chapter 1, 2, 3, 5, 12 & 13

Forensic science is the application of science to criminal and civil laws. It owes its origins to individuals such as:
- Mathieu Orfila: the father of forensic toxicology
- Alphonse Bertillon: devised the first scientific system of personal identification in 1879
- Francis Galton: conducted the first definitive study of fingerprints and their classification
- Leone Lattes: developed a procedure to determine blood type from dried bloodstains
- Calvin Goddard: refined the technique of determining if a particular gun fired a bullet
- Albert Osborn: developed the fundamental principles of document examination
- Walter McCrone: advanced the field of microscopy and its application to examining evidence
- Hans Gross: wrote the first treatise describing the application of scientific principles to the field of
criminal investigation
- Edmon Locard: incorporated Gross’ principles within a workable crime laboratory
- Locard’s Exchange Principle: states that when a person comes in contact with an object or another
person, a cross transfer of materials occurs

Crime lab
The ever increasing number of crime labs is partly the result of the following:
- Supreme Court decisions in the 1960s responsible for police placing greater emphasis on securing
scientifically evaluated evidence
- Crime Labs inundated with drug specimens due to accelerated drug abuse
- The advent of DNA profiling
At present, approx 411 public crime labs operate at various levels of government–federal, state, county and
municipal.

Crime lab units

Technical support provided by crime labs can be assigned to five basic services:
- Physical Science Unit incorporates the principles of chemistry, physics and geology to identify and
compare physical evidence (may include analysis of drugs, glass, paint, explosives and soil)
- Biology Unit applies the knowledge of biological sciences in order to investigate blood samples, body
fluids, hair, and fiber samples
- Firearms unit investigates discharged bullets, cartridge cases, shotgun shells and other ammunitions
- Document Examination Unit provides the skills needed for handwriting analysis and other questioned
document issues
- Photography Unit applies specialized photographic techniques for recording and examining evidence
Optional Services by Full-Service Labs:
- Toxicology Unit examines body fluids and organs for the presence of drugs and poisons
- Latent fingerprint unit processes and examines evidence for latent fingerprints
- Polygraph unit conducts polygraph tests
- Voiceprint Analysis Unit attempts to link a recorded voice to a particular suspect
 - Crime Scene Investigation Unit dispatches specially trained personnel to the crime scene to collect and
preserve physical evidence

Analyzing Physical Evidence Requires Utilizing the Scientific Method

The Scientific Method:
- Formulate a question worthy of investigation
- Formulate a reasonable hypothesis to answer the question
- Test the hypothesis through experimentation
- Upon validation of the hypothesis, it becomes suitable as scientific evidence

Functions of a Forensic Scientist

Must be skilled in applying the principles and techniques of the physical and natural sciences to analyze the many
types of evidence that may be recovered during a criminal investigation. The analysis of physical evidence
requires that the techniques used first be tested using the scientific method.
A forensic scientist may also provide expert court testimony
An expert witness is an individual whom the court determines possesses knowledge relevant to the trial that is
not expected of the average person, the expert witness is called on to evaluate evidence based on specialized
training and experience that the court lacks the expertise to do. The expert will then express an opinion as to the
significance of the findings

Evidence Admissibility: The Frye Standard

The Frye v. United States decision set guidelines for determining the admissibility of scientific evidence into the
courtroom, to meet the Frye standard, the evidence in question must be “generally accepted” by the scientific
community

Frye Not Absolute

In the 1993 case of Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc, the U.S Supreme Court asserted that the Frye
standard is not an absolute prerequisite to the admissibility of scientific evidence
Trial judges were said to be ultimately responsible as “gatekeepers” for the admissibility and validity of scientific
evidence presented in their courts, as well as all expert testimony

Evidence Admissibility: The Daubert Criteria

In Daubert, the Supreme Court offered some guidelines as to how a judge can gauge scientific evidence:
1. Whether the scientific technique or theory can be (and has been) tested
2. Whether the technique or theory has been subject to peer review and publication
3. The technique’s potential rate of error
4. Existence and maintenance of standards controlling the technique’s operation
5. Whether the scientific theory or method has attracted widespread acceptance within a relevant
scientific community
Evidence Collection Training
Many crime labs have “evidence technicians” trained by the crime lab staff, on 24-hour call for evidence collection
at crime scenes, training ensures all pertinent evidence will be recognized and collected properly
Where no formal training exists, familiarity can be gained through lectures, tours of the lab and evidence
collection manuals

Special Forensic Science Services

A number of special forensic science services are available to the law enforcement community to augment the
services of the crime lab:
- Forensic Psychiatry is an area in which the relationship between human behavior and legal proceedings
is examined
- Forensic Odontology involves using teeth to provided information about the identification of victims
when a body is left in an unrecognizable state; also investigates bite marks
- Forensic Engineering is concerned with failure analysis, accident reconstruction, and causes and origins
of fires or explosions
- Forensic Computer and Digital Analysis involves the examination of digital evidence

The Crime Scene (chapter 2)

Arrival at the Crime Scene
Upon arrival at a crime scene the first responding police officer to a crime scene is responsible for:
1. Acquiring medical assistance for injured victims
Medical personnel avoid disturbing evidence and approach the victim by an indirect route
2. Detaining any potential suspects or witnesses
Statements are taken from victims, witnesses and suspects
3. Securing the crime scene to the greatest extent possible
The boundary is sealed off and guards are posted at the entry if needed, all civilians and unauthorized personnel
are excluded
4. Calling for any additional personnel needs such as other officers and/or forensic investigators
The personnel required depends upon the nature of the crime scene

Securing the Crime Scene

The boundaries of the crime scene must be secured with crime scene tape, ropes or cones
The secured area should include the area where the crime took place and surrounding area where physical
evidence may be located
Once the boundaries are secured, guards may be posted to restrict access to the crime scene
A detailed log is kept of personnel movements in and out of the crime scene, this log includes personnel names
and time of entry or exit
Investigators should never do anything that might alter the crime scene including smoking, eating, drinking or
littering
 Searching the Crime Scene
The search for physical evidence at a crime scene must be thorough and systematic
The search pattern selected will normally depend on the size and locale of the scene and the number of
collectors participating in the search
For a factual, unbiased reconstruction of the crime, the investigator, relying upon their training and experience,
must not overlook any pertinent evidence
Physical evidence can be anything from massive objects to microscopic traces

Recording Methods
Photography, sketches and notes are the three methods for crime scene recording, ideally all three should be
employed; however, as is often the case, personnel and monetary limitations may prohibit the utilization of
photography at every crime site

Crime Scene Notes

Note taking begins when the investigator is contacted and requested to report to the crime scene, should begin
with:
- The identity of person who contacted the investigator
- Time of contact and arrival at the crime scene
- Preliminary case information
- Personnel present on arrival and those being contacted
Notes contain a personnel log, all observations made by the investigator, and the time observations were made,
also written in a bound notebook in blue or black ink

Digital Photography
A digital photograph is made when a light sensitive microchip captures light on each of millions of tiny picture
elements, called pixels
The light is recorded on each pixel as a specific electric charge which is read by the camera as image information
which is stored as a filed on a memory card
The number of pixels is directly related to the resolution of the picture, photographs with more pixels show
increasingly good resolution or more detail and sharpness in photographs
Number of pixels that a camera features is usually measured in millions of pixels or megapixels

Digital Crime Scene Photography

Advantages of digital crime scene photography include:
- The ability to observe images immediately after taking them ensures important photographs are clear
and show the best possible detail
- The resolution available can exceed 12 megapixels, while the max resolution offered by a film SLR
camera is equivalent to about 5 megapixels
- Computer programs can stitch to digital crime scene images together to create a 3-D view of the crime
scene
Crime Scene Photography
Crime scene photographs should record the area in which the crime actually took place and all adjacent areas
where important acts occurred. The most important prerequisite for photographing a crime scene is for it to be in
unaltered condition
Each crime scene should be photographed as completely as possible in a logical succession. The sequence will
show the overall scene first, then work down to individual pieces of evidence that jurors in the trial can easily
relate back to the larger scene, the four minimum photographs required at a crime scene are:
- Overview photograph
Overview photos capture the scene, entry/exit points and any body’s position, using a “visual tag” to link multiple
shots
- A medium range photograph
Medium-range photos capture key areas of the scene, focusing on the center, like where the victim was found in
violent crimes
- A close-up photograph
- A close-up photograph with a scale
Close-up photos capture detailed evidence at a 90° angle, with and without markers or scales. Key shots include
injuries, weapons near the body, and the area beneath the body after its removal

Videotaping Crime Scenes

As with still crime scene photography, the crime scene video must include overview, medium-range, and
close-up images, a narrated crime scene video combines photography and notes
However, it is important that only one person narrates and no side conversations are captured on the video. Some
video cameras can produce still photographs, but the quality is often poor. Therefore, still photographs from a
digital camera are still required

Surveying the Crime Scene

The Walkthrough—initial survey of the crime scene
1. Perpetrator’s point of entry and exit are located
2. Indirect path is taken to the center of the crime scene
3. Obvious items of evidence are located and documented
4. The conditions of the scene are observed and recorded
Special attention is paid to item or conditions that suggest timing of the incident or do not appear to belong

Searching the Crime Scene

Line/Strip Search Pattern
- One or two investigators start at the boundary of the crime scene and search in straight lines across to
the other side of the crime scene
Grid Search Pattern
- Two or more investigators form a grid by searching in line patterns that overlap and are perpendicular to
each other
Spiral Search Pattern
- One investigator searches in a spiral path from the center of the crime scene to the boundary (outward)
or from the boundary of the crime scene to the center (inward)
Wheel/Ray Search Pattern
- Several investigators search in straight lines from the center to the boundary (outward) or from the
boundary to the center (inward)
Quadrant/Zone Search Pattern
- The crime scene is divided into smaller sections (zones), one or more investigators are assigned to
search each zone
Vehicle Searches
- Investigators search interior and exterior of vehicle, the vehicle may be searched at the crime scene or at
the police department or crime lab garage

Sketching the Crime Scene

Crime Scene Sketches clearly show the layout of a crime scene, illustrate the relationship in space of all
significant items and features, clarify objects and features already described in notes or shown in photographs,
show measurements over long distances and topography of outdoor scenes, depict possible paths of entry, exit,
and movement through the scene

The Rough Crime Scene Sketch

A rough sketch is created at the crime scene and contains an accurate depiction of the dimensions of the scene
and shows the location of all pertinent objects and features, all rough sketches include:
- Title block with info on the case, crime scene and person creating the sketch
- Legend with identity and dimensions of objects in the sketch
- Compass showing the North direction
- Body containing the sketch itself
- Points of reference for objects can be shown by the distance measurements from two fixed points

The Finished Crime Scene Sketch

The finished sketch is created from the info in rough sketch, but it is drawn to scale with care and concern for
appearance, the current standard method utilizes Computer-Aided Drafting (CAD) programs to create the
finished sketch, CAD programs also allow for the creation of three-dimensional finished sketches
Procedures for Collection
Often, many items of evidence are clearly visible but others may be detected only through examination at crime
laboratory
For this reason, it is important to collect possible carriers of trace evidence, such as clothing, vacuum sweepings
and fingernail scrapings, in addition to more discernible items
Investigators handle and process physical evidence in a way that prevents changes to the evidence through
contamination, breakage, evaporation, accidental scratching or bending, or through improper or careless
packaging
The use of latex gloves, disposable forceps and sanitized equipment reduces the chance for contamination,
whenever possible, one should keep evidence in its original condition as found at the crime scene

Packaging
Each item of evidence must be packaged separately to prevent damage and cross-contamination. Collectors
bring various packaging materials, using tools like disposable forceps for small items.
Plastic pill bottles, manila envelopes, glass vials, and cardboard boxes are suitable for trace evidence, but regular
mailing envelopes should be avoided
Arson evidence requires airtight containers to preserve vapors, while biological samples must air-dry before
packaging to prevent mold
Collectors use protective gear—masks, gloves, and coveralls—to avoid contaminating DNA evidence through
contact or foreign DNA exposure

Chain of Custody
A list of all people who came into possession of an item of evidence, continuity of possession or the chain of
custody, must be established whenever evidence is presented in court as an exhibit
Adherence to standard procedures in recording the location of evidence, marking it for identification, and
properly completing evidence submission forms for laboratory analysis is critical to chain of custody, this means
that every person who handled or examined the evidence and where it is at all times must be accounted for

Obtaining Reference Samples

Standard/Reference Sample
Physical evidence whose origin is known, such as blood or hair from a suspect, that can be compared to
crime-scene evidence
The examination of evidence, whether it is soil, blood, glass, hair, fibers, and so on, often requires comparison with
a known standard/reference sample
Although most investigators have little difficulty recognizing and collecting relevant crime-scene evidence, few
seem aware of the necessity and importance of providing the crime lab with a thorough sampling of
standard/reference materials
Departing the Crime Scene
The experienced lead investigator decides when all pertinent physical evidence has been recorded and collected
at the crime scene
A final survey is undertaken to visually review the scene and collect all evidence and equipment, following the
final survey, the crime scene is released to the proper authorities

Submitting Evidence
Evidence is usually submitted to the labor either by personal delivery or by mail shipment, care must be taken in
packaging evidence that will be sent by mail in order to prevent breakage or other accidental destruction during
transit to the laboratory, most labs require that an evidence submission form accompany all evidence submitted
Case information provided on this form enables the laboratory analyst to make an intelligent and complete
examination of the evidence

Crime Scene Safety

Crime scenes frequently present the investigator with biological specimens of unknown origin; the investigator
has no way of gauging what health hazards they may contain, one must use caution and protection at all times
It is recommended that personnel always wear latex gloves and possibly chemical resistant clothing, Tyvek-type
shoe covers, a particle mask/respirator, goggles, or face shields when potentially infectious material is present
Gloves should be changed often
Personnel should maintain a red biohazard plastic bag for the disposal of contaminated gloves, clothing, masks,
pencils, wrapping paper, and so on, when processing and collecting evidence at a crime scene, personnel should
be alert to sharp objects, knives, hypodermic syringes, razor blades, and similar items
Eating, drinking, smoking and chewing gum are prohibited

Search and Seizure Protocols

The removal of any evidence from a person or from the scene of a crime must be done in conformity with Fourth
Amendment privileges: “The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against
unreasonable searches and seizure, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause,
supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things
to be seized”
The United States Supreme Court has determined that search and seizure without a court-approved warrant is
justified in four cases:
1. The existence of emergency circumstances
2. The need to prevent the immediate loss or destruction of evidence
3. A search of a person and property within the immediate control of the person provided it is made
incident to a lawful arrest
4. A search made by consent of the parties involved
Physical Evidence (chapter 3)
Physical evidence includes any objects that can prove a crime occurred or link it to a victim or perpetrator
Proper recognition and preservation are essential, as lab analysis cannot fix mishandled evidence
Almost anything can be evidence, though common types are discussed for guidance, the goal is to collect and
analyze evidence, but its significance is ultimately determined by a jury
Types of Physical Evidence:
- Blood, semen, and saliva
- Documents
- Drugs
- Explosives
- Fibers
- Fingerprints
- Firearms and ammunition
- Glass
- Hair
- Impressions
- Organs and physiological fluids
- Paint
- Petroleum products
- Plastic bags, plastic, rubber, and other polymers
- Powder residues
- Soil and minerals
- Tool marks
- Vehicle lights
- Wood and other vegetative matter

Purpose of Examining Physical Evidence

The examination of physical evidence by a forensic scientist is usually undertaken for identification or comparison
purposes
Identification has as its purpose the determination of the physical or chemical identity of a substance with as
near absolute certainty as existing analytical techniques will permit
A comparison analysis subjects a suspect specimen and a standard/reference specimen to the same tests and
examinations for the ultimate purpose of determining whether or not they have a common origin

Identification
The object of an identification is to determine the physical or chemical identity with as near absolute certainty as
existing analytical techniques will permit
The process of identification first requires the adoption of testing procedures that give characteristic results for
specific standard materials
Once these test results have been established, they may be permanently recorded and used repeatedly to prove
the identity of suspect materials
Second, identification requires that the number and type of tests needed to identify a substance to be sufficient
to exclude all other substances

Common Types of Identification

The crime laboratory is frequently requested to identify the chemical composition of an illicit drug
It may be asked to identify gasoline in residues recovered from the debris of a fire, or it may have to identify the
nature of explosive residues—for example, dynamite or TNT
The identification of blood, semen, hair, or wood are also very common and as a matter of routine, include a
determination for species origin

Comparison
Comparative analysis determines if a suspect and reference specimen share a common origin by subjecting both
to the same tests in a two-step process:
➢ First, combinations of select properties are chosen from the suspect and the
standard/reference specimen for comparison
➢ Second, once the examination is has been completed, the forensic scientist must be
prepared to render a conclusion with respect to the origins

Role of Probability
Understanding the evidential value of a comparison requires recognizing probability, which measures how often
an event occurs
In flipping a coin, probability is easy to establish
With many analytical processes exact probability is impossible to define

Classifying Characteristics
Individual Characteristics
Evidence that can be associated to a common source with an extremely high degree of probability is said to
possess individual characteristics
In all cases, it is not possible to state with mathematical exactness the probability that the specimens are of
common origin, it can only be concluded that this probability is so high as to defy mathematical calculations or
human comprehension
Examples:
- The matching ridge characteristics of two fingerprints
- The comparison of random striation markings on bullets or tool marks
- The comparison of irregular and random wear patterns in tire or footwear impressions
- The comparison of handwriting characteristics
- The fitting together of the irregular edges of broken objects in the manner of a jigsaw puzzle
- Matching sequentially made plastic bags by striation marks running across the bags
Class Characteristics
Evidence associated only with a group is said to have class characteristics

Class Evidence
One of the current weaknesses of forensic science is the inability of the examiner to assign exact or even
approximate probability values to the comparison of most class physical evidence
For example, what is the probability that a nylon fiber originated from a particular sweater, or that a paint chip
came from a suspect car in a hit and run? There is very few statistical data available from which to derive this
information, and in a mass-produced world, gathering this kind of data is increasingly elusive
One of the primary endeavors of forensic scientists must be to create and update statistical databases for
evaluating the significance of class physical evidence
Most items of physical evidence retrieved at crime scenes cannot be linked definitively to a single person or
object
The value of class physical evidence lies in its ability to provide corroboration of events with data that are, as
nearly as possible, free of human error and bias
The chances are low of encountering two indistinguishable items of physical evidence at a crime scene that
actually originated from different sources
When one is dealing with more than one type of class evidence, their collective presence may lead to an
extremely high certainty that they originated from the same source
Finally, the contribution of physical evidence is ultimately determined in the courtroom

Crossing Over
Crossing over the line from class to individual does not end the discussions
● How many striations are necessary to individualize a mark to a single tool and no other?
● How many color layers individualize a paint chip to a single car?
● How many ridge characteristics individualize a fingerprint?
● How many handwriting characteristics tie a person to a signature?
These are all questions that defy simple answers and are the basis of arguments

Natural vs Evidential Limits

There are practical limits to the properties and characteristics the forensic scientist can select for comparison
● Modern analytical techniques have become so sophisticated and sensitive that natural variations in
objects become almost infinite
● Carrying natural variations to the extreme, no two things in this world are alike in every detail
● Evidential variations are not the same as natural variations
● Distinguishing variations of evidential use from natural variations is not always an easy task
Using Physical Evidence
As the number of different objects linking an individual to a crime scene increases, so does the likelihood of that
individual’s involvement with the crime. Just as important, a person may be exonerated or excluded from
suspicion if physical evidence collected at a crime scene is found to be different from standard/reference
samples collected from that subject

Forensic Databases
➢ The Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS), a national fingerprint and the
criminal history system maintained by the FBI
➢ The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) enables federal, state, and local crime laboratories to
electronically exchange and compare DNA profiles
➢ The National Integrated Ballistics Information Network (NIBIN) allows firearm analysts to acquire, digitize,
and compare markings made by a firearm on bullets and cartridge casings
➢ The International Forensic Automotive Paint Data Query (PDQ) database contains chemical and color
information pertaining to original automotive paints
➢ SICAR (shoeprint image capture and retrieval) is a shoe print database

Death Investigation (chapter 5)

Scene investigation
A critical phase of the death investigation will be a preliminary reconstruction of events that preceded the onset
of death, so all significant details of the scene must be recorded
- Blood spatter and blood flow patterns must be documented
- Any tire marks or shoe prints must be documented
- Fingerprints must be processed and collected
- Evidence discarded, dropped, or cast off by a perpetrator must be collected
- Weapons, fired bullets, and casings are collected and documented
- Photographs must always be taken before the scene is altered in any way

Autopsy
An autopsy in its broadest definition is simply the examination of a body after death ( a postmortem
examination)
The goal of a forensic/medicolegal autopsy is to determine the cause of death and confirm the manner of death,
often to be used in criminal proceedings. Here, the medical examiner or coroner will carefully examine the victim
to establish a cause and manner of death. Tissues and organs will be retained for pathological and toxicological
examination, at the same time, arrangements must be made between the examiner and investigator to secure a
variety of items that may be obtainable from the body for laboratory examination, the following are to be
collected and sent to the forensic laboratory:
1. Victim’s clothing
2. Fingernail scrapings
3. Combings from head and pubic hairs
 4. Buccal swab (for DNA typing purposes)
5. Vaginal, anal, and oral swabs (in sex-related crimes)
6. Recovered bullets from the body
7. Hand swabs from shooting victims (for gunshot residue analysis)
8. Swabs of body areas suspected of being in contact with DNA arising from touching or saliva
9. Hand stubs or swabs for gunshot residue analysis

External Examination
The forensic autopsy consists of an external examination and an internal examination, the first steps taken for the
external examination include a broad overview of the condition of the body and the clothing
The external examination also consists of classifying the injuries, this includes distinguishing between different
types of wounds, such as a stab wound versus a gunshot wound
Internal Examination
The dissection of the human body generally entails the removal of all internal organs through a Y-shaped incision
beginning at the top of each shoulder and extending down to the pubic bone, performing the internal
examination entails weighing, dissecting, and sectioning each organ of the body

Toxicology
The internal examination is also where toxicological specimens are taken, these include samples of blood,
stomach content, bile, and urine
Blood is often routinely tested to determine the presence and levels of alcohol and drugs, some drugs
redistribute or reenter the blood after death and thus may complicate the interpretation of postmortem blood
levels of these drugs

Cause of Death
A primary objective of the autopsy is to determine the cause of death
Some of the more common causes of death are blunt force injury, sharp force injury, asphyxia, gunshot wound,
and substance abuse
❖ Blunt force injuries are caused a non-sharpened object such as a bat or pipe, a blunt force injury can
abrade tissue or can cause a contusion arising from bleeding from tiny ruptured blood vessels within and
beneath the skin, known as a contusion
❖ Sharp force injuries occur from weapons with sharp edges, such as knives or blades
❖ Asphyxia encompasses a variety of conditions that involve interference with the intake of oxygen
For example, death at a fire scene is caused primarily by the extremely toxic gas, carbon monoxide, hanging is
another example of death by asphyxia
❖ Gunshot wounds originate from projectiles fired by a firearm
The distance a weapon was fired from a target is one of the most important factors in characterizing a gunshot
wound
❖ Substance abuse is so common that a forensic pathologist will routinely order toxicological tests for the
presence of drugs in nearly all autopsies
Manner of Death
The manner of death relates to the circumstances that led to the fatal result, the manner in which death occurred
is classified in death certificates as one of five categories:
1. Homicide
2. Suicide
3. Accidental
4. Natural
5. Undetermined

Estimating time of Death

A pathologist can never give an exact time of death, however, there are many characteristics that the examiner
can analyze in order to arrive at an approximate time of death
➔ Algor mortis results in the loss of heat by a body as general rule the body loses heat by 1 to 1 1/2 degrees
Fahrenheit per hour until the body reaches the environmental temperature
➔ Livor mortis results in the settling of blood in areas of the body closest to the ground (begins 20
minutes to three hours after death and continues up to 16 hrs)
➔ Rigor mortis results in the shortening of muscle tissue and the stiffening of body parts in the position at
death (occurs within the first 24 hrs. and disappears within 36 hrs)
Forensic pathologists can determine the amount of potassium in the vitreous humor and use it to approximate
the time of death, stomach contents may reveal the deceased’s last meal, the extent of digestion can help with
determining the time of death

Forensic Anthropology
Forensic anthropology is concerned primarily with the identification and examination of human skeletal remains
An examination of bones may reveal their sex, approximate age, race, and skeletal injury
- The gender of a decedent can be determined by the size and shape of various skeletal features,
especially those in the pelvis and skull
- Female pelvic bones tend to show a wider, more circular than that of a male pelvis because of a
woman’s child-bearing capabilities
- The possible racial ancestry of a descendant can be assessed by the appearance of various cranial
features on the skeletal remains
- The height of a victim when alive can be estimated by measuring the long bones of the skeleton
A forensic anthropologist may also help create facial reconstructions to identify skeletal remains
The sites where human remains are found must be treated as a crime scene, these scenes must be secured and
thoroughly searched to locate all bones if they are scattered or other aspects of evidence such as footwear
impressions or discarded items, all aspects of evidence must be documented and collected
Forensic Entomology
Forensic is the study of insects and their relation to a criminal investigation, commonly used to estimate the time
of death, by determining the oldest stage of fly found on a body, entomologists can approximate the postmortem
interval (PMI)
- The sequence of arrival of different insect species can be used to estimate PMI
- The most common and important is the blowfly recognized by its green or blue color
- Blowfly eggs are laid in human remains and ultimately hatch into maggots, or fly larvae, which consume
human tissues and organs
Forensic entomologists can approximate how long a body has been left exposed by examining the stage of
development of the fly larvae, these determinations are not always straightforward
However, the time required for stage development is affected by environmental influences such as geographical
location, climate, weather conditions, and the presence of drugs
If resources allow, all entomological, or insect, evidence should be collected by a forensic entomology expert who
will take temperature readings and collect specimens from every area in which they are found

Drugs (chapter 12)

Psychological Dependence - conditioned use of drug caused by emotional needs
Physical depende - physiological need for a drug brought by regular used

- Narcotics
The regular use of a narcotic drug will invariably lead to physical dependence, the most common source for these
narcotic drugs is opium, extracted from poppies. Narcotic drugs are analgesics, meaning they relieve pain by a
depressing action on the central nervous system. This affects functions such as blood pressure, pulse rate and
breathing rate
- Opiates
Morphine is readily extracted from opium and is used to synthesize heroin, addicts frequently dissolve heroin in
water by heating it in a spoon, and then inject in the skin
Heroin produces a “high” that is accompanied by drowsiness and a sense of well-being that generally lasts for
three to four hours
Codeine is also present in opium, but it is usually prepared synthetically from morphine
OxyContin, with the active ingredient oxycodone, is not derived from opium or morphine, but does have the same
physiological effects on the body as do opium narcotics. OxyContin is prescribed to a million patients for
treatment of chronic pain.
Methadone is another well-known synthetic opiate, which is pharmacologically related to heroin, it appears to
eliminate the addict’s desire for heroin while producing minimal side effects.
- Hallucinogens
Another class of drugs is hallucinogens; marijuana is the most well-known member of this class
Hallucinogens cause marked changes in normal thought processes, perceptions, and moods. Phencyclidine is
often mixed with other drugs, such as LSD, or amphetamine, and is sold as a powder (“angel dust”), capsule, or
tablet
Oral intake of PCP first leads to feelings of strength and invulnerability, which may turn to depression, tendencies
toward violence, and suicide
Marijuana is the most controversial drug in this class because its long-term effects on health are still largely
unknown, marijuana refers to a preparation derived from the plant Cannabis
The chemical substance largely responsible for the hallucinogenic properties of marijuana is known as
tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC
The THC content of Cannabis varies in different parts of the plant, generally decreasing in the following sequence:
resin, flowers, leaves, with little THC in the stem, roots or seeds. The THC-rich resin is known as hashish
The THC concentration ranges from 8-14%
Hashish oil (boiling hashish) leaves a potent residue with THC concentration of ~ 15-60%
Marijuana does not cause physical dependence, but the risk of harm is in heavy, long-term use
- LSD
LSD- most widely known hallucinogen, synthetically derived from a fungus, ergot. Highly potent! 25 micrograms
is enough to cause vivid hallucinations
Powerful psychoactive drug.
Synesthesia- Sound appearing as hallucinatory visions (I clapped my hands & saw sound waves passing before
my eyes, Anomalous blending of senses...unusual perception of things)
- Depressants
Depressants are another class of drugs, substances used to depress the functions of the central nervous system
Depressants calm irritability and anxiety and may induce sleep
These include alcohol (ethanol), barbiturates, tranquilizers, and various substances that can be sniffed, such as
airplane glue, model cement, or aerosol gas propellants such as freon
Alcohol (ethyl alcohol) enters the body’s bloodstream and quickly travels to the brain, where it acts to suppress
the brain’s control of thought processes and muscle coordination
Barbiturates, or “downers,” are normally taken orally and create a feeling of well-being, relax the body, and
produce sleep
Tranquilizers, unlike barbiturates, produce a relaxing tranquility without impairment of high-thinking faculties or
inducing sleep
- Stimulants
Amphetamine and methamphetamine, often injected intravenously, cause an initial “rush,” followed by an intense
feeling of pleasure, this is followed by a period of exhaustion and a prolonged period of depression
Crack is cocaine mixed with baking soda and water, then heated
Crack is often smoked in glass pipes, and like cocaine stimulates the brain’s pleasure center
Cocaine is “snorted” ( inhaled) or injected into the bloodstream
When combined with heroin -a dangerous mixture called “speedball” is obtained
Cocaine is an ionic salt that is water soluble
Crack cocaine is a neutral molecule that is insoluble in water
Cocaine is an amine ( base- B) that is extracted from crushed leaves of coca plant by treating with hydrochloric
acid ( HCl)
Neurotransmitters work as chemical messengers
1. On picking up an impulse, a nerve cell releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic area
2. Neurotransmitters migrate to a second nerve cell and bind to receptor sites
3. Receptor site binding results in production of a signal in the second cell
4. Neurotransmitters are released from receptor sites and can travel back to the original cell

Half Life
Half Life is the amount of time required for one half of a substance to react, in pharmaceuticals, the half life is
how long it takes for one half of the drug to be eliminated from the body
- Half life of caffeine is 4hrs
- Half life of nicotine is 2.5hr
- Half life of cocaine before it is metabolized is only 45 minutes
- Half life of THC ~ 19 hrs- total clearance of THC and metabolites involve ~ 2 weeks
- Half Life of LSD ~ 3hrs
Aspiring example:

Club drugs
The term club drugs refers to synthetic drugs that are used at nightclubs, bars, and raves(all-night dance parties)
Substances that are often used as club drugs include, but are not limited to, MDMA (Ecstasy), GHB (gamma
hydroxybutyrate), Rohypnol (“Roofies”), ketamine, and methamphetamine
GHB and Rohypnol are central nervous system depressants that are often connected with drug-facilitated sexual
assault, rape, and robbery
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine, also known as MDMA or Ecstasy, is a synthetic mind-altering drug that
exhibits many hallucinogenic and amphetamine-like effects
Ecstasy enhances self-awareness and decreases inhibitions, however, seizures, muscle breakdown, stroke, kidney
failure, and cardiovascular system failure often accompany chronic abuse
Ketamine is primarily used as a veterinary animal anesthetic that in humans causes euphoria and hallucinations
Ketamine can also cause impaired motor functions, high blood pressure, amnesia, and mild respiratory
depression

Anabolic Steroids
Synthetic compounds chemically related to testosterone, abused by individuals interested in increasing muscle
growth
Drug Control Laws
Controlled Substances Act (US federal law) is the legal drug classification system created to prevent and control
drug abuse, it establishes 5 schedules of classification for controlled dangerous substances on basis of a drug’s
 - Potential for abuse
- Potential for physical and psychological dependence
- Medical Value
Schedules of Classification
➢ Schedule I drugs - high potential for abuse, no current accepted medical use
Includes: heroin, marijuana, methaqualone, and LSD
➢ Schedule II drugs - high potential for abuse, medical use with severe restrictions
Includes: cocaine, PCP, and most amphetamine and barbiturate prescriptions
Dronabinol: synthetic equivalent of the active ingredient in marijuana is placed in schedule II since its
used in treating glaucoma and chemotherapy patients
➢ Schedule III drugs - less potential for abuse, currently accepted medical use
Includes: all barbiturate prescriptions not covered under Schedule II (codeine and anabolic steroids)
➢ Schedule IV drugs - low potential for abuse, current medical use
Includes; darvon, phenobarbital and some tranquilizers (ex, diazepam (valium) and chlordiazepoxide
(librium))
➢ Schedule V drugs - low abuse potential, medical use
Includes: opiate drug mixtures that contain non-narcotic medicinal ingredients

Drug Identification
Screening test - nonspecific and preliminary in nature to reduce possibilities to a manageable number, involves
color tests, gas chromatography (GC) , immunoassay
Confirmation test - a single test that specifically identifies a substance

Preliminary Analysis
Analyst must employ screening tests to reduce possibilities to manageable numbers
Subject material to series of colour tests that will produce characteristic colours for more commonly encountered
illicit drugs
Drugs when brought into contact with specific chemical reagents yield typical colours

Colour Tests
Marquist Test:
- turns purple = heroin & opium derivatives
- turns orange brown = amphetamines/methamphetamines
Dillie Koppanyi Test: Barbiturates = blue
Duquenois Levine: Marijuana = purple
Scott Test (cocaine): solution of cobalt thiocyanate = blue (adding HCI turns colourless or light pink)
Add chloroform = blue reappears, Screening test that field officers can use to detect an illicit substance
Van Urk Test: LSD = blue-purple
Microcrystalline Tests - used to identify specific drug substances by studying size and shape of crystals formed
when drug is mixed with specific reagents
Involves chemical reaction that produces crystalline precipitate

Qualitative or Quantitative Determination

Qualitative Analysis = identity of material
Quantitative Analysis = determination of percent composition of mixture components/quantity of a substance

Conformational Determination
Forensic chemists will employ a specific test to identify a drug substance to the exclusion of all other known
chemical substances, typically infrared spectrophotometry or gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
(GC-MS) is used to specifically identify a drug substance

Chromatography
Method of separating and tentatively identifying components of a mixture
Theory of chromatography - based on observation that chemical substances have tendency to escape into
environment when dissolved in liquid or absorbed on solid surface
Materials that have preference for moving phase will slowly pull ahead and separate from those substances that
prefer to remain in stationary phase
Used to determine ingredients that make up particular flavour or scent, to analyze components of pollutants, to
find traces of drugs in urine
Food scientists use it to determine if colours used are legal for use

Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)

TLC - rapid, qualitative analytical method that used solid stationary phase usually coating onto a glass plate (solid
coating = silica aluminum oxide) and a mobile liquid phase to separate components of mixture
Properties of absorbent and solvent are used to pull components up plate
Liquid slowly rise up plate by capillary action causing sample to become distributed between stationary phase
and moving liquid phase
Since most compounds are colourless, materials must be visualized by placing plates under UV light or spreading
plate with chemical reagent
Rf value = distance a spot travels up to a thin-layer plate (dist traveled by spot/dist traveled by solvent)

Fluorescence
Emission of light that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation; form of luminescence
Electromagnetic radiation → energy proportional to frequency; inversely proportional to wavelength
- Cosmic rays/gamma rays
- X-rays
- UV radiation
- Visible radiation
- Infrared radiation (heat)
- Microwave radiation
 - Sound waves, radio waves, etc

Gas Chromatography (GC)

Separates mixtures based on distribution between stationary liquid phase and moving gas phase
● Moving phase – gas called carrier gas which flows through a column
Steps:
1. Sample introduced via syringe into injection port
2. A stream of nitrogen gas flows through injector carrying sample into column
3. Here we have a thin film of liquid
4. Here the sample is separated in column and carrier gas and separated components emerge from
column & enter detector
5. Signals developed by detector activate recorder
6. The recorder produces a trace of separation with elution time & peak area gives concentration
● Stationary phase – thin film of liquid contained within column
After mixture has traversed length of column, it will emerge separated into its components
Unknown mix identified by comparing its retention times with mix of barbiturates (downers)
- Chromatogram: written record of this separation
- Retention time: time needed for a component to emerge from a GC column
- GC used because it can resolve a complex mixture into its components within minutes
- Very sensitive and can detect + quantitate materials at nanogram level
- Unable to produce specific identification → solution: GC-MC

Mass Spectrometry
Shoots beam of high-energy electrons at sample; ions formed pass through an electric or magnetic field where
they are separated by their masses → characterizes molecules by observing their fragmentation pattern after
collision with high-energy electrons
- Positive ions instantaneously decompose into numerous fragments → separated according to their
masses
- No two substances produce the same fragmentation pattern
- In mass spectrometer, a beam of high-energy electrons collide with a material, producing positively
charged ions

GC and Mass
A direct connection between the GC column and the mass spectrometer allows each component to flow into the
mass spectrometer as it emerges from the GC, the separation of a mixture’s components is first accomplished by
the GC then, fragmentation of each component by high-energy electrons in the mass spectrometer, will produce
a distinct pattern, somewhat like a “fingerprint”, of the substance being examined
Spectrophotometry
Study of absorption of light by chemical substances; measures the quantity of radiation that a particular material
absorbs as a function of wavelength and frequency
 - Identifies substances by their selective absorption of different wavelengths
- Beer’s Law: quantity of light absorbed at any frequency is directly proportional to the concentration of
the absorbing species

UV and IR Spectrophotometry
Use UV and IR spectrophotometers to characterize chemical compound
Simplicity of UV spectrum facilitates its use as a tool for determining material’s probable identity, but may not
produce definitive result
IR spectrum provides far more complex pattern (infrared spectrum), different materials always have distinctively
different infrared spectra
Each IR spectrum is a “fingerprint” of that substance
UV spectrophotometry – Determines materials probable identity, not always definite result (simple)
IR spectrophotometry – Provides more complex pattern; equivalent to a “fingerprint” of a substance
Infrared spectrum (IR) = invisible short frequencies of light beyond red in visible spectrum

The Spectrophotometer
Spectrophotometer – instrument used to measure and record absorption spectrum of a chemical substance
Measures selective absorption of substance when exposed to diff types of electromagnetic radiation
Components of a spectrophotometer are:
- A radiation source
- A monochromator or frequency selector
- A sample holder
- A detector to convert electromagnetic radiation into an electrical signal
- A recorder to produce a record of the signal
Absorption spectra can be done in the visible, ultraviolet (UV) or infrared (IR) regions

Collection and Preservation

The field investigator has the responsibility of ensuring that the evidence is properly packaged and labeled for the
laboratory
Generally common sense is best guide → package must prevent the loss of the contents and/or
cross-contamination
Original container in which the drug was seized is enough
- To prevent evaporation = airtight container
All packages must be marked with information that is sufficient to ensure identification by the officer in the
future and establish the chain of custody
Forensic Toxicology (chapter 13)
Forensic toxicologists – detect and identify presence of drugs and poisons in body fluids, tissues, and organs to
determine influence on human behavior in matters related to violations of criminal law
 - Work in crime labs, medical examiner’s office, hospital labs, health facilities to identify drug overdose or
monitor intake of drugs
- Presented with BFs and/or organs, requested to examine them for drugs and poisons
- Without supportive evidence, postmortem examination, or examination of victim’s personal effects →
toxicologist must use general screening procedures

Toxicology of Alcohol
Forensic toxicology deals with measurement of alcohol in body
Analysis of alcohol exemplifies objective of forensic toxicology – detection and isolation of drugs in body to
determine their influence on human behavior
Alcohol (ethyl alcohol) – colorless liquid normally diluted with water and consumed as beverage
- Most heavily abused legal drug; high risk for psychological dependence
- Depressant, affects CNS, particularly brain (cerebellum)
- Blood alcohol concentration is directly proportional to concentration of alcohol in brain

Alcohol’s Fate in Human Body (ADME)

- Absorption into bloodstream
- Distribution throughout body’s water
- Metabolism*
- Elimination by oxidation and excretion

Alcohol Absorption
Alcohol enters body’s bloodstream and carried to parts of body → increases in concentration while being
absorbed in stomach and small intestine
- Alcohol is absorbed entirely into blood stream 30-90 min after completion of drinking
- Drinking on full stomach = absorption time can be 2-4 hrs → absorption slowed when food present
- Longer total time for complete absorption, lower peak alcohol concentration in blood
- Type of beverage effects absorption time
Ex: beer is absorbed more slowly than 80 proof alcohol because of carbs in beer
When all alcohol has been absorbed, a max alcohol level is reached in blood (post-absorption or elimination
period begins)
Concentration of alcohol in arterial blood >> concentration of alcohol in venous blood

Alcohol Distribution
Absorption is complete = alcohol distributed between all watery portions of body (2/3s of BV)
If blood isn’t available, other watery portions of body (ex: brain, cerebrospinal fluid, vitreous humor) can be used
to determine alcohol levels, Alcohol concentration decreases until zero level is reached
Alcohol Elimination
Oxidation occurs in liver, enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase converts alcohol to acetic acid, then into CO2 & H2O
Remaining 5% of alcohol is excreted unchanged in breath, urine, and perspiration
Blood alcohol concentration is defined as percent weight PER volume
Ex: 0.10% is equivalent to 0.10 grams PER 100 ml of blood
Elimination/burnoff rate average = 0.015%/hr
Alcohol → acetaldehyde → Acetic acid or vinegar (catalyzed by alcohol dehydrogenase)

Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC)

Extent to which someone is intoxicated is determined by measuring quantity of alcohol present in blood system
or by measuring alcohol content in breath
Amt of alcohol exhaled in breath = blood concentration = alcohol in brain
Current legal measure of drunk driving in US = BAC of 0.08% or 0.08 grams of alcohol per 100 ml of blood (80
mg/dL)

Alcohol and Circulatory System

- Alcohol carried to liver where process of destruction starts
- Blood carries alcohol, moves to heart and lungs
- Alveoli → fresh air & spent blood have an exchange, as one exhales, CO2 & alcohol leave the blood &
oxygen enters the blood in alveoli, oxygenated blood returns to heart
Breath Testers – device for collecting and measuring alcohol content of alveolar breath (mouth alcohol)
● Temp at which breath leaves mouth = 34C
Breath testers operate on fact that at 34C, ratio of alcohol in blood to alcohol in alveolar breath is approx. 2100 to 1
1 ml of blood contains nearly same amount of blood as 2100 ml of alveolar breath
Breath testers operate on principle of infrared light absorption
Degree of interaction of infrared light with alcohol in breath chamber allows instrument to measure BAC in
breath
Some breath testing devices also use fuel cells which convert alcohol to electrical current

Field Testing
Police use field sobriety tests to estimate driver’s degree of physical impairment
Psychophysical tests → Horizontal-gaze nystagmus test (follow penlight with eye as far to side as eye can go),
walk and turn (maintain balance while standing heel-to-toe), one-leg stand
Breathalyzer/breath tester – use fuel cell detectors (detector in which chemical reactions produce electricity);
not admissible in court proceedings as proof

Testing Blood for Alcohol Content

Gas chromatography used to determine alcohol levels in blood
Hospital or clinical labs use autoanalyzers to measure alcohol content
Measure conversion of alcohol to acetaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenase
Determination is made as a serum alcohol level
- Serum alcohol – converted to blood alcohol concentration by dividing by 1.16
Ex: 250 mg/dL = 215 mg/dL of 0.215%
Collection and Preservation of Blood
Blood is always drawn under medically accepted conditions
Nonalcoholic disinfectant (ex:, betadine) must be applied before suspect’s skin is penetrated with sterile needle or
lancet
Once blood is removed, preserve it in an airtight container after an anticoagulant (e.g., heparin) and preservative
(ex: sodium fluoride) have been added and store in refrigerator
Failure to properly preserve blood removed from living individuals decreases blood alcohol level
In decedents, alcohol maybe produced during decomposition creating increased blood alcohol level

Alcohol and the Law

Per Se Laws – any individual at a defined BAC (normal = 0.08%) is deemed intoxicated
- Anyone over 0.08% is intoxicated, no other testing needed
- Commercial truck and bus drivers must have BAC less than 0.04%
- No proof of impairment beyond blood alcohol content is needed for criminal conviction
Implied consent law – people driving must consent to intoxication tests or they lose license for a period of time
Schmerber v. California (1996) – supreme court ruled that the taking of blood samples wasn’t preceded by 5th
amendment
Missouri v. McNeely (2013) – supreme court ruled that police should obtain a search warrant before drawing
person’s blood for alcohol testing

The Analytical Scheme

Screening Step – test to provide quick insight into likelihood that specimen contains drug substance
- Positive results arising from screening test are tentative and needs to be verified with confirmation test
- Most widely used screening tests: TLC, gas chromatography and immunoassay (preferred method for
detecting low drug levels associated with smoking marijuana)
Confirmation Step – GC/mass spectrometry is used as confirmation test of choice
- GC separates sample into its components, while MS represents a unique “fingerprint” pattern that can be
used for identification
- For living person, blood is tested for drug content; however, urine drug testing for drugs is common in
workplace
- Toxicologist might bombard sample with high-energy electrons during confirmation test

The Significance of Toxicological Findings

Once drug is extracted and identified, toxicologist may be required to provide an opinion on drugs effect on an
individual’s natural performance or physical state
For many drugs, blood concentration levels are readily determined and can be used to estimate pharmacological
effects of drug on individual
Concentration of a drug in urine is a poor indicator of how extensively an individual’s behavior or influence by
drug
Before drawing conclusions about drug-induced behavior, analyst must consider other factors including age,
health, and tolerance
When dealing with a living person, toxicologist has added benefit of knowing what a police officer may have
observed about an individual’s behavior and motor skills

Detecting Drugs in Hair

Heavy metals (arsenic, bismuth, antimony, mercury, thallium) – occasionally encountered since environmental
protection regulations restrict their availability to general public
- To screen for these metals, suspect body fluid is dissolved in a hydrochloric solution and a copper strip is
inserted into solution
- Presence of a silvery or dark coating on copper indicates presence of heavy metal
- Use Reinsch test to determine presence of heavy metals in sample
​Carbon monoxide – most common poisons encountered in forensic laboratories
To measure concentration, spectrophotometric methods determine amt of carboxyhemoglobin relative to
oxyhemoglobin or total hemoglobin or volume of blood can be treated with a reagent to liberate the carbon
monoxide which is then measured by GC

Drug Recognition Expert (DRE) Program

Train police as drug recognition experts → supply credible evidence that suspect was impaired at specific time
3 to 5 month training program to certify an officer as drug recognition expert
Incorporates standardized methods (ex: BP, pulse, pupil size) for examining suspects to determine whether they
have taken one or more drugs
DRE must complete standard Drug Influence Evaluation form
DRE program cannot determine which specific drug was ingested
Production of reliable data from both DRE and forensic toxicologist that is required to provide drug intoxication

Physical vs Chemical Properties (chapter 10)

Forensic scientist must constantly determine those properties that impart distinguishing characteristics to matter,
giving it unique identity
Physical properties such as weight, volume, colour, boiling point and melting point describe a substance without
reference to any other substance
A chemical property describes the behaviour of a substance when it reacts or combines with another substance
Introduction
An element is the simplest substance known and provides the building block from which all matter is composed,
matter is anything that has a mass and occupies space
All of the elements are listed by name and symbol in the periodic table, two or more elements combine to form a
compound
An atom is the basic particle of an element and a molecule is the smallest unit of a compound
Matter can be classified accord to the physical form it takes
- Solid-definite shape and volume
- Liquid-specific volume, takes the shape of its container
- Gas/vapor-neither a definite shape nor volume

Substances can change from one phase to another without forming a new chemical species, matter is simply
being changed from physical state to another, whenever a situation exists in which a substance can be
distinguished by a visible boundary, different phases exist

Watch broken bond video for final examen!!! Will ask 1 question
Measurement System

Glass Examination (chapter 10)