WELDING

Introduction

A weld is made when separate pieces of material to be joined combine and form
one piece when heated to a temperature high enough to cause softening or
melting.

Filler material is typically added to strengthen the joint.

Welding is a dependable, efficient and economic method for permanently joining

similar metals.

In other words, you can weld steel to steel or aluminum to aluminum, but you
cannot weld steel to aluminum using traditional welding processes.

There are a number of (over 50) different welding processes and these differ
greatly in the manner in which heat and pressure (when used) are applied and in
the type of equipment used.

We’ll focus on 3 examples of electric arc welding, the most common form of
welding.

The most popular processes are:

1. Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

2. Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and

3. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

All of these methods employ an electric power supply to create an arc which
melts the base metal to form a molten pool.

The filler wire is then either added automatically (GMAW) or manually (SMAW &
GTAW) and the molten pool is allowed to cool.

Finally, all of these methods use some type of flux or gas to create an inert
environment in which the molten pool can solidify without oxidizing.

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SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT (SMAW)

SMAW is a welding process that uses a flux covered metal electrode to carry an
electrical current. The current forms an arc that jumps a gap from the end of the
electrode to the work.

The electric arc creates enough heat to melt both the electrode and the base
material.

Molten metal from the electrode travels across the arc to the molten pool of base
metal where they mix together.

As the arc moves away, the mixture of molten metals solidifies and becomes one
piece.

The molten pool of metal is surrounded and protected by a fume cloud and a
covering of slag produced as the coating of the electrode burns.

Due to the appearance of the electrodes, SMAW is commonly known as

‘stick’ welding.

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SMAW is one of the oldest and most popular methods of joining metal. Moderate
quality welds can be made at low speed with good uniformity.

SMAW is used primarily because of its low cost, flexibility, portability and
versatility. Both the equipment and electrodes are low in cost and very simple.

SMAW is very flexible in terms of the material thicknesses that can be welded
(materials from 1/16” thick to several inches thick can be welded with the same
machine and different settings).

It is a very portable process because all that’s required is a portable power

supply (i.e. generator).

Finally, it’s quite versatile because it can weld many different types of metals,
including cast iron, steel, nickel & aluminum.

Some of the drawbacks to SMAW are:

1. It produces a lot of smoke & sparks

2. There is a lot of post-weld clean up needed

3. It is a fairly slow welding process and

4. It requires a lot of operator skill to produce consistent quality welds.

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GAS METAL ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT

In the GMAW process, an arc is established between a continuous wire electrode

(which is always being consumed) and the base metal.

Under the correct conditions, the wire is fed at a constant rate to the arc,
matching the rate at which the arc melts it. The filler metal is the thin wire that’s
fed automatically into the pool where it melts.

Since molten metal is sensitive to oxygen in the air, good shielding with oxygen-
free gases is required. This shielding gas provides a stable, inert environment to
protect the weld pool as it solidifies. Consequently, GMAW is commonly
known as MIG (metal inert gas) welding.

Since fluxes are not used (like SMAW), the welds produced are sound, free of
contaminants, and as corrosion-resistant as the parent metal. The filler material
is usually the same composition (or alloy) as the base metal.

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GMAW is extremely fast and economical. This process is easily used for welding
on thin-gauge metal as well as on heavy plate. It is most commonly performed
on steel (and its alloys), aluminum and magnesium, but can be used with other
metals as well.

It also requires a lower level of operator skill than the other two methods of
electric arc welding.

The high welding rate and reduced post-weld cleanup makes GMAW the fastest
growing welding process.

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT

In the GTAW process, an arc is established between a tungsten electrode and the
base metal. Under the correct conditions, the electrode does not melt, although
the work does at the point where the arc contacts and produces a weld pool. The
filler metal is thin wire that is fed manually into the pool where it melts.

Since tungsten is sensitive to oxygen in the air, good shielding with oxygen-free
gas is required. The same inert gas provides a stable, inert environment to
protect the weld pool as it solidifies. Consequently, GTAW is commonly known as
TIG (tungsten inert gas) welding.

Because fluxes are not used (like SMAW), the welds produced are sound, free of
contaminants, slag, and as corrosion-resistant as the parent metal.

Tungsten’s extremely high melting temperature and good electrical conductivity

makes it the best choice for a non-consumable electrode. The arc temperature is
typically around 11,000° F (approx 6100° C).

Typical shielding gasses are Ar, He, N, or a mixture of the two.

As with GMAW, the filler material usually is the same composition as the base
metal.

GTAW is easily performed on a variety of materials, from steel and its alloys to
aluminum, magnesium, copper, brass, nickel, titanium, etc.

Virtually any metal that is conductive lends itself to being welded using GTAW.

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Its clean, high-quality welds often require little or no post-weld finishing. This
method produces the finest, strongest welds out of all the welding processes.
However, it’s also one of the slower methods of arc welding.

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT

The submerged arc welding process is similar to the gas metal arc welding
process except the arc is struck under a blanket of granular flux, hence the name
submerged arc welding.

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The filler metal is a continuously-fed wire electrode like GMAW and FCAW.
However, higher deposition rates can be achieved in SAW by using larger
diameter electrodes (up to 1/4”) and higher currents (650-1500 Amperes).

Since the process is almost fully mechanized, several variants of the process can
be utilized such as multiple torches and narrow gap welding.

SAW has the highest deposition rate of all the deep penetrating arc welding
processes making it ideal for thick section and multi-pass welding. Variations of
the process can utilize dual arc welding, twin arc welding, multiple torch, and
narrow groove welding to increase productivity.

Since the arc is completely submerged in the flux, there is no arc radiation.
Screens or light filtering lenses are not needed. Additionally, the smoke and
fumes are trapped within the flux and thus minimizing smoke and fumes .

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Since the process is simple to mechanize and easily automated, it is extremely

consistent once a procedure is qualified. And it can be used on a wide variety of
materials.

There are some limitations with the process, however. The flux which shields the
arc and weld pool in SAW also obstructs the operator’s view of the joint and
molten weld pool. This makes observation of the pool and joint impossible during
welding; thus, correction of problems during welding can be very difficult.

Because of the high current levels common to this process, it is normally not
suited for thinner materials.

Due to the presence of a granulated flux, submerged arc welding is limited to the
flat and horizontal positions. As with SMAW and FCAW, SAW produces a slag
which must be completely removed after each pass.

Finally, additional flux handling equipment is required.

WELD JOINTS

Five basic joints are used for bringing two members together for welding:

 Butt joint: a joint between two members aligned approximately in the

same plane.

 Corner joint: is a joint between two members located approximately at

right angles to each other in the form of an L.

 ‘T’ Joint: a joint between two members located approximately at right

angles to each other in the form of a ‘T’.

 Lap joint: a joint between two overlapping members located in parallel.

 Edge joint: a joint between the edges of two or more parallel or nearly
parallel members.

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BUTT

A butt weld, or a square-groove, is the most common and easiest to use.

Consisting of two flat pieces that are parallel to one another, it also is an
economical option. It is the universally used method of joining a pipe to itself, as
well as flanges, valves, fittings, or other equipment. However, it is limited by any
thickness exceeding 3/16”.

CORNER

A corner weld is a type of joint that is between two metal parts and is located at
right angles to one another in the form of a L. As the name indicates, it is used to
connect two pieces together, forming a corner. This weld is most often used in
the sheet metal industry and is performed on the outside edge of the piece.

EDGE

Edge welding joints, a groove type of weld, are placed side by side and welded
on the same edge. They are often applied to parts of sheet metal that have
edges flanging up or formed at a place where a weld must be made to join two
adjacent pieces together.

LAP

This is formed when two pieces are placed atop each other while also over
lapping each other for a certain distance along the edge. Considered a fillet type
of a welding joint, the weld can be made on one or both sides, depending upon
the welding symbol or drawing requirements. It is most often used to join two
pieces together with differing levels of thickness.

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TEE

Tee joints, considered a fillet type of weld, form when two members intersect at
90° resulting in the edges coming together in the middle of a component or
plate.

WELD TYPES

Each welding joint has several variations to provide for different needs. Two
different types of welds are used when welding these joints. The groove-type
weld (butt weld) fills in grooves that are cut on the inside of two pieces of metal
that are positioned next to each other. The fillet-type weld fills in space on the
outside of pieces of metal that are positioned at an angle to each other.

FILLET

Fillet welding refers to the process of joining two pieces of metal together
whether they be perpendicular or at an angle.

These welds are commonly referred to as ‘Tee’ joints which are two pieces of
metal perpendicular to each other or Lap joints which are two pieces of metal
that overlap and are welded at the edges.

The weld is aesthetically triangular in shape and may have a concave, flat or
convex surface depending on the welder’s technique.

Welders use fillet welds when connecting flanges to pipes, welding cross sections
of infrastructure, and when fastening metal by bolts isn't strong enough.

GROOVE
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The second most popular type of weld is the groove weld. There are six basic
types of groove welds.

The groove weld refers to beads that are deposited in a groove between two
members to be joined.

PLUG & SLOT

Plug welds are circular welds made through one member of a lap joint joining
that member to the other.

The weld may or may not be made through a hole in the first member, the walls
may or may not be parallel and the hole may be partially or completely filled
with weld metal.

SPOT & SEAM

A spot weld is a weld made by arc spot or resistance spot welding where the
welding process is not specified.

A weld made by arc seam or resistance seam welding where the welding process
is not specified.

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FLANGE & SURFACING

These are welds composed of one or more strings or weave beads deposited on
an unbroken surface to obtain the desired properties or dimensions.

This type of weld is used to build up surfaces or replace metal on worn surfaces.
It is also used with square butt joints.

FLUX - PURPOSE

Metals at high temperatures tend to react chemically with elements in the air -
oxygen and nitrogen. When metal in the molten pool comes into contact with air,
oxides and nitrides form, which destroy the strength and toughness of the weld
joint.

In high-temperature metal joining processes (welding, brazing and soldering),

the primary purpose of flux is to prevent oxidation of the base and filler
materials.

DEFECTS – CAUSES & REMEDY

Most defects encountered in welding are due to an improper welding procedure.

Once the causes are determined, the operator can easily correct the problem.

Defects usually encountered include:

 lack of or incomplete fusion

 porosity

 inclusion

 incomplete penetration

 undercutting

 cracking.

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LACK OF FUSION

Lack of fusion occurs when there is no fusion between the weld metal and the
surfaces of the base metal.

Lack of fusion is caused by:

 Too low current

 Too high welding speed

 Incorrect torch/gun angle

There is no efficient non-destructive method. Visual inspection can be used

during welding and with bend test.

Also ultrasonic testing, liquid penetrant test or magnetic particle testing methods
can be applicable.

POROSITY

Porosity results when the gases are entrapped in the solidifying weld metal.
These gases are generated from the flux or coating constituents of the electrode
or shielding gases used during welding or from absorbed moisture in the coating.

Rust, dust, oil and grease present on the surface of work pieces or on electrodes
are also source of gases during welding.

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Porosity may be easily prevented if work pieces are properly cleaned from rust,
dust, oil and grease. Further, porosity can also be controlled if excessively high
welding currents, faster welding speeds and long arc lengths are avoided flux
and coated electrodes are properly baked.

INCLUSION

Solid inclusions are normally expected to be a subsurface type of defect and

would include any foreign material entrapped in the deposited weld metal. The
most common type of solid inclusion is a slag inclusion defined as nonmetallic
solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld metal and base metal.

INCOMPLETE PENETRATION

Incomplete penetration is usually caused by the use of too low a welding current
and can be eliminated by simply increasing the amperage.

Other causes can be the use of too slow a travel speed and an incorrect torch
angle.

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Both will allow the molten weld metal to roll in front of the arc, acting as a
cushion to prevent penetration. The arc must be kept on the leading edge of the
weld puddle. This type of defect can be easily detected by visual inspection.

UNDERCUTTING

Undercutting is a defect that appears as a groove in the parent metal directly

along the edges of the weld. It is most common in lap fillet welds, but can also be
encountered in fillet and butt joints. This type of defect is most commonly
caused by improper welding parameters; particularly the travel speed and arc
voltage.

CRACKING

Longitudinal or centerline cracking of the weld bead is not often encountered in

MIG welding. However, that which does occur can be one of two types: hot
cracks and cold cracks.

Hot cracks are those that occur while the weld bead is between the liquidus
(melting) and solidus (solidifying) temperatures. In this temperature range the
weld bead is ”mushy”. Hot cracks usually result from the use of an incorrect wire
electrode (particularly in aluminum and stainless steel alloys).

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Those cracks that occur after the weld bead has completely solidified are called
cold cracks. These defects occur only when the weld is too small to withstand the
service stresses involved.

WELDING DISTORTION

When we weld on thin sheet metal or stainless steel, the parts often end up
warped. We tried clamping all the pieces down before welding. When we remove
the clamps, the parts are warped. What can we do to prevent the parts being
distorted after welding?

All welders have faced the problem of weld distortion at one time or another. The
parts start off straight and square, and after welding, the finished part is warped.
Thinner material is more susceptible, as it has less stiffness. Also stainless steels
are more susceptible, as it has greater thermal expansion and lower thermal
conductivity than carbon steels.

First, let's discuss why distortion occurs. Weld metal is deposited at a high
temperature, above the melting point of material. For steel, this is around
2,500°F (1,370°C). As the weld cools to room temperature, it shrinks, but is
restrained from doing so by the adjacent cold base metal, resulting in high-
residual tensile stress. The weld is now like a stretched rubber band, with the
workpiece holding the ends. This is the reason that the base metal moves, or
springs back, when the clamps holding the workpiece are removed, distorting
the part.

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When the weld shrinks across its width, it causes groove welds to “wing-up” or
fillet welds to close up. When the weld shrinks along its length, it causes base
metal to twist around the weld.

To minimize weld distortion, design and welding should be addressed. Weld

shrinkage cannot be prevented, but it can be controlled. These are
recommended steps for minimizing weld distortion:

1. Avoid overwelding — The bigger the weld, the greater the shrinkage. Correctly
sizing a weld not only minimizes distortion, but also saves weld metal and time.
2. Intermittent welding — To minimize the amount of weld metal, use
intermittent welds instead of continuous welds where possible.
3. Fewer weld passes — A fewer number of big passes results in less distortion
than a greater number of small passes with small electrodes. Shrinkage
accumulates from each weld pass.
4. Place welds near the neutral axis, or the center of the part — Distortion is
reduced by providing less leverage for the shrinkage forces to pull the plates out
of alignment.
5. Balance welds around the neutral axis — Welding on both sides of the plate
offsets one shrinkage force with another, to minimize distortion.
6. Use the backstep welding technique — In the backstep technique, the
general progression of welding may be left to right, but each bead segment is
deposited from right to left. As each bead segment is placed, the heated edges
expand, which temporarily separates the plates at B. As the heat moves out
across the plate to C, expansion along outer edges CD brings the plates back
together. This separation is most pronounced as the first bead. With successive
beads, the plates expand less and less because of the restraint from the prior
welds.
7. Presetting the parts — Presetting parts before welding can make shrinkage
work for you. The required amount of preset can be determined from a few trial
welds.
8. Alternate the welding sequence — A well-planned welding sequence involves
placing weld metal at different points of the assembly so that, as the structure
shrinks in one place, it counteracts the shrinkage forces of welds already made.
An example of this is welding alternately on both sides of the neutral axis in
making a complete joint penetration groove weld in a butt joint.
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9. Clamping — Clamps, jigs, and fixtures that lock parts into a desired position and
hold them until welding is finished are probably the most widely used means for
controlling distortion in small assemblies or components. While there is some
movement or distortion after the welded part is removed from the jig or clamps,
it will be lower compared to the amount of movement that would occur if no
restraint were used during welding.
10.Peening — Peening the weld bead stretches it and relieves the residual
stresses. However, peening must be used with care. For example, a root bead
should never be peened, because of the increased risk of concealing or causing
crack. Also, peening is not permitted on the final pass, because it can cover a
crack and interfere with visual inspection. Before peening is used on a job,
engineering approval should be obtained.
11.Thermal stress relieving — Another method for removing shrinkage forces is
thermal stress relieving, i.e., controlled heating of the weldment to an elevated
temperature, followed by controlled cooling.

TESTING OF WELDED JOINTS

Non destructive testing of weld joints

VISUAL TESTING : Visual testing is the most commonly used test method in
industry. Because most test methods require that the operator look at the
surface of the part being inspected, visual inspection is inherent in most of the
other test methods. As the name implies, VT involves the visual observation of
the surface of a test object to evaluate the presence of surface discontinuities.
VT inspections may be by Direct Viewing, using line-of sight vision, or may be
enhanced with the use of optical instruments such as magnifying glasses,
mirrors, boroscopes, charge-coupled devices (CCDs) and computer-assisted
viewing systems (Remote Viewing). Corrosion, misalignment of parts, physical
damage and cracks are just some of the discontinuities that may be detected by
visual examinations.

LEAK TESTING : Leak Testing, as the name implies, is used to detect through
leaks using one of the four major LT techniques: Bubble, Pressure Change,
Halogen Diode and Mass Spectrometer Testing. These techniques are described
below.

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Bubble Leak Testing

Bubble Leak Testing relies on the visual detection of a gas (usually air) leaking
from a pressurized system. Small parts can be pressurized and immersed in a
tank of liquid and larger vessels can be pressurized and inspected by spraying a
soap solution that creates fine bubbles to the area being tested.

For flat surfaces, the soap solution can be applied to the surface and a vacuum
box (Figure 15) can be used to create a negative pressure from the inspection
side. If there are through leaks, bubbles will form, showing the location of the
leak.

Pressure Change Testing

Pressure Change Testing can be performed on closed systems only. Detection of

a leak is done by either pressurizing the system or pulling a vacuum then
monitoring the pressure. Loss of pressure or vacuum over a set period of time
indicates that there is a leak in the system. Changes in temperature within the
system can cause changes in pressure, so readings may have to be adjusted
accordingly.

Halogen Diode Testing

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Halogen Diode Testing is done by pressurizing a system with a mixture of air and
a halogen-based tracer gas. After a set period of time, a halogen diode detection
unit, or "sniffer", is used to locate leaks.

ROLE OF CLASSIFICATION SOCIETIES IN SHIP BUILDING

Classification societies are organisations that establish and apply technical

standards in relation to the design, construction and survey of marine related
facilities including ships and offshore structures.

The role of classification societies is to classify ships according to the degree of

confidence that the ship deserves, and convey this information to anyone with
an interest through the Classification Societies’ Register Books.

Classification societies conduct surveys during the construction of all ships that
are to be classed by them to establish that the rules and regulations that they
have published are being followed. A ship that is found in compliance at the time
of the survey will be issued with a classification certificate.

SCOPE OF CLASSIFICATION

• A technical review of the design plans and related documents for a new vessel
to verify compliance with the applicable rules;

• Attendance during the construction of the vessel in the shipyard by the

classification society surveyors and at the relevant production facilities that
provide key components such as steel, engine, generators and castings, to verify
that the vessel is constructed in accordance with the classification rules;

• Upon satisfactory completion of the above, the shipowner’s request for the
issuance of a classification certificate will be considered by the relevant
classification society and, if deemed satisfactory, the assignment of class will be
approved and a certificate of classification issued;

• Once in service, the owner must submit the vessel to a clearly specified
program of periodical class surveys, carried out onboard the vessel, to verify that

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the ship continues to meet the relevant rule conditions for the continuation of
class.

CLASSIFICATION PROCESS FOR NEW CONSTRUCTION (SHIPBUILDING)

These are the activities that are commonly carried out during the new
construction stage of shipbuilding:

1. Request for Classification – Contract between the classification society and

the shipyard is signed, which details the scope of work agreed upon and an
agreement that the shipyard would construct the ship to the Classification Rules
and Regulations, with the intention to class it upon delivery.

2. Plan Review – Drawings and documents submitted by the designer appointed

by the shipyard would be reviewed by the classification society’s plan approval
engineers.

3. Construction Survey – The NC surveyor will conduct a survey during the

whole period of the ship’s construction, to verify that it follows the approved
drawings, and also attend tests performed at the shipyard’s
facilities or onboard the vessel based on the approved ITP (Inspection and Test
Plan).

4. Attending Testing and Trial – Various tests are witnessed by the NC

surveyor (e.g. HT of pipes, leak tests, structural test of tanks, commissioning
tests of equipment and related disciplines). The NC surveyor would also attend
the sea trial.

5. Issuing of Certificate – Upon the satisfactory completion of surveys, BV will

issue classification certificates and also statutory certificates on behalf of the
Flag Administration (When authorised by the Flag Administration, a class
surveyor will also conduct statutory surveys such as SOLAS, MARPOL, LOADLINE,
TONNAGE AND ISM/ISPS).

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