DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL

BANGALORE-EAST

PHYSICS
LAB
MANUAL
2023-24)
CLASS XII(2022-23)
4 5
 PHYSICS SYLLABUS
Class XII (Code No. 042)
(2023-24)
(2022-23)

THEORY
. Time: 3 hrs.

Max Marks: 70

No. of Periods Marks

Unit–I Electrostatics
Chapter–1: Electric Charges and Fields
26
Chapter–2: Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance 16

Unit-II Current Electricity

18
Chapter–3: Current Electricity
Unit-III Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism
25
Chapter–4: Moving Charges and Magnetism
Chapter–5: Magnetism and Matter 17
Unit-IV Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating
Currents 24
Chapter–6: Electromagnetic Induction
Chapter–7: Alternating Current
Unit–V Electromagnetic Waves
04
Chapter–8: Electromagnetic Waves
Unit–VI Optics 18
30
Chapter–9: Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
Chapter–10: Wave Optics
Unit–VII Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
08
Chapter–11: Dual Nature of Radiation and
Matter 12
Unit– Atoms and Nuclei
VIII 15
Chapter–12: Atoms
Chapter–13: Nuclei
Unit–IX Electronic Devices
Chapter–14: Semiconductor Electronics: 10
Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 7
Total 150 70
 QUESTION PAPER DESIGN

Theory (Class: XII)

Duration: 3 hrs.
Maximum Marks: 70

Typology of Questions Total Approximate

S
Marks Percentage

Remembering: Exhibit memory of previously learned

material by recalling facts, terms, basic concepts, and
answers.
1 27 38 %
Understanding: Demonstrate understanding of facts and
ideas by organizing, comparing, translating, interpreting,
giving descriptions, and stating main ideas

Applying: Solve problems to new situations by applying

2 acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules in a 22 32%
different way.

Analysing : Examine and break information into parts by

identifying motives or causes. Make inferences and find
evidence to support generalizations
Evaluating :
Present and defend opinions by making judgments about
3 information, validity of ideas, or quality of work based on aset 21 30%
of criteria.
Creating:
Compile information together in a different way
by combining elements in a new pattern or proposing
alternative solutions.

Total Marks 70 100

Practical: 30 .

Marks Note:

1. Internal Choice: There is no overall choice in the paper. However, there will be at least 33%
internal choice.
 PRACTICALS
The record to be submitted by the students at the time of their annual examination has to include:
 Record of at least 8 Experiments [with 4 from each section], to be performed by the
students.
 Record of at least 6 Activities [with 3 each from section A and section B], to be performed by
the students.
 The Report of the project to be carried out by the students.

Evaluation Scheme

Time Allowed: Three hours

Max. Marks: 30

Two experiments one from each section 7+7 Marks

Practical record [experiments and activities] 5 Marks
One activity from any section 3 Marks
Investigatory Project 3 Marks
Viva on experiments, activities and project 5 Marks
Total 30 marks

SECTION-A

Experiments
1. To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre bridge.
2. To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge.
3. To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of
merit.
4. To find the frequency of AC mains with a sonometer.

Activities
1. To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
2. To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current.
3. To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat,
key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and
correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.
 SECTION-B

Experiments
1. To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v.
2. To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between
angle of incidence and angle of deviation.
3. To find refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror.
4. To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias.

Activities
1. To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such
items.
2. To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit.
3. To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab.

Suggested Investigatory Projects

1. To study the variations in current flowing in a circuit containing an LDR because of a variation
in
(a) the power of the incandescent lamp, used to 'illuminate' the LDR (keeping all the lamps at a
fixed distance).
(b) the distance of a incandescent lamp (of fixed power) used to 'illuminate' the LDR.

2. To find the refractive indices of (a) water (b) oil (transparent) using a plane mirror, an equi
convex lens (made from a glass of known refractive index) and an adjustable object needle.
3. To design an appropriate logic gate combination for a given truth table.

4. To investigate the relation between the ratio of (i) output and input voltage and (ii) number of
turns in the secondary coil and primary coil of a self-designed transformer.
5. To investigate the dependence of the angle of deviation on the angle of incidence using a
hollow prism filled one by one, with different transparent fluids.
6. To estimate the charge induced on each one of the two identical styrofoam (or pith) balls
suspended in a vertical plane by making use of Coulomb's law.
7. To study the factor on which the self-inductance of a coil depends by observing the effect of
this coil, when put in series with a resistor/(bulb) in a circuit fed up by an A.C. source of
adjustable frequency.
8. To study the earth's magnetic field using a tangent galvanometer.
 INDEX
Pg. Teacher’s
Sl. EXPERIMENT Date
No Signature
No
SECTION A
To find resistance of a given wire/standardresistor
1 1-2
using metre bridge.
To verify the laws of combination (series) of
2 3-4
resistances using a metre bridge.
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by
3 half-deflection method and to find its figure ofmerit. 5-6

To find the frequency of AC mains with a

4 7-8
sonometer.

SECTION B
To find the focal length of a convex lens byplotting
5 9-10
graphs between u and v or between
1/u and 1/v.
To determine angle of minimum deviation for a
6 given prism by plotting a graph between angleof 11-12
incidence and angle of deviation.
To find refractive index of a liquid by using convexlens and
7 13-14
plane mirror.
To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction
8 15-17
diode in forward bias and reverse bias.
ACTIVITIES Date Teacher’s
SI.N0 Pg.No Signature
SECTION A
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
1 18

To study the variation in potential drop with length of a

2 19-20
wire for a steady current.
To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a
3 21
battery, a resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the
components that are not connected in proper order and correct the
circuit and also the circuit diagram.
SECTION B
To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor
4 22-23
from a mixed collection of such items.
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of
5 24
light incident obliquely on a glass slab
To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit.
6 25-26
 Guidelines to Write Records:

1. Use BLUE INK only.

2. Diagrams to be drawn in pencil. Geometry instruments to be used. No free hand diagrams.

3. Table borders to be drawn using ruler and pencil. Content to be written in pen.

4. Page borders to be drawn on blank page.

5.
BLANK PAGE RULED PAGE

Figure, Observation(tabular column etc), Aim, Apparatus, Theory, Procedure,

Calculations Result, Precautions, Sources Of Error.

6. Date of experiment, tabular column and result to be entered after

experiment is conducted in lab.

7. A print out of this file to be taken and brought to the lab every lab session.

8. Please follow all the instructions.

All the Best to You…Batch 2023-24

2022-23.

0
 EXPERIMENT 1

AIM:
To find resistance of a given resistor using metre bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Meter bridge, battery eliminator, a galvanometer, resistance box, jockey, a one way key, a
resistance wire, a screw gauge, a meter scale, connecting wires.

THEORY:

The unknown resistance X is given by

(100−𝑙)𝑅
X= , R is the known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance X in the
𝑙
right gap of meter bridge. l cm is the length of meter bridge wire from zero end up to balance
point.

DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement diagram.
2. Make neat, clean and tight connections according to the circuit diagram.
3. Take out some resistance from the resistance box , plug the key K.
4. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire.
5. Note the deflection in the galvanometer .If the galvanometer shows deflections in opposite directions,
the connections are correct. If the galvanometer shows only one sided deflection then there is some fault in
the circuit. Rectify the fault.
6. Slide the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer shows zero deflection. The
point where the jockey touching the wire is null point D.
7. Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that there is no deflection in the
galvanometer when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire..
8. Note position of point D to know length AD=l.
9. Repeat for four set of observations by changing the value of R.
10. Measure the length of the wire.
11. Measure the diameter of the wire by using screw gauge.
12. Record your observations in table.

1
 OBSERVATIONS AND TABULAR COLUMN:

SL R l (100-l) (𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)𝑹 CALCULATIONS

X= 𝒍
Ώ
No. ohm cm cm

M
Mean X =

CALCULATIONS:

Mean X=

RESULT:
The value of unknown resistance X= __________ Ώ

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All plugs of the resistance box should be tight.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The instruments screws may be loose.
2. The plugs may not be clean.

***********

2
 EXPERIMENT 2

AIM:
To verify the laws of combination of resistors in series using a meter bridge.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Meter bridge, battery eliminator, a galvanometer, resistance box, jockey, a one way key, resistance
wires, a screw gauge, a meter scale, connecting wires.
THEORY:
1. The resistance r is given by
(100−𝑙)𝑅
r= Where, R is the known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance r in the right
𝑙
gap of meter bridge. ‘l’ cm is the length of meter bridge wire from zero end up to balance point.
2. When two resistances are connected in series, then their combined resistance: Rs=r1+r2

DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Mark the two resistance coils as r 1 and r2.
2. To find r1 and r2 proceed the same way as the previous meter bridge experiment.
3. Connect r1 and r2 in series as shown in the figure.
4. Record your observations as follows.

3
OBSERVATIONS AND TABULAR COLUMN:

r Sl.No R l (100-l) (100−𝑙)𝑅 Mean Calculations

r= Ώ
(ohm) (cm) (cm) 𝑙 (Ώ)

r1 1 r1=

r Sl.No R l (100-l) (100−𝑙)𝑅 Mean Calculations

r= Ώ
(ohm) (cm) (cm) 𝑙 (Ώ)
r2 1 r2=

Rs 1 Rs=

CALCULATIONS
Mean r1:

Mean r2:

Mean Rs:

Rs– By Calculation = r1+r2=___________ Ώ

Rs – By Experiment = ______________
Difference= _______________

RESULT:
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of Rs are same. Hence law of
resistance in series is verified.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections should be neat ,clean and tight
2. All plugs of the resistance box should be tight.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The instruments screws may be loose.
2. The plugs may not be clean.

*********

4
 EXPERIMENT - 3

AIM:
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its figure of merit.
APPARATUS:
Galvanometer, battery eliminator, two resistance boxes of 10,000 ohm and 200 ohm, 2 one way keys,
rheostat, connecting wires.
THEORY:
𝑅𝑆
1. G =
𝑅−𝑆
G = Resistance of the galvanometer (ohm)
R = High resistance connected in series with galvanometer (ohm)
S = Shunt Resistance (ohm)
𝐸
2. K = (𝑅+𝐺)Ɵ
E = Emf of the battery eliminator (V)
K = Figure of merit (A/div)
Ө = Deflection produced in the galvanometer (div)

DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Arrange the instruments as per the circuit diagram and ensure proper tight connection.
2. Insert the plug key K1 and by introducing any value of resistance R say 5,000 ohm, note the deflection in
the galvanometer.
3. Now insert the plug key K2 and by introducing suitable resistance S, the deflection in the Galvanometer is
made half of the previous one.
4. Repeat the above steps for different increasing values of R.
5. The Galvanometer resistance and the figure of merit of the galvanometer are found by using the following
𝑅𝑆 𝐸
formulae, G = 𝑅−𝑆, K = (𝑅+𝐺)Ɵ

5
 O
𝑹𝑺 𝑬 B
Sl R S Ө/2 G = 𝑹−𝑺 K = (𝑹+𝑮)Ɵ
Ө (div) Calculations S
No (ohm) (ohm) (div) (ohm) (A/div)
E
R
1. V
A
T
2.
I
O
3. N
:
4.

5.

EMF of the battery eliminator(E) = 2 V

CALCULATIONS:
Mean G=

𝐸
K = (𝑅+𝐺)Ɵ

RESULT:
1. Galvanometer Resistance: G= ___________ohm.

2. Figure of merit: K = _________(A/div)

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The screws of instruments maybe loose.

2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.

****************

6
 EXPERIMENT-4

AIM:
To determine the frequency of a.c. mains using a sonometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Sonometer, Weight hanger with slotted weights, Electromagnet, meter scale, connecting wires, a clamp
with stand.

THEORY:
The frequency of a.c. mains is given by

1 √𝑇
n = 2𝐷
√𝜋𝜌 𝑙

where, T is the tension of the sonometer wire

l is the resonating length
D is the diameter the wire
ρ density of sonometer wire

DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
(1) By means of a suitable step-down transformer, the a.c. mains voltage is brought down to 6 volts. The secondary
of the transformer is connected to the ends of the sonometer wire.
(2) The electromagnet is held at the center of the sonometer wire such that the magnetic field is applied
horizontally,at right angles to the length of the wire.
(3) The sonometer wire is subjected to a suitable load (say 0.5 kg).
(4) On passing an a.c. current,the wire is acted upon by a periodically varying force in an up and down direction (i.e.
perpendicular to both the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of current). Therefore the wire is set
into forced vibrations.
(5) The distance between the bridges is adjusted, till the maximum flutters of the wire is obtained. In this position,
the length between the two bridges is measured as l, which gives the resonating length l.
(6) The experiment is repeated for different loads.
√𝑇
(7) The average value of 𝑙
is found

7
 1 √𝑇
The frequency of a.c. mains can be calculated using the formula n =2𝐷 ( 𝑙 )avg
√𝜋𝜌

OBSERVATIONS:
D______ mm =_______ m

ρ = 7.8 × 10 3 kgm-3

SlNo Load (M) √𝑇 Calculations

T = M x 9.8 (N) √T l (m) √𝑇
(kg) 𝑙 Mean 𝑙

1. 0.5
2. 1.0
3. 1.5
4. 2.0
√𝑇
5. 2.5 Mean =
𝑙

CALCULATIONS:

RESULT:
The frequency of a.c. mains using sonometer = __________ Hz.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The wire should be of soft iron or of any other magnetic material.
2. Tip of electromagnet should to be very close to the wire in its middle.
3. Length should be noted when the amplitude of vibration is maximum.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Wire may not be rigid and of uniform cross-sectional area.
2. Pulley may not be frictionless.
3. Weights may not be correct.
4. Knife edges may not be sharp.
5. The main frequency may not be stable.

**************

8
 EXPERIMENT- 5

AIM:

To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting a graph between u and v.

APPARATUS:

An optical bench, two sharp-edged needle (pins), convex lens of less than 20 cm focal length, three
uprights (with clamps), index needle (may be a knitting needle), metre scale and spirit level.

THEORY:

For an object placed at a distance u from the pole of a concave mirror of focal length f, the image is
formed at a distance v from the pole. The relation between these distances (for a convex lens) is:
1 1 1
=𝑣−𝑢
𝑓

𝑢𝑣
𝑓 = 𝑢+𝑣 (with sign conventions)
𝑢 𝑣
When u=v, f = 2 or f =2.

DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Obtain approximate value of the focal length of convex lens.

2. Place the optical bench on a rigid table.
3. Clamp the convex lens on an upright and mount it vertically almost near to the middle of the optical bench
4. Place object pin P1 to the left of the lens at a distance such that u is approximately 2f.
5. Place another vertically mounted sharp and bright pin P 2 to the right of the lens. Adjust the pins P 1 and P2
so that the heights of the tips of these pins meet.
6. Remove parallax between the image and the pin.
7. Note the values of u and v i.e., the distances of the object and image pins from the lens respectively.
8. Repeat the experiment for at least five different positions of the object and determine the corresponding
values of v. Record your observations in tabular form.

9
OBSERVATION

Rough focal length of the convex lens = ________cm

SL ‘u’ cm ‘v’ cm GRAPH

NO

18
1.
19
2.
20
3.
21
4.
22
5.

RESULT:

The focal length of the given convex (converging) lens is _________cm

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and mounted vertically.
2. The aperture of the lens should be small otherwise the image formed will not be distinct.
3. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the image needle.
4. An error may arise in the observations if the top of the optical bench is not horizontal and similarly if the
tips of pins and optical centre of the lens are not at the same horizontal level.
5. The image and object needles should not be interchanged during the performance of experiment.
6. The tip of the inverted image of the object needle must touch the tip of the image needle and must not
overlap. This should be ensured while removing the parallax.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The uprights may not be vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect

***********

10
 EXPERIMENT-6

AIM:
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism by plotting a graph between the
angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.

APPARATUS:
Drawing board, triangular glass prism, metre scale, alpins, cellotape/drawing pins, graph paper,
protractor, white paper sheets.

THEORY:

r1 + r2 = A
δ = (i1 – r1) + (i2 – r2) = i1 + i2 – A
At the position of the prism for minimum
deviation δm , the light ray passes through the
prism symmetrically, i.e. parallel to the base
so that when δ= δm , i1 = i2 which implies r1 =
r2. The image is brightest in this position.

DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board with the help of cellotape or drawing pins.
2. Draw a straight line XY, using a sharp pencil nearly in the middle and parallel to the length of the paper.
3. Mark points O1 , O2 , O3. ., . . . . on the straight line XY at suitable distances and draw normals N 1 O1 , N2
O2 , N3 O3 . . . . on these points.
4. Draw straight lines, P1 O1 , P2 O2 , P3 O3 , . . . corresponding to the incident rays making angles of
incidence at 35° , 40° , 45° , 50° , . . . 60° respectively with the normals, using a protractor. Place the prism
with its refracting face AB on the line XY with point O1 in the middle of AB as shown in the figure. Draw
the boundary of the prism with a sharp pencil.

11
 5. Fix two alpins P1 and Q1 with sharp tips vertically about 10 cm apart, on the incident ray line P 1 Q1 such
that pin Q1 is close to point O1 . Close one eye (say left) and looking through the prism, bring your right eye
in line with the images of the pins P 1 and Q1 . Fix alpins R1 and S1 about 10 cm apart vertically on the white
paper sheet with their tips in line with the tips of the images of pins P 1 and Q1 . In this way pins R1 and S1
will become collinear, with the images of pins P 1 and Q1.
6. Remove the pins R1 and S1 and encircle their pin pricks on the white paper sheet with the help of a sharp
pencil. Remove the pins P1 and Q1 and encircle their pin pricks also.
7. Join the points ( or pin pricks) R1 and S1 with the help of a sharp pencil and scale, to obtain the emergent
ray R1 S1 . Produce it backwards to meet the incident ray P 1 Q1 (produced forward) at T 1. Draw arrowheads
on P1 Q1 and R1 S1 to show the direction of the rays.
8. Measure the angle of deviation l and the angle BAC (angle A) of the prism with a protractor and write the
values of these angles indicated in the diagram.
9. Repeat steps 5 to 9 for different values of angle of incidence (40°, 45°, 50° ...) and measure the
corresponding angles of deviation 2, 3 ... with the protractor, and indicate them in the respective diagrams.
10. Record observations in tabular form with proper units and significant figures.

OBSERVATION GRAPH

Sl Sl
i δ i δ
No No

1 35ᴼ 4 50ᴼ

2 40ᴼ 5 55ᴼ

3 45ᴼ 6 60ᴼ

CALCULATIONS:

Draw tangent on the lowest point of the graph parallel to x-axis, read the angle of minimum deviation m
on the y-axis of the graph. Express the result with proper significant figures.

RESULT:
Angle of minimum deviation, δm = __________

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Alpins should be fixed vertically to the plane of paper.
2. Distance PQ and RS should be about 10 cm in order to locate incident and emergent rays with greater
accuracy.
3. Same angle of prism should be used for all observations.
4. Position of the prism should not be disturbed for a given set of observations

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. If the three angles of refraction between adjacent pairs of faces are not equal, then A +δ ≠ i + e
2. There may be an error in measuring the values of the angles.

************

12
 EXPERIMENT-7

AIM:
To find the refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror.

APPARATUS:
A convex lens a plane mirror clean transparent liquid in a beaker, an optical needle, an iron stand with base
and clamp arrangement, plumb line, half metre scale etc.

THEORY:
If f1 and f2 be the focal length of glass convex lens and liquid lens and F be the focal length of their
combination then,
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
= + ……………….(1)
𝐹1 𝑓1 𝑓2
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
− 𝑓1 = …………………(2)
𝐹1 𝑓2
1 1 1
𝑓2
= (𝑛 − 1) (𝑅1 − 𝑅2
) (From lens maker’s formula)
n = refractive index of water
R1 = -f1 R2 = ∞
1 −1
= (𝑛 − 1)( )
𝑓2 𝑓1
From ( 2)….
1 1 −1
− = (𝑛 − 1)( )
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓1
1 1
−𝑓1( − ) = (𝑛 − 1)
𝐹 𝑓1
−𝑓1
+ 1=𝑛−1
𝐹
𝒇𝟏
𝒏=𝟐− 𝑭

DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
(a) For focal length of convex lens (f1)
1. Take any one convex lens and find its rough focal length.
2. Take a plane mirror and place it on the horizontal base.
3. Place the convex lens on the plane mirror.

13
 4. Screw tight the optical needle in the clamp of the stand and hold it horizontally above the lens at
distance equal to its rough focal length.
5. Bring the tip of the needle at the vertical principal axis of the lens, so that tip of the needle
appears touching the tip of its image.
6. Move the needle up and down and remove parallax between tips of the needle and its image.
7. Measure distance between tip and upper surface of the lens by using a plumb line and half metre
scale.
8. Also measure distance between tip and the surface of its plane mirror.

(b) For focal length of the combination(F)

1. Take a few drops of transparent liquid on the plane mirror and put the convex lens over it with its
same face above as before (A piano concave liquid lens is formed between plane mirror and
convex lens).
2. Repeat steps 6, 7 and 8.
3. Record your observations as given below.

OBSERVATION:
Rough focal length of convex lens =……… cm.
R = f1=……………… cm.

Arrangement Focal
Length (cm)
Without 𝑓1 = … …
liquid
With liquid 𝐹 = ……

CALCULATIONS:
n=

RESULT:
Refractive index of liquid (water) is ______________
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The liquid taken should be transparent.
2. Only few drops of liquid should be taken so that its layer is not thick.
3. The parallax should be removed tip to tip.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Liquid may not be quite transparent.
2. The parallax may not be fully removed.
**********

14
 EXPERIMENT-8

AIM:
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.
APPARATUS:
A 3-volt battery, 50-volt battery, high resistance rheostat, 0-3 volt voltmeter, 0-50 volt voltmeter, 0-100 mA
ammeter, 0-100 μA ammeter, way key, Connecting wires, p-n junction.

THEORY:
Forward bias characteristics
The junction is said to be forward biased when the p-section of the diode is connected to the positive terminal
of the battery and the n-section of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. With an
increase in the voltage, the current also increases. For Si diode, at 0.7 V the current increases suddenly.
Reverse bias characteristics
The junction is said to be reverse biased when the p-section of the diode is connected to the negative terminal
of the battery and the p-section of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. With an
increase in the voltage, there is a small change in the current but the reverse current increases to a higher
value at breakdown voltage.

DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
For forward-bias
1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.
2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. For voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA), least count and zero error should be noted.
4. Increase the forward bias voltage up to 0.3 V increase the VF by 0.2 V and record the corresponding
current.
For reverse bias
1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.
2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. Note the least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (μA).
4. To apply reverse bias voltage (VR) of 2V. Increase VR by 1V and record the corresponding
current.

15
OBSERVATION:

For forward bias For reverse bias

Range of voltmeter = …….V Range of voltmeter = …….V
Least count of the voltmeter = …….V Least count of the voltmeter = …….V
Range of milli-ammeter = …….mA Range of micro-ammeter = …….μA
Least count of milli-ammeter = …….mA Least count of micro-ammeter = …….μA

Forward bias Forward current Reverse bias Reverse current

Sl.no Sl.no
voltage VF in V IF in mA voltage RF in V IR in A
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
6. 6.
7. 7.
8. 8.
9. 9.
10. 10.
11. 11.
12. 12.

GRAPHS:

RESULT:
TheI-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias were drawn and analysed.

16
PRECAUTIONS
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Key should be used when the circuit is being used.
3. Beyond breakdown, reverse bias voltage should not be applied.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
Faulty junction diode might be supplied.

****************

17
 Activity-I
Aim:
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
Apparatus: A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a rheostat, one
way key,an unknown resistance or resistance coil, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper.

Diagram:

Observations: Ammeter is connected in series and voltmeter is connected in parallel.

When key is closed current enters to the positive terminal ( higher potential) and leaves
through the negative terminal ( low potential).

Result:
The components were assembled as shown in the circuit. The ammeter and voltmeter were
showing deflections.
 ACTIVITY-2
Aim:
To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current.
Apparatus:
Potentiometer, battery eliminator of constant voltage, dc power supply or lead accumulator, voltmeter and
ammeter of suitable range, plug key, jockey, rheostat, connecting wires, etc.
Theory:
If a steady current is flowing through a wire of uniform area of cross section and having its resistance per unit
length constant, potential drop V across two points of the wire is directly proportional to the length l between
those two points. Mathematically, V α l
Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Set up the electrical circuit as shown in Fig.
2. Now close the key K and press the jockey at point B. Adjust the rheostat to get full scale deflection in
voltmeter.
3. When jockey is pressed at point A, you will get zero deflection in the voltmeter.
4. Now press the jockey at 40 cm and note the corresponding voltmeter reading.
5. Repeat your observation by pressing the jockey at various lengths like 80 cm, 120 cm etc. which may
extend upto, say 400 cm of potentiometer wire. Record voltmeter reading in each case as shown in Table
Observations:
Range of the voltmeter = ... V
Least count of the voltmeter = ...V
Zero error = ...
S.NO. Length of potential wire Voltmeter reading V φ = V/l (V cm–1)
over which potential (V)
drop is measured l (cm)
1 40
2 80
3 120
4 160
5 200

CALCULATIONS:
The ratio φ = V l is calculated. It is the potential gradient of the wire. Its value is almost constant.
PLOTTING GRAPH:
Plot a graph choosing a suitable scale, for the values of potential drop V along Y –Axis and
length l along x-axis as shown in figure. Slope of the graph gives the value of potential gradient.

RESULT:
It was found that potential drop is directly proportional to the length of the wire.
 ACTIVITY-3

Aim: To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising atleast a battery, a resistor/rheostat, key,
ammeter and voltmeter. The ammeter should measure the current in the circuit and voltmeter should
measure the potential drop through the resistor. Mark the components that are not connected in
proper order and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

Apparatus : A given open circuit, battery, plug key, resistor, rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter,
connecting wires.

Diagram:

Observations:

S.No. Circuit Component Connection

a b c d
1. Battery √ √ √ √
2. Key √ √ √ √
3. Resistor √ √ √ √
4. Rheostat × × √ √
5. Voltmeter × × × ×
6. Ammeter √ √ √ ×

Corrected Circuits:

Result: The corrected circuit assembled using components in proper order was found
functional on checking.

************
 ACTIVITY NO. 4

Aim:
To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.
Apparatus: Multimeter, mixed collection of items like voltmeter, ammeter diode, LED.

Theory:
A diode is a two-terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse
biased. It does not emit light while conducting.
A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two-terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not
conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while conducting.
A resistor is a two-terminal device. It conducts equally in both directions.
A capacitor is a two-terminal device. It does not conduct but stores some charge when dc voltage is applied

Diagram:

(c) diodes
(d) LED

Observations:

S.NO. State of Device Name of the device

1 Conducts in one direction only without any emission

of light

2 Conducts in one direction only with emission of light

3 Conducts in both directions

4 Does not conduct, gives an initial deflection which

decays to zero

Result: Different components were identified.

******************
 ACTIVITY-5

Aim: To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely
on aglass slab
Apparatus: Glass slab, drawing board, white paper sheet, drawing pins, office
pins, protractor. Diagram

Theory:
When a ray of light becomes incident on a parallel faced glass slab, it
emerges from it in same direction as the incident ray. It only suffers a lateral
displacement proportional to the slab thickness (t).
Observations:

S NO Angle of Angle of Difference

incidence(i) emergence (i-e)
(e)
1 300
2 400
3 500

Result:
The ray of light emerging from a glass slab is parallel to the incident light and
it is laterally displaced.
 ACTIVITY -6

Aim:
To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit.
Apparatus:
Two razor blades, adhesive tapes, a screen a source of monochromatic light (laser pencil) black
paper and a glass plate.
Theory:
Diffraction is a phenomenon of bending of light around the comers or edges of a fine opening or
aperture. Diffraction takes place when order of wavelength is comparable or small to the size of slit
or aperture. The diffraction effect is more pronounced if the size of the aperture or the obstacle is of
the order of wavelength of the waves. The diffraction pattern arises due to interference of light
waves from different symmetrical point of the same wavefront. The diffraction pattern due to a
single slit consists of a central bright band having alternate dark and weak bright bands of decreasing
intensity on both sides.
Diagram:

Result:
When light waves were incident on a slit or aperture. Diffraction pattern was observed with central
maxima and side fringes of decreasing intensities.