9 Structures and properties of

substances Teaching PowerPoint (by sections)

e-Book
Answer-checking tool
Image bank
Teaching scheme
Bridging worksheet
Answers to Coursebook

Hard, shiny and transparent diamonds are widely used in

Chapter preview making beautiful jewellery.

9.1 Structures of substances

9.2 Giant metallic structures
9.3 Giant ionic structures
9.4 Simple molecular structures
9.5 Giant covalent structures
9.6 Comparing the structures and properties of substances
9.7 Deducing the properties of substances from their bonding and structures
9.8 Deducing the bonding and structures of substances from their properties
Prior knowledge &
Quick review
https://e-aristo.hk/
r/cmnmvpq09.e
Prior knowledge & Quick review
(For Chapter 9)
Oil drill bits

Diamond is the hardest known natural material in the world. It is composed of entirely carbon
atoms. Synthetic diamonds can be made in the laboratory by heating pure carbon to very high
temperatures under very high pressures. An application of synthetic diamonds is used in making drill
bits for oil companies. Oil drills are used to drill through layers of rocks to extract the petroleum
underground.

 n oil rig is built on the sea to extract petroleum

A An oil drill bit
underground.

2. In diamond, the carbon atoms are linked by strong covalent bonds

Think about... throughout the structure. Their relative movement is restricted. To break
diamond, a lot of strong covalent bonds must be broken.

1 Suggest one physical property of diamond that makes it suitable for making oil drill bits.
Diamond is extremely hard.
2 How is this property of diamond related to its structure?

3 Is there any relationship between the physical properties of substances and their structures?
Yes. The properties of a substance are closely related to its bonding and structure.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to answer the above questions.

oil drill bit 石油鑽頭

 Structures and properties of substances 9
9.1 Structures of substances
Prior knowledge The structure of a substance is a description of what its constituent
In previous chapters, students
should have learnt: particles are, and how they are arranged and pack together. In
• that atoms, ions and molecules Chemistry, it is important to study the structure of a substance since we
are the constituent particles of
matter may predict and explain properties of the substance from its structure.
• about metallic bonding, ionic
bonding and covalent bonding
• about ionic compounds (e.g. In this chapter, we will study four types of structures:
sodium chloride) and covalent
• Giant metallic structure of metal elements (e.g. sodium, copper, iron,
compounds (e.g. water, carbon
dioxide) etc.)
• Giant ionic structure of ionic compounds (e.g. sodium chloride,
caesium chloride, etc.)
• Simple molecular structure of non-metal elements (e.g. hydrogen,
chlorine, iodine, etc.) and covalent compounds (e.g. carbon dioxide,
water, etc.)
• Giant covalent structure of non-metal elements (e.g. carbon
(diamond) and carbon (graphite)) and covalent compounds (e.g. silicon
dioxide)

9.2 Giant metallic structures

Prior knowledge
In junior secondary science,
Structure of metals CE2004(I)9a(iii)
students should have learnt:
• the typical properties of metals In Chapter 7, we have leant that there is metallic bonding between
delocalized electrons and the metal ions in a metal. The metal ions pack
Learning tip closely together in a regular pattern in metals. A three-dimensional,
The regular arrangement giant lattice of metal ions surrounded by a ‘sea’ of delocalized electrons is
of atoms, ions or called a giant metallic structure (Figure 9.1). N1
molecules in a crystalline
solid is called lattice.
positively charged negatively charged
Metals, ionic compounds, metal ion delocalized electron
ice, dry ice, iodine,
diamond, graphite and
quartz are examples of
crystalline solids.

Note 1
Remind students that mercury
has a giant metallic structure
though it is a liquid under room
conditions. Figure 9.1 In a giant metallic structure, positively charged metal ions are surrounded by a
‘sea’ of delocalized electrons.

diamond 金剛石 giant metallic structure 巨型金屬結構 quartz 石英 regular 有規律的

dry ice 乾冰 graphite 石墨 simple molecular structure 簡單分子結構
135
giant covalent structure 巨型共價結構 ice 冰
giant ionic structure 巨型離子結構 lattice 晶格
 II Microscopic World I

Properties of metals
CE2009(I)9 1. Metals are good conductors of electricity.
DSE2012(IA)1
DSE2013(IA)12 In a piece of metal, delocalized electrons move freely and randomly in
DSE2019(IA)24
DSE2021(IA)21 all directions. When both ends of the metal piece are connected to the
terminals of a battery, the delocalized electrons flow in one direction only
towards the positive terminal of the battery. At the same time, an equal
number of electrons flow into the other end of the metal from the negative
terminal of the battery. This makes a complete circuit (Figure 9.2) and this
explains why metals can conduct electricity.

movement of delocalized electrons

metal piece
Mistake 1 electrons flowing electrons flowing
Some students cannot out of the metal into the metal
distinguish between ions and
electrons clearly. Remind them
it is wrong to say ‘Sodium is
a conductor because it has + –
mobile ions’ or ‘Sodium
chloride conducts electricity
because it has delocalized
electrons’. Figure 9.2 Metals conduct electricity because they contain delocalized electrons. M1

CE1999(II)46 2. Metals are good conductors of heat.

CE2003(II)42
DSEPP2012(IB)7b(i)(II) When one end of a metal piece is heated, the delocalized electrons there
gain heat energy and move faster. They transfer the heat energy to the whole
piece of metal rapidly (Figure 9.3).

heat energy transferred by delocalized electrons

+ + + +

+ + + +

+ + + +
heat source

metal piece

Figure 9.3 Heat energy (from heat source) can be conducted by the delocalized
electrons in a metal.

136
 CE2001(I)7c(i)
Structures and properties of substances 9
CE2009(I)9
3. Most metals are solids with high melting points. N2, N3

To melt a metal, a lot of energy is required to break the metallic bonds

between the metal ions in a giant metallic structure. As the metallic bonds
in most metals are strong, most metals have high melting points. For
example, copper, iron and tungsten have melting points of 1083°C, 1538°C
Figure 9.4 Tungsten is a
and 3410°C respectively. See Figure 9.4.
metal with a very high melting
point (3410°C). It can be used
as a filament in a light bulb. 4. Most metals have high densities.
Note 2 The metal ions in a giant metallic structure pack closely together. Hence,
Metallic bonds in a few metals
are quite weak. For example, metals generally have high densities. For example, the densities of copper
–3 –3
mercury is a liquid with a melting and lead are 8.9 g cm and 11.3 g cm respectively. (The density of water
point of –39°C. Caesium is a –3
solid with a melting point of is 1 g cm .) (In Chapter 6, we have mentioned some metals with low
28°C. densities. What are they?)

5. Metals are malleable (can be rolled into sheets) (Figure 9.5) and
ductile (can be pulled into wires). CE2008(I)12b DSE2018(IA)7
AL2009(II)3c(i) DSE2020(II)2b(i)
In a giant metallic structure, the metal ions pack in layers and are held
together by metallic bonds. When we apply a force on a piece of metal,
Figure 9.5 Pure gold is the
the layers of metal ions can slide over one another. Since the
most malleable and ductile
of all metals. It can easily be non-directional metallic bonds still hold the metal ions together,
beaten or hammered to a the ions settle into new positions and the piece of metal takes on a new
thickness of 0.000013 cm.
shape (Figure 9.6).
Note 3
Metals are usually hard and force
strong because metal ions are
linked together by strong
metallic bonds in a giant metallic + + + +
layers of metal
structure. + + + + ions slide over
metal ions + + + + one another
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + +

metal ions settle into new positions

Class practice 9.1

(a) Tungsten has a very high Figure 9.6 Metals can be re-shaped without breaking.
melting point.
(b) Tungsten has delocalized
electrons for conducting Class practice 9.1
electricity.
(c) The metallic bonds between Tungsten is used in making filaments for tungsten light bulbs. By passing
tungsten ions and delocalized an electric current through the filament, energy in the form of light is emitted
electrons are non-directional. when the filament reaches extremely high temperatures.
When an external force is
applied on tungsten, layers of (a) Apart from the light emitting property, suggest another physical property
tungsten ions slide over one that makes tungsten, but not other metals, suitable for making filaments.
another and form new
(b) Explain why tungsten can conduct electricity.
metallic bonds. The shape of
tungsten changes but it does (c) Explain why tungsten can be drawn into wires.
not break.
filament 燈絲
137
 II Microscopic World I

9.3 Giant ionic structures

Mistake 2 DSE2014(IA)2
In some ionic compounds like An ionic compound usually forms when metal combines with non-metal.
NH4NO3, both ionic bonds and
It consists of cations (positively charged ions) and anions (negatively
covalent bonds exist. However,
students may wrongly think charged ions) held together by ionic bonds. The ions pack regularly to
that there are van der Waals’
forces in NH4NO3.
form a continuous, three-dimensional giant ionic structure. M2

Structure of sodium chloride

Experiment 9.1 Sodium chloride (NaCl) has a giant ionic structure. In this structure,
+ –
Building lattice models
cations (Na ) and anions (Cl ) are held together by ionic bonds. They pack
of ionic crystals regularly so that each ion is surrounded by six ions of the opposite
charge (Figure 9.7). The ions are arranged to form a cubic structure. It
+
should be noted that the structure contains equal numbers of Na and
–
Cl ions.
CE2003(I)1a(ii) DSE2019(IB)2a

3D model or N4
Sodium chloride
represented
Keys:
as
+
Na ion

–
Cl ion

+ –
Figure 9.7 Sodium chloride has a giant ionic structure. It consists of Na and Cl ions held
together by ionic bonds. Note 4
In examinations, the structure of sodium chloride can
be simply represented as:

Skill corner 9.1

Drawing the structure of sodium chloride

The structure of sodium chloride can be drawn by following the steps below.
Step 1: Draw a cube. Step 2:
(a) Join the mid-point of each edge to the mid-point of the
opposite edge.
(b) Join the centre of each face to the centre of the opposite face.

Cont’d

sodium chloride 氯化鈉

138
 Structures and properties of substances 9
+ + –
Step 3: Add a Na ion ( ) at the centre of Step 4: Add more ions. Arrange the Na and Cl
–
the cube. Then add six Cl ions ( ) ions alternately. Add a key or some labels to
+ + –
surrounding the Na ion. indicate the Na and Cl ions in the diagram.

+
Na
–
Cl

Structure of caesium chloride

Caesium chloride (CsCl) also has a giant ionic structure, which is different
from that of sodium chloride. In the structure of caesium chloride, cations
+ –
3D model (Cs ) and anions (Cl ) are held together by ionic bonds. Each caesium ion
Caesium chloride is surrounded by eight chloride ions and each chloride ion is in turn
surrounded by eight caesium ions. See Figure 9.8.

or Keys:
DSE2013(IB)8b(i) represented +
Cs ion
as
–
Cl ion

+ –
Figure 9.8 Caesium chloride has a giant ionic structure. It consists of Cs and Cl ions held together by ionic bonds.

Skill corner 9.2

Drawing the structure of caesium chloride

The structure of caesium chloride can be drawn by following the steps below.
Steps 1 and 2: refer to Skill corner 9.1 on p.138.
– +
Step 3: Add the Cl ions ( ) Step 4: Add one Cs ion ( ) at the centre of each sub-cube so that
+ –
at each corner of the each Cs ion is surrounded by eight Cl ions. Add a key or
+ –
eight sub-cubes. some labels to indicate the Cs and Cl ions in the diagram.

+
Cs

–
Cl

caesium chloride 氯化銫

139
 II Microscopic World I
CE2002(I)6a(iii) CE2008(I)1c CE2009(II)22 DSE2012(IB)16a
CE2003(II)42 CE2009(I)9 DSE2012(IA)1 DSE2022(IA)3
Properties of ionic compounds
1. They conduct electricity in molten state or in aqueous solution.
Learning tip
• When an ionic Ionic compounds are non-conductors of electricity in the solid state. This
compound is melted, it
is in the molten state.
is because in the solid state, the ions present are not mobile (i.e. not free to
• When an ionic move). When the ionic compounds are in the molten state or in aqueous
compound is dissolved solution, the ions become mobile and the ionic compounds can conduct
in water, it is in
electricity. Ionic compounds are regarded as electrolytes.
aqueous solution or in
the aqueous state.
2. They usually have high melting points and boiling points.
• Refer to Book 3B,
Section 32.1 for the For example, sodium chloride has a melting point of 800.7°C and boiling
meaning of the term
‘electrolyte’. point of 1465°C. A lot of energy is required to break the strong ionic
bonds between ions during melting and boiling.
CE1999(I)4
CE2000(I)8c(i) 3. They are hard but brittle.
CE2004(I)5 AL2009(II)3c(i) DSE2013(IB)8b(ii)
CE2007(I)1c The oppositely charged ions are held together by strong ionic bonds
CE2009(I)9
DSE2018(IB)3a which make the ionic compounds hard. However, when under a great
DSE2022(IB)1e force, the relative movement of the ions brings ions of the same charge
close to each other. This will result in repulsion and the crystal will break.

Note 5
Therefore, ionic compounds are brittle. See Figure 9.9.
Point out to students that
though most ionic compounds
are soluble in water, there are
insoluble ones such as barium
sulphate and silver chloride. It great some ions like charges repel
will be further discussed in force move relatively and crystal breaks
‘Extended learning 9.1: Are all
ionic compounds soluble in – + – + – + – +
water?’ on p.142. + – + – – + + – – + + –
– + – + + – – + + – – +
Learning tip + – + – – + + – – + + –
Attraction exists between + – + –
repulsive force
water molecules and
charged ions. This is Figure 9.9 Ionic compounds are brittle when under a great force.
because one end of a CE2000(I)1a DSE2014(IB)12a(iv)
water molecule has a 4. Many of them are soluble in water, but all are insoluble in organic
slightly positive charge
while another end has a
solvents. N5

slightly negative charge.

Many ionic compounds interact strongly with water, so they are soluble
in water. For example, when a sodium chloride crystal is added to water,
attraction exists between ions in sodium chloride and water molecules.
This attraction causes the sodium ions and chloride ions to move away
from the crystal and go into the water. Then water molecules surround
(The molecular polarity the ions. The ions are said to be hydrated. See Figure 9.10.
of water will be discussed
in Book 3A, Chapter 25.)

aqueous solution 水溶液 interaction 相互作用 relative movement 相對移動

140 attraction 引力 molten 熔融
electrolyte 電解質 organic solvent 有機溶劑
hydrated 水合的
 Structures and properties of substances 9
water molecule
–
Cl ion
+
Na ion
oxygen + + – –
+ – + atom
dissolution
– + – hydrogen
+ – + – atom
– + – + + –
+ – + – +

hydrated sodium ions hydrated chloride ions

Figure 9.10 Sodium chloride dissolves in water, forming hydrated ions.

Learning tip No such attraction exists between the ions in sodium chloride and
Organic solvents are a molecules of organic solvents like tetrachloromethane (CCl4) and heptane
type of volatile organic (C7H16). Thus, sodium chloride is insoluble in organic solvents.
compounds (VOCs) that
can dissolve one or more
other substances.

Example 9.1

Understanding the structure and properties of sodium chloride

The following diagram shows part of the structure of a sodium chloride crystal with some ions missing.

+
Na
–
Cl

(a) Complete the diagram by filling in the missing ions.

(b) State the type of bonding in sodium chloride.
(c) Explain why sodium chloride has a high melting point.
(d) Does sodium chloride conduct electricity in the solid state? Explain your answer.

Solution
(a)

(b) Ionic bond

(c) A lot of energy is needed to break the strong ionic bonds between ions during melting.
(d) No. This is because the ions are held in fixed positions in the solid state.

heptane 庚烷 volatile organic compound 揮發性有機化合物

tetrachloromethane 四氯甲烷
141
 II Microscopic World I

Class practice 9.2

(a) Giant ionic structure Class practice 9.2
(b) Ionic bond
Answer the following questions concerning caesium chloride.
(c) Each caesium atom has
one outermost shell (a) What type of structure does caesium chloride have?
electron. It tends to attain (b) Name the type of bonding in caesium chloride.
an octet structure/the
electronic arrangement of (c) Why is caesium very reactive while caesium chloride is very stable?
a noble gas atom by losing (d) Is caesium chloride soluble in (i) water and (ii) heptane (an organic solvent)?
the outermost shell
electron through reaction
with other elements.
Both caesium ions and Extended learning 9.1
chloride ions have octet
structures, so they are very Are all ionic compounds soluble in water?
stable. An ionic compound is soluble in water when the attraction between the ions
(d) (i) Yes and the water molecules are strong enough to overcome the attraction
(ii) No between the ions in the ionic lattice. This stronger attraction causes the ions to
move away from the lattice and go into water. The ions are then attracted and
surrounded by water molecules.

Some ionic compounds are insoluble in water (e.g. calcium carbonate,

which is discussed in Section 4.4 on p.90) or just slightly soluble in water (e.g.
magnesium oxide). This is because the attraction between the ions of these
compounds and water molecules are weaker than the attraction between the
ions in the lattice.

9.4 Simple molecular structures

CE2008(II)46 CE2003(II)18
Learning tip Most non-metal elements and covalent compounds are composed of
Macromolecules or giant simple, discrete molecules. Examples are hydrogen, iodine, bromine,
molecules are very big water, carbon dioxide, etc. These substances have a simple molecular
molecules each
containing thousands of structure. They may be solids, liquids or gases under room conditions. N6
atoms. Examples are CE2005(II)7 DSE2015(IB)1b
plastics, proteins and The atoms in a molecule are bonded together by strong covalent
some carbohydrates. bond(s). However, each molecule is attracted to neighbouring molecules
by weak intermolecular forces (e.g. van der Waals’ forces). These M3
Note 6
intermolecular forces are much weaker than ionic bond, covalent bond
Remind students that
substances like polymers are and metallic bond.
macromolecules. They have
simple molecular structures,
but not giant covalent Structure of carbon dioxide
structures.
Each carbon dioxide molecule consists of one carbon atom and two
Mistake 3
Students may wrongly think
oxygen atoms covalently bonded together. Under room conditions, carbon
that van der Waals’ forces exist dioxide is a gas. When carbon dioxide gas is cooled to temperatures below
between atoms in covalent
molecules. –78.5°C at 1 atm, it changes to a solid called dry ice directly without going
through the liquid state. The structure of dry ice is shown in Figure 9.11.
DSE2022(IA)1
dry ice 乾冰 van der Waals’ force 范德華力
142 intermolecular force 分子間引力
 Structures and properties of substances 9

3D model
Dry ice

Figure 9.11 The structure of dry ice

Structure of iodine
Iodine is a solid under room conditions. In an iodine crystal, iodine
CE1999(II)34
molecules pack together regularly and are held together by weak van
CE2005(II)7
der Waals’ forces. They are still discrete molecules. See Figure 9.12.

3D model
Iodine

Figure 9.12 The structure of iodine

Properties of substances with a simple molecular

structure CE2009(I)9
DSE2012(IA)1
1. They are usually non-conductors of electricity. DSE2012(IB)16a

Most simple molecular substances do not conduct electricity in their

solid, liquid and gas states because they do not contain mobile ions or
delocalized electrons.

However, some of them conduct electricity when in aqueous

solutions. When such substances dissolve in water, mobile ions form.
DSE2022(IB)1d
Examples include hydrogen chloride and ammonia. These substances can
be regarded as electrolytes.
electrolyte 電解質
143
 II Microscopic World I
CE1999(I)4 CE2007(I)1c CE2009(I)9 DSE2018(IB)3a
CE2004(I)5 CE2008(II)46 DSE2018(IA)2 DSE2022(IB)1e
2. They have low melting points and boiling points.
Learning tip
A volatile liquid Under room conditions, simple molecular substances are gases, volatile
evaporates quickly under liquids, or solids with low melting points. They have low melting points
room conditions.
and boiling points because only a small amount of energy is needed
to overcome the weak intermolecular forces between molecules. Thus,
the molecules can be separated quite easily.

In general, the larger the molecular size, the stronger will be the van
der Waals’ forces between molecules. See Example 9.2 on p.145.

3. Solids with a simple molecular structure are usually brittle.

As the molecules are held together by weak intermolecular forces, solids

with a simple molecular structure are usually brittle.

4. They are usually slightly soluble or insoluble in water, but soluble

in organic solvents. CE2000(I)1a CE2007(II)32 DSE2020(IB)4b

Take iodine as an example. It is only slightly soluble in water but very

soluble in organic solvents like heptane.

The attraction between water molecules is quite strong. The weak

attraction between iodine and water molecules is not strong enough
to overcome the attraction between the water molecules. Thus, iodine
molecules and water molecules cannot mix together. This explains why
iodine has a very low solubility in water (Figures 9.13 and 9.14).

weak attraction between

iodine and water molecules
stronger attraction between
water molecules

iodine
solid
iodine molecules water molecules

Figure 9.13 Iodine dissolves Figure 9.14 The weak attraction between iodine and water molecules is not
in water only slightly. strong enough to overcome the attraction between the water molecules.

In organic solvents like heptane, the molecules are held together by

weak attraction. Thus, iodine molecules and molecules of the organic
solvent can mix together more readily (Figures 9.15 and 9.16).

144
 Structures and properties of substances 9
attraction between iodine molecules and
molecules of organic solvent is similar to those
between molecules of organic solvent

molecule of
organic solvent

Figure 9.15 Iodine dissolves

readily in heptane to give a iodine molecule
purple solution.

Figure 9.16 The attraction between iodine molecules and molecules of organic solvent
is strong enough to overcome the attraction between molecules of organic solvent.

Example 9.2
DSE2016(IB)4c DSE2018(IA)28
Comparing the boiling points of simple molecular substances DSE2018(IA)2

Chlorine and argon are gases under room conditions. The boiling points of chlorine and argon are
tabulated below.

Chlorine Argon
Boiling point / °C –35 –186

Explain, in terms of intermolecular forces, why the boiling point of chlorine is higher than that of
argon.

Solution
Argon is monoatomic whereas chlorine is diatomic. Chlorine has a larger molecular size than argon.
The van der Waals’ forces between chlorine molecules are stronger than those between argon
molecules. More energy is needed to separate chlorine molecules in boiling chlorine.
Class practice 9.3
(a) Covalent bond
(b) Intermolecular forces/van der Waals’ forces
Class practice 9.3 (c) Sulphur does not contain delocalized electrons or mobile ions for conducting electricity.
(d) No
The models below show the structure of a white phosphorus molecule and that of a sulphur molecule.

3D model
• White phosphorus
• Sulphur

white phosphorus sulphur

(a) State the type of bonding that exists between the atoms in a white phosphorus molecule.
(b) State the attraction that hold white phosphorus molecules together.
(c) Suggest why sulphur cannot conduct electricity. (e) As white phosphorus has a smaller molecular size than sulphur,
the van der Waals’ forces between white phosphorus molecules
(d) Is sulphur soluble in water? are weaker than those between sulphur molecules. Less energy is
(e) Suggest why white phosphorus (m.p.: 44.1°C) has a lower melting point than sulphur (m.p.: 112.8°C).
needed to separate the molecules in melting white phosphorus.

diatomic 雙原子的
monoatomic 單原子的
145
 II Microscopic World I

Chemistry in daily life

Use of dry ice

Dry ice is solid carbon dioxide. It is used in the
packaging of ice mooncakes. Dry ice can produce
a very low temperature (about −78°C). Besides,
unlike ice, dry ice changes to gas directly
(sublimes) at room temperature. No liquid would
be produced and wet the packets.

 packet of dry ice used for

A
keeping ice mooncakes cool

9.5 Giant covalent structures

In some non-metal elements and covalent compounds, the atoms are
joined by strong covalent bonds to form a three-dimensional giant
Experiment 9.2 network, called a giant covalent structure. Covalent bonds extend
Building models of throughout the whole structure. There are no discrete molecules.
diamond, graphite, Substances with a giant covalent structure include diamond, graphite and
quartz and iodine
quartz.
CE2009(II)3

Structure and properties of diamond

CE2002(II)46
3D model Diamond is one form of carbon. It has a giant covalent structure. Each
Diamond carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms,
CE2006(I)5b forming a three-dimensional giant network. See Figure 9.17. M4
DSE2012(IA)8 Mistake 4
It is correct to say diamond has a giant structure
Learning tip
with covalent bonds or a giant covalent network
Silicon carbide (SiC) is a
structure. However, students may misinterpret that
covalent compound. It has a diamond has a giant covalent bond.
carbon
structure similar to atoms
diamond.
covalent
bonds

carbon atom
silicon atom

Figure 9.17 The structure of diamond

giant network 巨型網絡 discrete 個別的

146 silicon carbide 碳化硅
 Structures and properties of substances 9
To break the structure, a large number of strong covalent bonds
CE2000(I)7c(i)
between carbon atoms must be broken. This explains the extreme
CE2011(I)3c
hardness and very high melting point (3550°C) of diamond. Besides,
diamond cannot conduct electricity because all the outermost shell
AL2008(II)4c(ii) electrons on each carbon atom have been used to form single covalent
bonds. There are no delocalized electrons.

Skill corner 9.3

Drawing the three-dimensional structure of diamond CE2006(I)5b

The structure of diamond can be drawn by following the steps shown below:

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Mistake 5
Students may wrongly think that
graphite has a simple molecular Structure and properties of graphite
structure because van der Waals’
forces exist between adjacent layers. Graphite is another form of carbon. It also has a giant covalent structure.
Note 7 In graphite, the carbon atoms are arranged in flat, parallel layers. Each
Graphene is considered as a very
strong material because the carbon layer is a two-dimensional network of carbon atoms and contains many
atoms in graphene are linked together
six-membered carbon rings (Figure 9.18). DSE2020(IB)3b(iii)
by strong covalent bonds. Compared
with steel, graphene has a lower
density and is not easily corroded. strong covalent bonds (within a layer)
Hence, it is anticipated that after
suitable fabrications, graphene can
be used as a steel substitute for
making car bodies.

Learning tip
An individual single layer M5
of graphite is known as weak van der
graphene. N7 Waals’ forces
(between layers)

3D model
Graphite

Figure 9.18 The structure of graphite

In graphite, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to only three

AL2008(II)4c(ii)
DSE2021(IA)21
other carbon atoms in its layer, and one outer electron of each carbon
atom is delocalized. These outer electrons are free to move from one six-
membered carbon ring to the next within a layer.
graphene 石墨烯 extreme 極度的
147
 II Microscopic World I

Because of the above structural features of graphite, it has the following

properties:
CE2011(I)3a(ii) • Graphite, though it is a non-metal, can conduct electricity because it
DSE2012(IA)1
DSE2014(IB)1a(ii) contains delocalized electrons. See Figure 9.19.
• Graphite has a very high melting point (3730°C). This is because
AL2012(II)8b(i) melting requires the breaking of many strong covalent bonds
between carbon atoms within the layers.
• Graphite is soft and easy to cleave because the layers are held
together by weak van der Waals’ forces and can be separated quite
CE2011(I)3a(i)
easily. When we write with a pencil (the ‘lead’ of a pencil is graphite
DSE2014(IB)1a(i)
mixed with clay), some layers are rubbed off onto the paper. See Figure
9.20.
• Graphite has lubricating property because the layers, which are held
AL2009(II)3a(ii) together by weak van der Waals’ forces, can easily slide over each
other. This explains why graphite can be used as a lubricant. See Figure
9.21.

graphite
electrode

Figure 9.19 Graphite can Figure 9.20 Writing with the ‘lead’ of a Figure 9.21 Graphite can be used
conduct electricity. It can be pencil as a lubricant.
used as electrodes in the set-
up for electrolysis of sea water
(see Section 3.8).
Some physical properties of diamond and graphite are summarized in
Table 9.1.
CE2009(II)22

Property Diamond Graphite

Appearance colourless and transparent solid black solid

Hardness extremely hard soft, brittle

Melting point / °C 3550 3730

Electrical conductivity non-conductor conductor

Table 9.1 Some properties of diamond and graphite

electrolysis 電解 adjacent 相鄰的 lubricant 潤滑劑

148 lubricating property 潤滑性質 clay 黏土 rub off 擦
cleave 裂開
 Structures and properties of substances 9

Example 9.3

Comparing the properties of diamond and graphite

Diamond and graphite are different forms of carbon. Both of them have a giant covalent structure.
However, they show differences in their properties.
(a) Explain why graphite can conduct electricity. AL2008(II)4c(ii)
(b) Diamond and graphite show different hardness. Explain why
(i) diamond is an extremely hard substance; CE2011(I)3c
(ii) graphite is a soft substance.
(c) Both diamond and graphite melt over 3000°C. Suggest why they have such high melting points.
(d) Explain whether graphite is soluble in heptane (an organic solvent).

Solution

(a) It has delocalized electrons for conducting electricity.

(b) (i) The carbon atoms are linked by strong covalent bonds throughout the structure. Their
relative movement is restricted. To break diamond, a lot of strong covalent bonds must be
broken.
(ii) There are only weak van der Waals’ forces between layers of carbon atoms. The layers can
slide over one another easily when a force is applied.
(c) A large amount of energy is needed to break the strong covalent bonds between the carbon atoms
in melting diamond and graphite.
(d) It is insoluble in heptane. This is because covalent bonds hold the carbon atoms within a layer,
and the van der Waals’ forces between layers of carbon atoms are much stronger than those van
der Waals’ forces between heptane molecules.

Class practice 9.4

B Class practice 9.4
Which of the following statements concerning diamond and graphite is/are
correct?
(1) Diamond and graphite both conduct electricity.
(2) Diamond and graphite both are a pure carbon. They have giant structures.
(3) Diamond is hard with a high melting point while graphite is soft with a low
melting point.
A. (1) only
B (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only
D. (2) and (3) only

149
 II Microscopic World I

DSEPP2012(IA)4
Structure and properties of quartz DSE2017(IA)30
DSE2020(IA)2
Quartz is a crystalline form of silicon dioxide (SiO2), which has a giant
CE2006(I)5a
covalent structure.

In the structure of silicon dioxide, each silicon atom is covalently

bonded to four oxygen atoms. Each oxygen atom is bonded to two silicon
atoms (Figure 9.22). Silicon and oxygen atoms are held together by
covalent bonds throughout the whole structure.
DSE2021(IB)3d

oxygen atom
silicon
silicon and
atom
oxygen atoms are
held together by
3D model covalent bonds M6
Silicon dioxide throughout the
whole structure
Mistake 6
Students may wrongly think
that SiO2 exists as molecules,
like the case in CO2, because
silicon and carbon belong to
the same group of the Periodic
Table.
Figure 9.22 The structure of silicon dioxide

DSE2012(IB)16a Silicon dioxide has a very high melting point (2950°C). In addition, it
DSE2012(IB)16b does not conduct electricity no matter it is in the solid or molten state.

Properties of substances with a giant covalent

structure AL2009(II)3b(iii)
CE2004(I)5 DSE2014(IB)1b 1. They are all solids with very high melting points.
DSE2012(IA)8 DSE2021(IB)3c(i)
In melting giant covalent substances, a lot of energy is required to break
the large number of strong covalent bonds between the atoms in the
structure.

2. All (except graphite) are hard. DSE2013(IA)1 DSE2018(IA)5

They have a network of strong covalent bonds in their structures. The

relative movement of atoms is restricted. This makes giant covalent
substances very hard.

3. They are insoluble in any solvent.

They are insoluble in water and organic solvents. This is because the
atoms are held together by strong covalent bonds. It is difficult to
separate them.
crystalline form 晶狀
150 quartz 石英
 Structures and properties of substances 9
4. All (except graphite) are non-conductors of electricity.

There are no delocalized electrons in the structure of these substances.

Hence, they do not conduct electricity.

Example 9.4

Comparing the properties of simple molecular substances and giant covalent substances
Both carbon and silicon are elements in Group IV of the Periodic Table. Carbon dioxide and silicon
dioxide are their oxides respectively.
(a) Write the structural formula of carbon dioxide.
(b) Draw a diagram to show how the atoms in silicon dioxide are bonded together.
(c) Explain why carbon dioxide exists as a gas while silicon dioxide exists as a solid at room
temperature and pressure.
(d) Suggest why silicon dioxide is insoluble in water.
(e) Carbon dioxide is slightly soluble in water to give an acidic solution. Write a word equation for
the reaction involved.
CE2000(II)46 CE2002(I)8b(iii)
Solution
(a) O=C=O
(b)

silicon atom

oxygen atom

(c) Carbon dioxide has a simple molecular structure while silicon dioxide has a giant covalent
structure. The energy needed to overcome the weak van der Waals’ forces between the carbon
dioxide molecules is much less than that needed for breaking the strong covalent bonds between
the silicon and oxygen atoms.
(d) In silicon dioxide, all the atoms are held together by strong covalent bonds. It is difficult to
separate them.
(e) carbon dioxide + water → carbonic acid

Class practice 9.5

D Class practice 9.5
Which of the following statements about silicon dioxide is INCORRECT?
A. It has a high boiling point.
B. It is a non-conductor of electricity.
C. It is a hard substance at room temperature and pressure.
D. It can dissolve in water.

151
 II Microscopic World I

9.6 Comparing the structures and properties of

substances
In the previous sections, we have discussed the bonding, structures and
properties of substances with a giant metallic structure, giant ionic
structure, simple molecular structure and giant covalent structure. All of
these are summarized in Table 9.2.

Giant metallic Giant ionic Simple molecular Giant covalent

structure structure structure structure
(1) Examples All metals NaCl, CaO, H2, CO2, I2, H2O, NH3, C (diamond),
KOH CCl4 C (graphite), SiO2

(2) Structure giant lattice of metal ions giant lattice of discrete molecules giant lattice of
surrounded by a ‘sea’ of ions e.g. I2 atoms
delocalized electrons e.g. NaCl e.g. C (diamond)

(3) Bonds holding metallic bonds link the ionic bonds link strong covalent bonds covalent bonds
constituent particles metal ions (positively oppositely bind atoms together link atoms
charged) and the charged ions within a molecule; throughout the
delocalized electrons throughout the discrete molecules are network
(negatively charged) structure held by weak structure
intermolecular forces
(e.g. van der Waals’
forces)

(4) Physical properties

(a) State under room solids (except solids gases, volatile liquids solids
conditions mercury) or solids of low
melting points

(b) Melting point usually high high low very high

(c) Hardness of solid form usually hard hard but brittle usually brittle usually hard

(d) Solubility in
(i) water (i) insoluble (except (i) many are (i) most are insoluble (i) insoluble
where there is soluble
reaction with water)
(ii) organic solvents (ii) insoluble (ii) insoluble (ii) generally soluble (ii) insoluble

(e) Electrical conductivity good conductors non-conductors non-conductors non-conductors

when solid; good Note: a few (e.g. (except graphite)
conductors hydrogen chloride)
when molten or react with water to
in aqueous form a solution which
solution conducts electricity

Table 9.2 Comparison of structures and properties of different kinds of substances

152
 Structures and properties of substances 9
9.7 Deducing the properties of substances from
their bonding and structures
The properties of a substance are closely related to its bonding and
structure. From the group numbers of the elements that make up a
compound, we know the bonding and structure of the compound. Then
we can deduce its properties. See Example 9.5.

Example 9.5

Deducing properties of substances from their bonding and structures

Fluorine is a halogen. It can react with potassium and nitrogen respectively.
(a) State the type of compound formed between
(i) fluorine and potassium.
(ii) fluorine and nitrogen.
(b) Deduce the formula of the compound formed between
(i) fluorine and potassium.
(ii) fluorine and nitrogen.
(c) Deduce whether the compound formed between fluorine and potassium or that between fluorine
and nitrogen has a higher melting point.
(d) Complete the following table by filling in your predictions about other physical properties of these
compounds.

Compound formed between Compound formed between

potassium and fluorine nitrogen and fluorine

Physical state at room

temperature and pressure
Solubility in water
Solubility in organic
solvents
Electrical conductivity

Solution
(a) (i) The compound formed between fluorine (a non-metal) and potassium (a metal) is an ionic
compound.
(ii) The compound formed between fluorine (a non-metal) and nitrogen (a non-metal) is a
covalent compound.
+
(b) (i) Potassium is a Group I element. It forms K ions. Fluorine is a Group VII element. It forms
–
F ions. Hence, the formula of the compound is KF.

Cont’d

153
 II Microscopic World I

(ii) Nitrogen is a Group V element which requires three electrons to attain the stable electronic
arrangement of a neon atom. Fluorine is a Group VII element, which requires one electron to
attain the stable electronic arrangement of a neon atom. Hence, the formula of the compound
is NF3.
(c) Potassium fluoride has a giant ionic structure. A lot of energy is needed to break the strong ionic
bonds between the ions in melting.
On the contrary, nitrogen trifluoride has a simple molecular structure. Only a small amount of
energy is needed to overcome the weak van der Waals’ forces between the molecules in melting.
Hence, potassium fluoride has a higher melting point.
(d)
Compound formed between Compound formed between
potassium and fluorine nitrogen and fluorine

Physical state at room

Solid Gas
temperature and pressure
Solubility in water Soluble Slightly soluble in water

Solubility in organic Soluble (e.g. in

Insoluble
solvents tetrachloromethane)

Non-conductor of electricity in Non-conductor of electricity

Electrical conductivity the solid state; conductor when whatever state it is
molten or in aqueous solution
Class practice 9.6
(a) (i) Covalent bond. This is because R forms by the sharing of outermost shell electrons between atoms of X and Y.
(ii) X is a Group IV element. Each of its atoms requires four electrons to attain the electronic arrangement of a neon atom.
Y is a Group VI element. Each of its atoms requires two electrons to attain the electronic arrangement of a neon atom.
Hence, the formula of R is XY2.
What’s wrong
Class practice 9.6 (b) (i) Ionic bond. This is because S forms by the transfer
What is wrong with the of electrons from atoms of Z to atoms of Y.
following sentence? The atomic numbers of three elements X, Y and Z are listed in the table
2+
‘Covalent substances are below. (ii) Z is a Group II element. It forms Z ions. Y is a
2–
Group VI element. It forms Y ions. Hence, the
all gases, volatile liquids
formula of S is ZY.
or low-melting solids Element Atomic number
because covalent bonds
are weak.’ X 6

Y 8
What’s wrong
Covalent substances with Z 12
simple molecular structures (c) Yes. This is because the attraction
are all gases, volatile liquids or between molecules of R and molecules
low-melting solids, whereas (a) X and Y react to form compound R. of hexane is similar to those between
those with giant covalent (i) Deduce the type of bonding in R. molecules of hexane in strength.
structures are solids with very (d) R has a simple molecular structure while
high melting points. Besides, (ii) Deduce the formula of R. S has a giant ionic structure. A large
covalent bonds are strong
(b) Y and Z react to form compound S. amount of energy is needed to break the
electrostatic attraction. 2+
strong ionic bonds between the Z and
(i) Deduce the type of bonding in S. 2–
Y ions, while only a small amount of
(ii) Deduce the formula of S. energy is needed to overcome the weak
van der Waals’ forces/intermolecular
(c) Would you expect R to be soluble in hexane, which is an organic solvent?
forces between molecules of R. Hence, S
Explain your answer.
has a higher melting point.
(d) Deduce whether R or S has a higher melting point.

hexane 己烷
154
 Structures and properties of substances 9
9.8 Deducing the bonding and structures of
substances from their properties
The properties of a substance can give us information about its bonding
and structure. The flow chart as shown in Figure 9.23 may help us deduce
the structure of a substance.

Physical properties Structure

Learning tip
Mercury is a liquid but it 1. Is the substance a gas or Yes
is not a simple molecular liquid under room conditions?
substance.
No Simple molecular structure
2. Does the substance have a low Yes
melting point?

No
Learning tip
Graphite conducts 3. Does the substance conduct Yes
Giant metallic structure
electricity in the solid electricity in the solid state?
state but it does not have
a giant metallic structure. No

4. Does the substance conduct

Yes
Experiment 9.3 electricity when molten or in Giant ionic structure
Predicting the structures
aqueous solution?
of substances from their
No
properties
5. Does the substance have a very Yes
Experiment video Giant covalent structure
high melting point?
Predicting the structures
of substances from their Figure 9.23 Deducing the structure of a substance from its properties
properties
Experiment video
https://e-aristo.hk/
r/cmnmvev0903.e
Example 9.6
CE2000(II)17 CE2009(II)22
Deducing the bonding and structure of a substance from its properties CE2001(II)18 CE2010(II)17
Silicon carbide (SiC) is a compound formed by heating silicon dioxide with carbon. The following
CE2002(II)45 DSE2021(IA)1
table shows some properties of silicon carbide.
CE2007(II)18

Appearance Black solid

Melting point 2730°C
Hardness Very hard
Electrical conductivity Does not conduct electricity in the solid and molten states

Deduce the structure of silicon carbide.

Cont’d
155
 II Microscopic World I

Solution
Learning tip
Silicon carbide does not conduct electricity in the solid and molten Silicon carbide is used as
states, indicating that it does not have a giant metallic or giant ionic a diamond substitute for
making some drilling and
structure.
cutting tools.
It has a very high melting point, indicating that it does not have a simple
molecular structure.
Silicon carbide has a giant covalent structure.

Class practice 9.7

(a) Q Class practice 9.7
(b) S
(c) P
The following table lists some properties of substances P to S.
(d) R
(e) P
Melting point Boiling point Electrical conductivity
Substance
/ °C / °C Solid Molten

P –7 59 poor poor

Q 842 1484 good good

R 1670 2230 poor poor

S 801 1413 poor good

Deduce from the above information,

(a) which substance has a giant metallic structure.
(b) which substance has a giant ionic structure.
(c) which substance has a simple molecular structure.
(d) which substance has a giant covalent structure.
(e) which substance is likely to be soluble in organic solvents like
tetrachloromethane.

Example 9.7
Integrated
Relating the substances with different structures to their applications
The following photos show the applications of four substances.

copper wires
graphite

Copper in making electric wires Graphite as electrodes for batteries

Cont’d
156
 Structures and properties of substances 9

furnace
lining

traces of diamond on the tip

Diamond in making glass cutters Silicon dioxide as the furnace lining

(a) Suggest TWO properties of copper which make it suitable for making electric wires.
(b) Graphite can conduct electricity. It is often used in making electrodes, but NOT electric wires.
(i) Suggest why graphite can conduct electricity.
(ii) Suggest why graphite is NOT used in making electric wires.
(c) Apart from making electrodes, graphite can be used as a lubricant. Explain, with reference to its
bonding and structure, why graphite has lubricating property.
(d) Diamond is very hard and can be used to make glass cutters. Explain, with reference to its bonding
and structure, why diamond is so hard.
(e) Silicon dioxide can be used as furnace lining, a material which covers and protects the interior
surface of a furnace.
(i) Suggest a property of silicon dioxide which makes it suitable for making furnace lining.
(ii) Explain how the structure of silicon dioxide relates to this property.

Solution

(a) It can conduct electricity and is ductile.

(b) (i) It has delocalized electrons for conducting electricity.
(ii) It is not ductile.
(c) In graphite, there are only weak van der Waals’ forces between layers of carbon atoms. The layers
can slide over one another easily.
(d) Diamond has a giant covalent structure. The carbon atoms are linked by strong covalent bonds
throughout the structure. The relative movement of the carbon atoms in the structure is
restricted. To break diamond, a lot of strong covalent bonds must be broken.
(e) (i) Silicon dioxide has a high melting point.
(ii) Silicon dioxide has a giant covalent structure. To melt it, a large amount of energy is needed
to break lots of strong covalent bonds between the silicon and oxygen atoms in the
structure.

furnace 熔爐 interior 內部的

lining 內壁
157
 II Microscopic World I

Extended learning 9.2

Different forms of carbon

Carbon atoms link up with each other by forming covalent bonds. The atoms of an element can be bonded
and arranged in different ways to give different structures called allotropes. Allotropes are different forms of
the same element in the same physical state. Carbon has a number of allotropes — diamond, graphite,
fullerenes and graphene. See Figure 9.24.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 9.24 Models of (a) diamond, (b) graphite, (c) fullerene (using C60 as an example)
and (d) graphene

Fullerenes are a family of molecules containing carbon atoms in the form of hollow spheres or hollow tubes.
C60 (also known as buckminsterfullerene) and carbon nanotube are common fullerenes. See Figure 9.25.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9.25 Examples of fullerenes: (a) C50, (b) C70 and (c) carbon nanotube. Carbon nanotube is cylindrical fullerene
and it looks like a hollow tube.

allotrope 同素異形體 fullerene 富勒烯 cylindrical 圓柱形的

158 buckminsterfullerene 布克碳 graphene 石墨烯 hollow 空心的
carbon nanotube 納米碳管
 Structures and properties of substances 9

Table 9.3 compares the bonding, structure and properties of the four allotropes of carbon.

Fullerenes*
Diamond Graphite Graphene
(e.g. C60)

It has a giant lattice It has a giant lattice It is made up of It is a single

of carbon atoms. of carbon atoms. many C60 molecules. individual layer of
Each carbon atom The carbon atoms In a C60 molecule, graphite. Each
is covalently are arranged in flat, carbon atoms are carbon atom is
bonded to four parallel layers. bonded together to covalently bonded
other carbon atoms. Within a layer, each form a hollow to three other
carbon atom is sphere. Each carbon atoms.
Bonding and
covalently bonded carbon atom is
structure
to three other bonded to three
carbon atoms. other carbon atoms
There are only weak within a molecule.
van der Waals’ The molecules are
forces between held together by
layers of atoms. weak van der Waals’
forces.

Type of structure Giant covalent Giant covalent Simple molecular Giant covalent

Very high as lots of Very high as lots of Not so high as only Very high as lots of
strong covalent strong covalent van der Waals’ strong covalent
Melting point and
bonds between bonds between forces between bonds between
boiling point
atoms have to be atoms have to be molecules have to atoms have to be
broken broken be overcome broken

Non-conductor of Good conductor of Non-conductor of Good conductor of

electricity as it has electricity as it has electricity though electricity as it has
no delocalized delocalized its molecules have delocalized
Electrical electrons electrons that move delocalized electrons that can
conductivity from one ring to electrons, but the move across the
another within a electrons cannot carbon rings
layer move from one
molecule to another

Hardness and/or Very hard and

Soft and brittle Soft and brittle Very strong
strength strong

Table 9.3 Comparing the bonding, structure and properties between different forms of carbon

* Note: We are not expected to learn about fullerenes in the Chemistry (Secondary 4–6) curriculum.

159
 II Microscopic World I

Reading to learn

Properties and applications of aluminium

Aluminium has a giant metallic structure. Apart from some typical properties of metals (1–3 below), it
has other characteristic properties of its own (4–6 below).
Properties of aluminium:
 Very malleable and ductile
Aluminium is the second most malleable metal, and the sixth most ductile metal. It can be easily
rolled into sheets and drawn into wires.
 Good conductor of heat
Aluminium is a good conductor of heat, though not as good as silver. Its thermal conductivity is
about 55% of that of silver.
 Good conductor of electricity
Aluminium is a good conductor of electricity, though not as good as copper. Its electrical
conductivity is about 63% of that of copper.
 Low density but strong
Aluminium weighs less than one-third of iron with the same volume. We say that it has a high
strength-to-volume ratio.
 Non-poisonous
Aluminium does not release poisonous substances when it is used.
 Resistant to corrosion
Aluminium has a layer of aluminium oxide on it. This layer is impermeable to air and water so that
aluminium can be protected from corrosion.
Applications of aluminium:
Aluminium is commonly used in making soft drink cans, window frames, aircraft bodies, overhead
power cables, etc. These applications of aluminium are related to its structure and properties.

Making soft drink cans Making window frames  sed as construction

U Making overhead power
material for aircraft bodies cables
Reading to learn
1. Aluminium has a giant metallic structure. In the structure,
Questions aluminium ions pack closely in a regular pattern and they are
surrounded by a ‘sea’ of delocalized electrons. Metallic bonds
1. Describe the bonding and structure of aluminium. hold the aluminium ions and the delocalized electrons together.
2. Explain why aluminium can be shaped to make different objects.
3. What properties of aluminium are related to each of the following uses of aluminium?
(a) Soft drink cans 2. Aluminium is very malleable and ductile.
3. (a) Low density, corrosion resistant and malleable
(b) Construction materials for aircraft bodies (b) Low density, corrosion resistant and malleable
(c) Overhead power cables (c) Low density, corrosion resistant, ductile, good conductor of
electricity

corrosion 腐蝕作用 strength-to-volume ratio 強度體積比

160 impermeable 不滲透的
 Feature reading
Feature reading (b)
2. (a) Other Group I elements are metals, but hydrogen is a non-metal. 1
1

Hydrogen — The simplest element

OR Other Group I elements form mainly ionic compounds, but

hydrogen forms a lot of covalent compounds. (1) The compound forms by transferring an electron from
+ –
(Accept other reasonable answers.) an atom of Na to an atom of H. By doing so, Na and H
Hydrogen (H) has an atomic number of 1 and is the simplest element in the Periodic Table. It is also the
form. Both of them have the electronic arrangement of
most plentiful element in the universe. Despite its abundance, hydrogen does not occur in elemental
noble gas atoms. 1
form on the Earth. It always exists as compounds, e.g. water (a compound with oxygen), naturally
occurring carbon compounds such as those in fossil fuels and in living organisms.

Hydrogen (m.p.: –259.1°C, b.p.: –252.8°C) is a colourless and odourless gas. Burning hydrogen
produces a large amount of energy. Thus, liquid hydrogen together with liquid oxygen is used as a
source of energy for propelling rockets.

Burning of hydrogen produces only water and causes no pollution. With a view to alleviate global
warming, some scientists and governments proposed using hydrogen to replace fossil fuels in powering
3. Hydrogen has a very low density. Using hydrogen as rocket propellant can reduce the mass carried by the
motor vehicles. rocket. 1
OR Hydrogen has a very high energy density. (Do not accept burning hydrogen causes no pollution.) (1)
However, hydrogen has a very low boiling point. It is difficult to liquefy hydrogen. 1
4. Hydrogen on Earth is locked up in compounds such as water, hydrocarbons, etc. The current
Questions methods of producing hydrogen from these compounds require the use of energy produced
from the combustion of fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide will still be released into the atmosphere. 1
1 2 3
1. Hydrogen has three isotopes, protium (1H), deuterium (1H) and tritium (1H). Complete the table
below by filling in the numbers of subatomic particles for each of these isotopes of hydrogen.
Renewable energy sources such as solar energy, wind power, etc. can be used to produce
hydrogen from water or hydrocarbons. 1
Number of
Isotope
protons neutrons electrons
Protium (a) 1 (b) 0 (c) 1

Deuterium (d) 1 (e) 1 (f) 1

Tritium (g) 1 (h) 2 (i) 1

(3 marks)
2. (a) Although hydrogen atoms have one electron in their outermost shell, hydrogen is NOT
classified as an element in Group I of the Periodic Table. Suggest why. (1 mark)
(b) Hydrogen reacts with sodium to give a compound with a melting point of 425°C. Propose an
electron diagram for this compound, showing electrons in the outermost shells only. Briefly
explain your answer. (2 marks)
3. Suggest one advantage of using liquid hydrogen over using other substances as a rocket
propellant. State one difficulty that needs to be overcome in this usage. (2 marks)
4. Some people think that using hydrogen as a fuel for motor vehicles CANNOT help alleviate
global warming. State one reason for the argument and suggest how the difficulty can be
5. (a) Leakage of hydrogen to the atmosphere may lead to explosion. 1
overcome. (2 marks)
(b) Building a lot of hydrogen refuelling stations 1
5. (a) State one potential hazard of using hydrogen in powering motor vehicles. (1 mark)
OR Lowering the registration tax for hydrogen-powered motor vehicles (1)
(b) Suggest one way that governments can do to promote the use of hydrogen in powering motor
Spending more money on the research-and-development of hydrogen-powered
vehicles. motor vehicles (1)
(1 mark)

alleviate 緩解 propellant 推進劑

propel 推動
161
 ti n g c o n
ec

ce
Co nn

Microscopic World of matter

p ts
Structure of an atom Elements in the Periodic Table

• Atoms are very small. Typical atoms • All elements are arranged in order of
have a diameter of about 0.1 nm (i.e. increasing atomic number in the
–10
1 × 10 m). Periodic Table.
• Atoms are made up of even smaller • Across a period, elements change
particles — protons, neutrons and from metals, to semi-metals, and then
electrons. to non-metals.
electron
• Take chlorine as an example. The
relationship between electronic
neutron arrangement, period number and
nucleus
group number is:
number of occupied electron
proton shells = 3 = period number (3)

electron shell

2, 8, 7 Cl

number of electrons in
the outermost shell = 7
Relationship between = group number (VII)
elements and atoms

• An atom is the smallest unit of an

element which has the chemical Formation of ions from atoms
properties of that element.
• Some elements are made up of more • Octet rule states that all atoms tend
than one kind of atoms. For example, to attain the stable electronic
a natural sample of chlorine is made arrangement of a noble gas.
35
up of 75% of Cl atoms and 25% of • Atoms of main group metals tend to
37
Cl atoms. lose electrons to attain the stable
•
35 37
Cl and Cl are isotopes of chlorine. electronic arrangement of a noble gas.
They have the same number of –
loses 1e
protons, but different numbers of
neutrons.
• An atom can be represented as below: +
sodium atom (Na) sodium ion (Na )
mass number 2,8,1 2,8
= number of protons + number of neutrons
• Conversely, atoms of non-metals tend
A to gain electrons.

Z X symbol of
the element
gains 1e
–

atomic number
= number of protons
–
chlorine atom (Cl) chloride ion (Cl )
2,8,7 2,8,8

162
Different types of chemical Different structures of
bonds substances

• A chemical bond refers to the • Giant metallic structure (e.g. sodium)

electrostatic attraction that holds
atoms or ions together. metal ion

Metallic Electrostatic attraction delocalized

bond between delocalized electrons

(e.g. in Na) electrons and metal ions

sodium
Electrostatic attraction
Ionic bond • Giant ionic structure (e.g. sodium
between oppositely
(e.g. in NaCl) chloride)
charged ions

Electrostatic attraction
Covalent
between the shared
bond Na ion
+

electrons and the two

(e.g. in Cl2,
nuclei of the bonded
HCl)
–
Cl ion
atoms

sodium chloride

• Simple molecular structure (e.g.

Formation of ionic bond iodine)
and covalent bond

• Formation of ionic bond in sodium

chloride from atoms of sodium and
chlorine:
electron
+
transfer
iodine
• Formation of covalent bond in a • Giant covalent structure (e.g.
chlorine molecule from chlorine diamond, silicon dioxide)
atoms:
electron
sharing
+

diamond silicon dioxide

163
 II Microscopic World I

Chapter review
Progress check
Chapter review

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

understand what the structure of substance is
describe the general properties of metals
realize the relationship between the properties of metals and their giant metallic structures
describe giant ionic structures of substances such as sodium chloride and caesium chloride
state and explain the properties of ionic compounds in terms of their structures and bonding
describe simple molecular structures of substances such as carbon dioxide and iodine
recognize that van der Waals’ forces exist between molecules
describe covalent structures of substances such as diamond, graphite and quartz
state and explain the properties of giant covalent substances in terms of structures and bonding
compare the structures and properties of substances with giant ionic, giant covalent, simple
molecular and giant metallic structures
deduce the properties of substances from their structures and bonding, and vice versa
e-Dictionary
https://e-aristo.hk/
e-Dictionary r/cmnmvedict.e
Key terms (For Chapter 9)
Page Page
1. giant covalent structure 巨型共價結構 135 5. simple molecular structure 135
2. giant ionic structure 巨型離子結構 135 簡單分子結構

3. giant metallic structure 巨型金屬結構 135 6. van der Waals’ force 范德華力 142

4. intermolecular force 分子間引力 142

Key concepts
9.1 Structures of substances

1. The structure of a substance is a description of what its constituent particles are, and how they
are arranged and pack together.

9.2 Giant metallic structures

2. The metal ions pack closely together regularly in metals. A three-dimensional, giant lattice of
metal ions surrounded by a ‘sea’ of delocalized electrons is called a giant metallic structure.

9.3 Giant ionic structures

3. In ionic compounds, cations and anions are held together by ionic bonds. The ions pack
regularly to form a continuous, three-dimensional giant ionic structure.

164
 Structures and properties of substances 9
9.4 Simple molecular structures

4. In substances with a simple molecular structure, atoms within a molecule are bonded together
by strong covalent bonds and each molecule is attracted to neighbouring molecules by weak

Chapter review
intermolecular forces.

9.5 Giant covalent structures

5. In some elements and compounds, the atoms are joined by strong covalent bonds to form a
three-dimensional giant network called a giant covalent structure.

9.6 Comparing the structures and properties of substances

6. The bonding, structures and properties of substances with giant metallic structure, giant ionic
structure, simple molecular structure and giant covalent structure are summarized in Table 9.2
on p.152.

9.7 Deducing the properties of substances from their bonding and structures

7. It is possible to deduce the properties of a substance from its bonding and structure. (Refer to
Example 9.5 on p.153–154.)

9.8 Deducing the bonding and structures of substances from their properties

8. It is possible to deduce the bonding and structure of a substance from its properties. (Refer to
the flow chart in Figure 9.23 on p.155.)

165
 II Microscopic World I

Concept map e-Concept map (Padlet)

Complete the concept map by filling in the items listed below:

Chapter review

CO2, covalent, graphite, I2, intermolecular forces, ionic, metallic, MgO

SUBSTANCES

(a) (b) (g)

Giant metallic Giant ionic Simple molecular Giant covalent
structures structures structures structures

metal ions and

cations and all atoms
delocalized discrete molecules
anions held are bonded
electrons are held are held by
together by together by
together by

(d)
Metallic bonds Ionic bonds Covalent bonds
Intermolecular forces

examples
examples
examples examples

Elements Compounds Elements Compounds Elements Compounds

e.g. Na, Cu e.g. NaCl, e.g. H2, e.g. H2O, e.g. diamond, e.g. SiO2
(c) MgO (e) I2 (f) CO2 (h) graphite

166
 Structures and properties of substances 9

Chapter exercise Book exercise (e-Quiz, Microsoft Forms, Google Forms)

A. Fill in the blanks

Section 9.2 Section 9.4
1. Metal ions and delocalized electrons are held 4. Substances with a simple molecular structure have
giant metallic low
together in a structure melting points and boiling points. They
by metallic bonds. are non-conductors of electricity. Solids
2. Metals are good conductors of electricity and heat with a simple molecular structure are usually slightly

Chapter exercise
delocalized soluble or insoluble in water but
because they contain electrons.
malleable soluble in organic solvents like
Metals are and ductile. Most of
them are solids with high melting points tetrachloromethane.
and have high densities. Section 9.5
Section 9.3 5. Substances with a giant covalent structure are
high solids under room conditions. They
3. Ionic compounds usually have
have high melting points and are
melting points and boiling points. They conduct
molten insoluble in any solvent. With the exception
electricity only when or in
aqueous solution of graphite , they are non-conductors of
. They are usually
soluble in water but insoluble in electricity.
organic solvents like tetrachloromethane. Section 9.6
6. The physical properties of a substance depends
on its bonding and structure .

B. Multiple-choice questions
Section 9.3 Section 9.4
7. The structure of an ionic compound formed from 8. Carbon dioxide has a low boiling point because
metal M and non-metal X is shown below. A. the covalent bonds between carbon dioxide
molecules are weak.
B. the covalent bonds between carbon and oxygen
atoms are weak.
C. the van der Waals’ forces between carbon
dioxide molecules are weak.
ion of X
ion of M D. the van der Waals’ forces between carbon and
oxygen atoms are weak. C

Section 9.6
The formula of this compound is
9. Which of the following substances has/have a simple
A. M2X3. molecular structure?
B. MX.
(1) C
C. MX2.
Explanation on p.T5 B (2) O2
D. M2X.
(3) CO2
A. (1) only
B. (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only
D
D. (2) and (3) only 167
 II Microscopic World I

10. Compound W has a high boiling point. It does

not conduct electricity in the solid state. W may
have a
(1) giant ionic structure.
(2) simple molecular structure.
(3) giant covalent structure.
A. (1) only
B. (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only
C
D. (2) and (3) only
Chapter exercise

C. Structured questions
Section 9.3
11. Explain, in terms of inter-particle attraction, why sodium chloride is insoluble in heptane (an organic solvent).
Answer on p.T5 (2 marks)

Section 9.4
12. Iodine kills a wide range of germs within 5 minutes of application. It was first reported as a germ killer in wounds
th
in 1839. By the late 19 century, tincture of iodine was commonly used as an antiseptic. Answers on p.T5
Tincture of iodine is a solution of iodine in ethanol. It can be prepared
by dissolving iodine and sodium iodide in a 50% aqueous solution of
ethanol.
(a) What is the molecular formula of iodine? (1 mark)
(b) What type of structure does iodine have? (1 mark)
(c) What types of electrostatic attraction are present in an iodine
lattice? (2 marks)
(d) Explain why iodine is more soluble in ethanol (an organic solvent)
than in water. (2 marks)

Section 9.5
13. The structures of three solids X to Z are shown below. Answers on p.T5–T6

X Y Z

(a) What types of structures do X, Y and Z have respectively? (3 marks)

(b) Suggest THREE substances that have the structures of X, Y and Z respectively. (3 marks)
(c) Explain whether or not solid X can conduct electricity. (1 mark)
(d) State ALL types of electrostatic attraction present in solid Z. (2 marks)
(e) Explain whether X or Y has a higher melting point. (2 marks)
(f) Would you expect Y to be soluble in water? Explain your answer. (1 mark)
168
 Structures and properties of substances 9
Section 9.7 Answers on p.T6
14. For each of the following sentences, decide whether or not it is right. If it is wrong, you are required to correct it.
(a) Diamond and graphite are both pure forms of carbon. Both diamond and graphite can be used as electrodes.
Graphite can also be used as a lubricant. (1 mark)
(b) Silicon is a good conductor of heat under room conditions because it has a giant metallic structure. (1 mark)

Section 9.8
15. The following table shows some physical properties of five substances A to E. Answers on p.T6

Electrical conductivity

Chapter exercise
Substance Melting point / °C Solubility in water
when solid when molten

A 680 Soluble Poor Good

B –70 Insoluble Poor Poor

C 56 Insoluble Poor Poor

D 1610 Insoluble Poor Poor

E 660 Insoluble Good Good

(a) Which of these substances is/are NOT in the solid state at 25°C? (1 mark)
(b) Which of these substances is/are likely to be
(i) metal(s)?
(ii) ionic compound(s)?
(iii) covalent compound(s) with a simple molecular structure?
(iv) covalent compound(s) with a giant covalent structure?
Explain your answer in each case. (8 marks)
(c) Which of these substance(s) is/are likely to be soluble in heptane, which is an organic solvent? (1 mark)
(d) One of these substances is known to be wax. What is this substance? Explain your answer. (2 marks)

169
 II Microscopic World I

Exam practice Book exercise (e-Quiz, Microsoft Forms, Google Forms)

A. Multiple-choice questions
Section 9.5 5. The atomic numbers of elements X and Y are 19
1. Which of the following statements best explains why and 9 respectively. What kind of structure does the
diamond is insoluble in heptane? compound formed from X and Y have?

A. Diamond does not contain discrete molecules. A. Simple molecular structure

B. Diamond is very hard. B. Giant ionic structure Explanation on p.T9

C. Diamond is denser than heptane. C. Giant metallic structure

B
D. The atoms in diamond are held together by D. Giant covalent structure
strong covalent bonds. D Section 9.7
2. Quartz (SiO2) is harder than dry ice (CO2) because 6. Iron pyrite (FeS2) and gold have similar appearances.
A. the atomic size of silicon is larger than that of Which of the following methods can be used to
carbon. distinguish between them?
B. a silicon atom has more electrons than a carbon (1) Measuring the electrical conductivity in the
Exam practice

atom has. solid state

C. quartz has a giant network structure, but dry ice (2) Hitting with a hammer
consists of discrete molecules. (80%) (3) Comparing their solubilities in heptane
D. the silicon-oxygen bond in quartz is strong, but A. (1) and (2) only
Explanation on p.T9
the carbon-oxygen bond in dry ice is weak. B. (1) and (3) only
C C. (2) and (3) only
A
D. (1), (2) and (3)
(HKDSE 2018 Paper 1A Q5)
Section 9.8
3. Which of the following statements concerning quartz
is correct? 7. Substance Y has a melting point of 2562°C. It
conducts electricity in the solid state. Which of the
A. Quartz is soluble in hexane.
following statements about substance Y is correct?
B. Quartz consists of SiO2 molecules.
C. Quartz conducts electricity by delocalized A. It is a good conductor of heat.
electrons. B. It is hard but brittle. Explanation on p.T9

D. Quartz is hard because it has a giant covalent C. It has a giant ionic structure.
A
network structure. (68%) D. It is soluble in water.
D

(HKDSE 2020 Paper 1A Q2) 8. The melting point of a chemical species is 146°C. It
is soluble in water and the solution formed does not
Section 9.6 conduct electricity. Which of the following structures
4. Which of the following substances has a simple would this chemical species have?
molecular structure? A. Giant ionic structure
Explanation on p.T9
A. Hg B. Giant metallic structure
B. HgO C. Giant covalent structure
D
C. SO2 D. Simple molecular structure (60%)
C
D. SiO2 (HKDSE 2021 Paper 1A Q1)

170
 Structures and properties of substances 9
B. Structured questions
Section 9.3
9. Potassium is a reactive metal. It reacts with chlorine to form potassium chloride. Answers on p.T9
(a) What type of structure does potassium have? (1 mark)
(b) Suggest why potassium is reactive. (1 mark)
(c) State the type of bonding in potassium chloride. (1 mark)
(d) Explain the following properties of potassium chloride.
(i) It has a high melting point.
(ii) It is soluble in water.
(2 marks)

Section 9.5
10. Under suitable conditions, H3NBH3 can decompose into boron nitride and hydrogen. The structure of solid
boron nitride is similar to that of graphite. Draw the structure of ONE LAYER of solid boron nitride (Note: B
and N are in alternate positions). (2 marks)
(HKDSE 2020 Paper 1B Q3b(iii))

Exam practice
Section 9.8
11. Each layer of carbon atoms in graphite is known to have a honeycomb structure. When a force is applied to
graphite, individual layers of carbon atoms can be removed. A single layer of the carbon atoms from graphite is
called ‘graphene’. Answers on p.T9

structure of graphite structure of graphene

(a) Suggest why graphene can be separated from graphite when a force is applied. (1 mark)
(b) What type of structure does graphene have? (1 mark)
(c) Graphene is an excellent electrical conductor. It is 300 times more conducting than copper. Suggest why
graphene can conduct electricity. (1 mark)
(d) Graphene is a strong material. It is 300 times stronger than steel. Explain, with reference to its bonding and
structure, why graphene is strong. (2 marks)
(e) Graphane is a new material produced by reacting graphene with hydrogen. In graphane, each carbon atom is
bonded to three other carbon atoms and one hydrogen atom. Would you expect graphane to be an electrical
insulator? Explain your answer. (2 marks)

171
 II Microscopic World I

Part exercise Book exercise (e-Quiz, Microsoft Forms, Google Forms)

A. Multiple-choice questions
1. Which of the following particles has/have about the 4. Iron is a transition metal in Period 4 of the Periodic
same mass as a neutron? Table. It forms two oxides, FeO and Fe2O3. Which of
(1) A proton the following statements about these two oxides is/
(2) An electron are correct?
1
(3) An 1H atom (1) The ions in these oxides are held together by
A. (1) only metallic bonds.
B. (2) only (2) The charges on the ions of iron in the two
C. (1) and (3) only oxides are different.
C (3) The charges on the ions of oxygen in the two
D. (2) and (3) only
oxides are different.
2. Which of the following combinations about an atom
45
A. (1) only
X is correct?
22
B. (2) only Explanation on p.T10
Number of Number of Number of C. (1) and (3) only
protons neutrons electrons B
D. (2) and (3) only
A. 22 23 22
5. X, Y and Z are three consecutive elements in the
B. 23 22 22
Periodic Table. Y is very stable. X and Z react to form
C. 20 20 20
an ionic compound with a formula of ZX. Which of
D. 45 22 45
A the following statements about X, Y and Z are
correct?
Part exercise

185
3. Element Y occurs in two natural isotopes, Y (1) The simple ions of both Z and X have the same
187
and Y. The graph below shows the relative electronic arrangement.
abundances of the two isotopes. (2) Z conducts electricity in the solid state.
(3) Both X and Z are in the same period of the
Periodic Table.
A. (1) and (2) only
Explanation on p.T10
Relative abundance (%)

B. (1) and (3) only

C. (2) and (3) only
A
D. (1), (2) and (3)

6. The table shows the atomic numbers of three

different elements X, Y and Z.

Element Atomic number

X 7

Isotope Y 12

Which of the following is the relative atomic mass of Z 16

Y?
Which of the following statements about X, Y and Z
A. 186.0 is INCORRECT?
B. 186.2 Explanation on p.T10 A. Y is in Group VII of the Periodic Table.
C. 186.4
B B. Z is in Period 3 of the Periodic Table.
D. 186.6
C. X reacts with Z to form a covalent compound.
D. Y reacts with Z to form an ionic compound.
A
172
 Microscopic World I II
7. A compound formed from element Y and oxygen has 9. The following table gives information about the
the following structure: properties of four substances P to S.

Electrical
Melting
conductivity Solubility in
Substance point
under room tetrachloromethane
/ °C
conditions
(Only electrons in the outermost shells are shown.)
Which of the following statements are correct? P 1610 Poor Insoluble

(1) The compound does not conduct electricity. Q –68 Poor Soluble
(2) Y is a Group IV element.
R 2047 Good Insoluble
(3) Electrons are transferred from Y to oxygen when
the compound forms. Explanation on p.T10 S 801 Poor Insoluble

A. (1) and (2) only B. (1) and (3) only

A Which of these substances may consist of
C. (2) and (3) only D. (1), (2) and (3)
discrete molecules?
8. Which of the following statements concerning A. P
sulphur is/are correct? B. Q
2–
(1) It forms a simple ion S . C. R
B
(2) It can conduct electricity in the liquid state. D. S
(3) It reacts with chlorine to form covalent
compound(s).
A. (1) only B. (2) only
C
C. (1) and (3) only D. (2) and (3) only

Part exercise
B. Structured questions
10. The diagram below shows a set-up for investigating the migration of ions under the influence of an electric field.
Answers on p.T10
20 V d.c. power supply

carbon electrode carbon electrode

dilute sulphuric acid dilute sulphuric acid

a gel containing ammonium

permanganate

(a) What would be observed at the following electrodes after electricity has been passed through the set-up for
some time? Explain your answer.
(i) Positive electrode
(ii) Negative electrode
(4 marks)
(b) State the role of each of the following substances in the experiment.
(i) Dilute sulphuric acid
(ii) The gel
(2 marks)
173
 II Microscopic World I

11. A part of the Periodic Table is shown below, with some of the elements represented by letters. (Note: the letters are
NOT the symbols of the elements). Answers on p.T10

Group
I II III IV V VI VII 0

2 E F H

Period 3 A D G I K

4 B C J

(a) Which of these elements

(i) is the most reactive metal?
(ii) is the most reactive non-metal?
(iii) can form coloured ions in aqueous solution?
(iv) has a giant covalent structure?
(4 marks)
(b) Which of these elements is the least reactive? Explain your answer. (2 marks)
(c) Explain why A conducts electricity while G does not. (1 mark)
(d) Arrange H, I and J in ascending order of melting point. (1 mark)
85 87 85
12. Rubidium is an alkali metal. It has two naturally occurring isotopes, Rb and Rb. The relative abundance of Rb
87
is 2.6 times greater than that of Rb. Answers on p.T10
(a) (i) What is meant by the term ‘relative atomic mass’?
Part exercise

(ii) Calculate the relative atomic mass of rubidium.

(3 marks)
(b) Rubidium reacts vigorously with chlorine to give rubidium chloride.
(i) Draw the electron diagram for rubidium chloride, showing electrons in the outermost shells only.
(ii) State one similarity and one difference in the structures of rubidium and rubidium chloride.
(iii) State and explain the difference in electrical conductivity of rubidium and rubidium chloride in the solid
state.
(5 marks)

13. The following table shows the formulae and the melting points of the oxides of some Period 3 elements.
Answers on p.T11

Group number I II III IV VI

Element Na Mg Al Si S

Formula of the oxide Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 SO2

Melting point of the oxide / °C 920 2830 2040 2950 –75

(a) Describe the change in the classification of the elements across the period. (1 mark)
(b) Which of these oxides has/have a
(i) giant ionic structure?
(ii) giant covalent structure?
(iii) simple molecular structure?
(3 marks)
(c) Explain why the melting point of magnesium oxide is much higher than that of sulphur dioxide. (2 marks)
174
 Microscopic World I II
14. Boron and nitrogen form a compound, boron nitride (BN). Based on the following information, deduce the type of
structure that boron nitride has. Answer on p.T11
• It has a melting point of 2973°C.
• It does not conduct electricity in either the solid or molten state. (4 marks)

If you miss any of the questions, review the section(s) again.

Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Section 5.3 5.3 5.5 7.5 7.5 8.6 9.7 9.7 9.8 7.7 9.7 9.7 9.7 9.8

Part exercise

175
 II Microscopic World I

Revision test Time: 40 minutes Total: 32 marks

Book exercise (e-Quiz, Microsoft Forms, Google Forms)

Instructions
1. Section A contains multiple-choice questions and Section B contains structured questions.
2. Answer ALL questions. You may write the answers on single lined paper.

Section A (10 marks)

23
1. An atom of element X can be represented by 11X. 5. Caesium is in the same group as sodium in the
Which of the following statements about X is Periodic Table. Which of the following statements
correct? about caesium is INCORRECT?
A. An atom of X has 11 protons and 11 neutrons. A. There is only one electron in the outermost
B. An atom of X has 23 protons and 11 electrons. shell of each caesium atom.
C. X is in Group I in the Periodic Table. B. It can react vigorously with water.
D. An atom of X forms an ion by gaining electrons. C. The formula of its oxide is CsO.
C
C D. Its chloride is soluble in water.

6. Which of the following electron diagrams are

2. Isotopes of an element have the same
correct?
(1) mass.
(1) (3)
(2) number of protons.
(3) number of electrons in their outermost shell.
A. (1) only (2)
B. (2) only
A. (1) and (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only Explanation on p.T11
D B. (1) and (3) only
D. (2) and (3) only
C. (2) and (3) only
D
3. Calcium and magnesium have similar chemical D. (1), (2) and (3)
properties because atoms of both elements
7. Diamond is harder than graphite because
A. form positive ions.
Revision test

A. the carbon-carbon bonds in diamond are

B. have the same number of protons.
stronger than those in graphite.
C. have two electrons in the first shell.
B. the diamond has a giant covalent structure but
D. have the same number of electrons in their
graphite does not.
outermost shell. D C. the layers of atoms in graphite are held together
4. X and Y are elements in the same period of the by weak van der Waals’ forces.
Periodic Table. X has three electrons in the D. the carbon atoms are arranged closer in
outermost shell and Y has six electrons in the graphite. C
outermost shell. What is the formula of the ionic
8. Which of the following substances has a very
compound formed between X and Y?
high melting point and conducts electricity in the
A. XY2 solid state?
B. X3Y
A. Sodium
C. X2Y3 Explanation on p.T11
C B. Graphite
D. Y3X2
C. Sodium chloride
B
D. Silicon dioxide

176
 Microscopic World I II
9. Which of the following substances has the type of 10. Consider the following statements and choose the
structure same as argon? best answer:
A. Sodium oxide 1st statement 2nd statement
B. Carbon dioxide
Ammonium chloride is Ammonium chloride
C. Magnesium
B a covalent compound. forms from non-metal
D. Ammonium chloride
elements.

A. Both statements are true and the 2nd statement

is a correct explanation of the 1st statement.
B. Both statements are true but the 2nd statement
is NOT a correct explanation of the 1st
statement.
C. The 1st statement is false but the 2nd statement
is true.
C
D. Both statements are false.

Section B (22 marks)

11. The electron diagram of an atom of element X is shown below. Answers on p.T11

Keys:

= nucleus

= electron

(a) State the number of protons that an atom of X has. (1 mark)

(b) To which group of the Periodic Table does X belong? Explain your answer. (1 mark)

Revision test
(c) To which period of the Periodic Table does X belong? Explain your answer. (1 mark)
(d) X has a giant metallic structure. Draw a diagram to show the bonding in the solid state of X. (1 mark)
(e) The oxide of X is a white solid. Draw the electron diagram of this oxide, showing electrons in the outermost
shells only. (1 mark)
(f) The oxide of X has a melting point of over 2000°C. With reference to its structure and bonding, explain why
this oxide has a high melting point. (2 marks)
(g) The oxide of X is only slightly soluble in water. Suggest why. (1 mark)
(h) The oxide of X has the same structure as sodium chloride. Draw a diagram to show the structure of
the oxide of X. (1 mark)

177
 II Microscopic World I

12. Smelling salts are chemicals used for arousing consciousness. The active chemical
in smelling salts is ammonium carbonate. Answers on p.T11
(a) Give the formula of ammonium carbonate. (1 mark)
(b) Would you expect ammonium carbonate to be a coloured compound? Explain.
(1 mark)
(c) What types of bonding exist in ammonium carbonate? (2 marks)
(d) Smelling salts work by releasing ammonia.
(i) Draw the electron diagram for a molecule of ammonia, showing the
electrons in the outermost shells only.
(ii) Ammonia is a gas under room conditions. Suggest why it has a low boiling
point (–33.3°C).
(2 marks)

13. In singing concerts, some smoke machines are placed on the stage. These machines produce a smoky effect at
suitable moments to make the performance more appealing. The smoke is carbon dioxide gas, which is produced
by vaporizing dry ice in these machines. Answers on p.T11–T12

(a) Dry ice is solid carbon dioxide. Draw the electron diagram for a molecule of carbon dioxide, showing the
electrons in the outermost shells only. (1 mark)
(b) What type of structure does dry ice have? (1 mark)
(c) Can dry ice conduct electricity? Explain. (1 mark)
(d) Upon heating, dry ice changes to gaseous carbon dioxide directly.
Revision test

(i) Name this change in physical state involved.

(ii) Explain briefly why, in terms of the molecular packing and attraction, the physical state of carbon dioxide
changes when dry ice is heated.
(3 marks)
(e) Suggest an advantage of using dry ice in smoke machines. (1 mark)

If you miss any of the questions, review the section(s) again.

Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Section 7.2 5.6 6.4 7.5 9.3 8.3 9.5 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.3 9.4 9.4

178
 Part II Microscopic World I
Exam corner

1. Rubidium is an element in Group I of the Periodic Table. It has two naturally occurring isotopes. The relative
abundance of each isotope is shown in the table below.
85 87
Isotope Rb Rb

Relative abundance (%) 72.2 27.8

(a) (i) What is the meaning of the term ‘isotopes’?

(ii) Calculate the relative atomic mass of rubidium.
(iii) Suggest why the two isotopes of rubidium have the same chemical properties.
(4 marks)
(b) Rubidium reacts with oxygen to form rubidium oxide. Draw the electron diagram for rubidium oxide,
showing electrons in the outermost shells only. (1 mark)
(c) Rubidium chloride forms when rubidium reacts with chlorine. Explain why rubidium chloride
(i) is brittle, and
(ii) conducts electricity in aqueous solution.
(3 marks)

Sample answers
1. (a) (i) Isotopes are the same element with the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
(ii) 85 × 72.2% + 87 × 27.8% 1
= 85.6 g
(iii) They have the same number of outermost shell electrons.
(b)

(c) (i) In rubidium chloride, the oppositely charged ions are held together by strong ionic
bonds. 1

When a force is applied, the relative movement of the ions brings ions of the same charge
close to each other. This will result in repulsion and the structure will break. 1
+ –
(ii) The Rb ions and Cl ions are mobile when dissolved in water. These ions are responsible for
the conduction of electricity for RbCl2. 1

Teacher’s feedback

1. (a) (i) • The words ‘atoms of’ should be included in the answer. i.e. ‘Isotopes are atoms of the same
85 87
element’. For example, Rb and Rb are different kinds of atoms of the same element
rubidium. They are the isotopes of rubidium.
• An alternative answer is: isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of
protons but different numbers of neutrons. [1]
Cont’d
179
 Exam corner

(ii) Relative atomic mass has no unit. So, it should be 85.6.

(iii) Both sodium and potassium have the same number of outermost shell electron in their
atoms. But they just have similar chemical properties. The chemical properties of an element
depend on the electronic arrangement of its atoms. As isotopes have the same electronic
arrangement, they have the same chemical properties.
+ 2–
(b) Rubidium oxide is an ionic compound, not covalent compound. It is made up of Rb ions and O
ions. Therefore, the correct answer is:

[1]

(c) (ii) • Well answered. The particles in an ionic compound are ions. There are no atoms or
molecules in the compound.
+ –
• When dissolved in water, RbCl(s) dissociates to give Rb (aq) and Cl (aq) ions. The
movement of these ions under an electric field accounts for the electrical conductivity
of the aqueous solution.

2. The following table shows some information about the particles of elements W, X and Y. These particles
may be atoms or ions. (Note: the letters are NOT the symbols of the elements.)

Mass Atomic Number of Number of Number of

number number protons electrons neutrons

Particle of element W
11 11 11
(labelled as W1)

Particle formed from

element W ? 10 ?
(labelled as W2)

Particle of element X 6 6 6

Particle of element Y 35 17 17

(a) In which group of the Periodic Table may element Y be placed? Explain your answer. (2 marks)
(b) Deduce the numbers of protons and neutrons in W2. (2 marks)

180
 Exam corner

(c) Diamond and graphite are two forms of element X.

(i) Draw the structure of diamond.
(ii) Would you expect diamond and graphite to have similar chemical properties? Explain your answer.

Chapter review
(2 marks)
(d) Covalent bonds exist in both the structures of element X and element Y. However, element X has a much
higher melting point than Y. Explain this phenomenon in terms of the bonding and structure of these
elements. (3 marks)

Chapter exercise
Sample answers
2. (a) Group VII 1
Y has 7 electrons.
(b) W2 forms by losing an electron from W1. 1
Hence, it has 11 protons and 11 neutrons. 1
(c) (i)

Exam practice
1
(ii) Yes, they do because they are the same element (i.e. carbon).
(d) Element X has a giant covalent structure and element Y has a simple molecular structure. 1
In element X, all atoms are held together by strong covalent bonds. 1

Part exercise
In element Y, the molecules are held together by weak van der Waals’ forces only. 1

Teacher’s feedback

Revision test
2. (a) The explanation is incomplete. The correct answer should be ‘Y has seven electrons in its
outermost shell.’
(b) Well answered. W2 is the cation formed from W1. It carries 1+ charge.
(c) (i) Well answered. A good drawing of the structure of diamond should show not less than four
tetrahedral units of carbon atoms.
(ii) Your answer is only a repetition of the information given. The correct answer is:
Yes, they do because they have the same number of electrons in the outermost shell in the
atoms. [1]
(d) Well answered. Bear in mind that giant covalent structures are not big molecules. They are a
continuous network of atoms linked by covalent bonds.

181
 Part II Microscopic World I
Building a better answer

Read the following questions and the answers of student A. Rewrite and improve the answers based on the
teacher’s feedback.

Question 1 Related to: section 5.6

State the electronic arrangement of an argon atom. (1 mark)

Student A’s answer

Teacher’s feedback
State the electronic arrangement of an atom means writing its electronic arrangement by using numbers. Besides,
the symbol for argon is ‘Ar’.

1. 2,8,8 1

Question 2 Related to: section 7.4

Describe the formation of ionic bond in magnesium oxide from atoms of relevant elements. (2 marks)

Student A’s answer

Mg atom has an electronic arrangement of 2, 8, 2 and O atom has an electronic arrangement of 2, 6. They
combine to form MgO.

Teacher’s feedback
A complete description should include (i) the transfer (losing and gaining) of electrons, (ii) the formation of ions,
and hence, (iii) the formation of electrostatic attraction between magnesium ions and oxide ions.

2. Each magnesium atom loses two electrons to form magnesium ion

and each oxygen atom gains two electrons to form oxide ion in order
to attain stable octet structures. 1
Magnesium ions are positively charged and oxide ions are negatively
charged. The ionic bonding in magnesium oxide is a result of the
electrostatic attraction between these two kinds of ions. 1

182