle

Consider reflection of a plane wave AB by the reflecting surface MN. AB and CE represent incident and
reflected wave fronts.

If v represents the speed of the wave in the medium and if  represents the time taken by the wave front to
advance from the point B to C then the distance
BC = v

Let CE represent the tangent plane drawn from the point C to this sphere. Therefore,
AE = BC = v
Consider the triangles EAC and BAC, we will find that they are congruent and therefore, the angles i
and r would be equal. This is the law of reflection.

Super position principle

When two similar waves propagate in a medium simultaneously, then at any point the resultant
Displacement is equal to the vector sum of displacement produced by individual waves.

Coherent sources of light

Two sources are said to be coherent if they emit continuous light waves of the same wavelength, same
frequency, and have zero or constant phase difference. Most of the light sources around us - lamp, sun,
candle etc are combination of multitude of incoherent sources of light.
Interference of light
When two light waves having same frequency superimpose, regions of maximum intensity and minimum
intensity are formed. This is called interference of light.

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Importance of coherent sources in the phenomenon of interference

If sources are waves will change rapidly not coherent, the superposition pattern is not stable. The
phase difference between the two interfering waves will change rapidly with time and interfering
pattern will be lost.

Constructive and Destructive interference

-When two light waves of similar frequency having a zero or constant phase difference propagates in a
medium simultaneously in the same direction, then due to their superposition maximum intensity is
obtained at few points and minimum intensity at other few points.
-The interference taking place at points of maximum intensity is called constructive interference.

-The interference taking place at points of minimum intensity is destructive interference

Conditions for Constructive and Destructive Interference

For Constructive Interference
Phase difference,  = n2π
Path difference, Δx = nλ
where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…

For Destructive Interference

Phase difference,  = π,3π,5π, ….
Path difference, Δx = (n + 1/2)
where, n = 1, 2, 3, …

Conditions to obtain sustained interference

• To obtain a sustained interference, we must have:

• The sources of light must be monochromatic and of the same frequency.

• Two sources must be coherent.

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• The amplitudes of the two sources should preferably be equal.

• The distance between the two sources must be small.

• The sources must be narrow.

• The distance between the sources and the screen should be large.

Fringe Width
The distance between the centres of two consecutive bright or dark fringes is called the fringe width.
The angular fringe width is given by θ = λ / d.
Where λ is the wavelength of light d is the distance between two coherent sources.

Relation between amplitude and intensity of light

Intensity of light I0 = a2 [ square of the amplitude]

Resultant intensity of a beam of light I = 4 I0

Interference of light and Young’s double slit Experiment

It was by this experiment; the wave theory of light came into existence. In this experiment, Thomas
Young used one single light source and it was passed through two slits to obtain two coherent sources.
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Thus each slit act as a light source.

Consider two slits S1 and S2 on a screen which is separated by a distance d kept parallel and very close to
each other. These slits are illuminated by other narrow slit S. Light spreads out fromS1 and S2 and falls
on a screen. When both slits are open, there is a formation of interference fringes.
Let D be the distance between the screen and the plane of slits.
lf light waves emitted from both slits S1 and S2 reach point O on the screen after travelling equal
distances, then path difference and phase difference are zero. Therefore they meet at O in same phase and
hence constructive interference takes place, and O will be the central bright fringe which seen as a bright
spot at O.
Let the light from both slits at a point P on the screen at a distance xn from O.

where S2 P – S1 P = path difference between both

waves

Hence;

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Figure: shows the interference pattern of two light waves to produce dark or bright fringes. Bright fringe(at
P) is formed due to the overlap of two maxima or two minima. Figure a,b . Dark fringe(at P) is formed due
to the overlap of maxima with minima. Figure c. We can increase fringe width β by:

(i) Increasing the wavelength of light (λ); Fringe width will be greater for red than violet
(ii) Increasing the distance between the sources and screen (D).
(iii) By decreasing the distance between the two coherent sources.

Intensity distribution of light on the screen in Young’s double slit experiment.

Difference between diffraction and interference

Interference Diffraction
The width of central maxima is same as The width of central maxima is more than of
(i) that of the other. the other fringes

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All bright fringes are of equal intensity The intensity of secondary maxima keeps on
(ii) decreasing
(iii) Large number of fringes Only a small number of fringes
(iv) All fringes are of same width All secondary fringes are of same width but
central maximum of double the width
(v) Interference is due to superposition of 2
distinct waves coming from 2 coherent Diffraction is due to superposition of the
sources. secondary wavelets coming from different
parts of the same wave front.

Note
• If we use two point sources we get straight-line fringes.
• If we use two slits instead of point sources, each pair of points would have produced straight line

Fringes resulting in straight line fringes with increased intensities.

Diffraction

• The diffraction is the phenomenon of bending of waves around the corners of obstacles or the
apertures.
• The extent of bending depends upon the diameter of the slit.
• Both Interference and Diffraction are closely related to each other.
• Young replaced the two slits by a single slit in his single slit experiment.Therefore this experiment
is also referred as Young’s single slit experiment.
• When the light passed through one slit a different type of pattern was observed on the screen.
• The pattern which was observed had a central maximum band and which was very wide as
compared to interference pattern.
Types of diffraction

(i) Fresnel class of diffraction phenomenon where the source of light and screen are in general at a
finite distance from the diffracting aperture.

(ii) Fruanhofer class of diffraction phenomenon where the source and the screen are at infinite distance
from the aperture, this is easily achieved by placing the source on the focal plane of a convex lens and
placing screen on focal plane of another convex lens. This class of diffraction is simple to treat and easy
to observe in practice

Characteristics of diffraction

• Due to the diffraction, the waves encroach into the geometrical shadow of the obstacle or
aperture.

• Due to larger wavelength of sound, its diffraction can be easily detected in daily life around the
windows, doors, buildings, etc. The same is not the case with light, due to its shorter wave length

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• The diffraction of ultrasonic waves cannot be heard around ordinary obstacles due to their shorter
wavelength.

• The diffraction of radio waves can be observed even around hills, due to their much longer
wavelength.

• When the size of the obstacle is much larger as compared to the wavelength, only a geometrical
shadow of the obstacle is obtained.

• The centre of the geometrical shadow is a bright spot due to the diffraction at the edges. The
intensity of this bright spot increases as the size of the obstacle decreases.

• The centre of the diffraction pattern due to a circular aperture, when no lenses are used (Fresnel)
may be bright or dark depending on the position of the screen.

• The centre of the diffraction pattern due to a circular aperture, when lenses are used (Fraunhoffer)
is always bright.

• Fraunhoffer diffraction is a special case of Fresnel diffraction when the incident and diffracted
beams are made parallel.

• The resolving power of electron microscope is about 4000 times that of an ordinary microscope.

• X -rays are diffracted by the crystals because the separation between the atoms is of the order of

the wavelength of X- rays.

• The phenomenon of diffraction is higher for longer wavelengths and therefore, the deviation of
the light waves from rectilinear path is greater.

• Due to the lower degree of diffraction, the light waves appear to be travelling in straight lines.

Factors affecting diffraction

• Size of the aperture of obstacle and

• Wavelength.

Diffraction through a single slit

Consider a parallel beam of light incident normally on a slit LMof width 'a' which is of order of the
wavelength of light as shown below in the figure.

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Problem:- A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths, 650 nm and 520 nm, is used to
obtaininterference fringes in a Young’s double-slit experiment.
(a) Find the distance of the third bright fringe on the screen from the centralmaximum for wavelength 650
nm

b) What is the least distance from the central maximum where the bright fringes dueto both the wavelengths
coincide?

Answer:-
Wavelength of the light beam, λ1 =650nm
Wavelength of another light beam,λ2 =520nm
Distance of the slits from the screen = D

Distance between the two slits = d

(a) Distance of the nth bright fringe on the screen from the central maximum is given bythe relation,
x=nλ1(D/d)
For third bright fringe, n=3

Therefore x=3x650(D/d) =1950(D/d) nm

(b) Let the nth bright fringe due to wavelength and (n − 1)th bright fringe due to wavelength λ1coincide on
the screen. We can equate the conditions for bright fringes as:
nλ2=(n-1)λ1
520n=650n-650

650=130n

Therefore, n=5.

Hence, the least distance from the central maximum can be obtained by the relation:

Note: The value of d and D are not given in the question.

Resolving power
• When two objects are very close to each other they may appear as one and we might not see them as
separate objects just by magnifying them.

• To separate two objects which are very close together, optical instrument such as telescope
,microscope, prism, grating etc are employed.

• The separation of such close object is termed as resolution and the ability of an optical instrument to
produce distinctly separate images of two close objects is called its resolving power.

• Every optical instrument has a limit up to which it can produce distinctly separate images to two
objects placed very close to each other.

• The minimum distance between two point object which can just appear to be as separate by optical
instrument is called the limit of resolution of the instrument.

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Polarization of light

• The ordinary light which contains the vibrations of electric field vector in every plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation is called unpolarised light.

[‘.’ represents the vibrations of the electric field vector perpendicular to the plane of the paper.]
.
• Ordinary light has electric vectors in all possible directions in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of light.
• When ordinary light is passed through a tourmaline, calcite or quartz crystal the transmitted
light have electric vectors in a particular direction parallel to the axis of crystal. This light is plane
polarized.
A plane containing the vibrations of polarized light is called plane of vibration.
• A plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration is called plane of polarisation.
• When ordinary light passes through certain crystals like tourmaline crystal, the vibrations of
electric field vector are restricted. This phenomenon is called polarization.
• Plane polarized light which contains the vibrations of electric field vector in a single plane.

Experimental set up to explain the phenomenon of polarisation of light.

When unpolarized light passes through polarizer the light coming out of it is plane polarized. If the
polarizer and analyser are paralle;l the intensity of light coming through the analyser will be maximum. If
the analyser is rotated through 90˚ the intensity of light coming out of it becomes zero.
The crystal which produces polarised light is called a polariser.
The crystal which is used to check whether the light is polarized or not is called analyzer or detector.

Malus’s law
Malus’s law states that when a beam of plane polarised light of intensity I0 is incident on the
analyser, then the intensity I of the emergent light is directly proportional to square of the cosine of the
angle (θ) between the (polarizing directions of ) polariser and analyser.
I = I0cos2 

Plane of vibration
It is the plane in which the vibrations of the polarized light take place.

Plane of polarization
It is the plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration of the plane polarized light.

The importance of polarization

Polarization reveals the transverse wave nature of light.

Polaroid and the uses of polaroids

Polaroid is an artificially made polarising material that produces selective absorption. Polaroids are used
to control the intensity of light in sunglasses, windowpanes, etc. Polaroids are also used in photographic
cameras and 3D movie cameras.

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Distinguish between polarized light and unpolarized light

When we observe unpolarised light (ordinary light) through a Nicol prism (tourmaline crystal), the
intensity of the light coming out of theprism does not change if the crystal is rotated.
But when we observe polarized light through a Nicol prism, the intensity of the light coming out of the
prism changes if the crystal is rotated.

Polarization by reflection
When ordinary light falls on a surface separating two transparent media, a part of the light is reflected
and the other part is transmitted (refracted).
For a particular angle of incidence, the reflected ray is fully polarized. This angle of incidence is called
polarizing angle or Brewster’s angle. At the polarizing angle, the reflected ray and the refracted ray are
mutually perpendicular.
We get, r + ip = 90
Here r is the angle of refraction and ip is the polarising angle.

Brewster’s law
Brewster’s law state that “the tangent of the polarizing angle is equal to the refractive index of the
material of the reflector.”
Refractive index, n21 = tan ip

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