M I C RO P RO C E S SO R &

M I C RO C O N T RO L L E R

PREVIOUS YEAR
SUBJECTIVE
(22-25)
 4M ARKS (2 022 )
1:- WRITE THE DIFFRENT ADDRESSING MODES OF 8085 MICROPROCESSOR. EXPLAIN ANY TWO.
ANS:- THE DIFFERENT ADDRESSING MODES OF THE 8085 MICROPROCESSOR:
1. IMMEDIATE ADDRESSING
2. DIRECT ADDRESSING
3. INDIRECT ADDRESSING
4. REGISTER ADDRESSING
5. REGISTER INDIRECT ADDRESSING
6. STACK ADDRESSING
7. INDEXED ADDRESSING
NOW; EXPLAIN TWO ADDRESSING MODES:
1. IMMEDIATE ADDRESSING
- SYNTAX: OPCODE #DATA
- EXAMPLE: MVI A, #05H (MOVE 05H INTO ACCUMULATOR)
- OPERATION: THE DATA IS EMBEDDED IN THE INSTRUCTION ITSELF.
2. DIRECT ADDRESSING
- SYNTAX: OPCODE ADDRESS
- EXAMPLE: MOV A, 2050H (MOVE DATA FROM 2050H TO ACCUMULATOR)
- OPERATION: THE MEMORY ADDRESS IS SPECIFIED DIRECTLY IN THE INSTRUCTION.
2. Explain in brief the function of DPTR in 8051 micro controller?

Ans:- In the 8051 microcontroller, the Data Pointer (DPTR) is a 16-bit register that plays a crucial
role in data transfer and memory addressing.
Functions of DPTR:

1. Memory Addressing: DPTR holds the 16-bit memory address for data transfer.
2. Data Transfer: DPTR facilitates data transfer between registers and memory.
3. Indirect Addressing: DPTR enables indirect addressing mode.
Operations:-

1. Load DPTR (MOV DPTR, #data)

2. Move Data (MOV A, @DPTR)
3. Read/Write Memory (MOVC A, @A+DPTR)
Importance:-

1. Data storage and retrieval

2. Memory-mapped I/O
3. Program execution
3.List out the various register of 8051 microcontroller . Explain any one.
Ans:- Here are the various registers of the 8051 microcontroller:
General Purpose Registers:
1. Accumulator (A) Let's explain the Accumulator (A)register:
Accumulator (A) Register:
2. Register B (B)
1. 8-bit register
3. Register C (C)
2. Stores data temporarily during arithmetic and logical operations
4. Register D (D)
3. Involved in most instructions
5. Register E (E)
4. Can be used as a source or destination operand
6. Register H (H)
• Example Instructions:-
7. Register L (L)
1. MOV A, #data (Move immediate data to A)
Special Purpose Registers:
2. MOV A, B (Move data from B to A)ADD A, #data (Add immediate data
1. Program Counter (PC)
to A)
2. Stack Pointer (SP)
3. SUB A, B (Subtract B from A)
3. Data Pointer (DPTR)
The Accumulator plays a crucial role in:-
4. Program Status Word (PSW)
1. Arithmetic operations (ADD, SUB, INC, DEC)
5. Accumulator Auxiliary (ACC)
2. Logical operations (AND, OR, XOR)
Other Registers:
3. Data transfer (MOV)
1. Port Registers (P0, P1, P2, P3)
4. Bit manipulation (RLC, RRC, etc.)
2. 2. Timer Registers (TL0, TH0, TL1, TH1)
3. 3. Serial Communication Registers (SBUF, SCON)
4. Diffrentiate between microprocessor and microcontroller.

Ans:- Here's a detailed diffrence between microprocessors and microcontrollers:

• Microprocessor (MPU)
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU) only
2. Executes instructions and performs calculations
3. No integrated memory or peripherals
4. Requires external memory and I/O devices
5. Typically used in desktops, laptops, and servers
• Microcontroller (MCU)
1. CPU + Memory (RAM, ROM, EEPROM) + Peripherals
2. Self-contained, single-chip solution
3. Integrated peripherals: timers, counters, serial communication, etc.
4. Low power consumption, suitable for battery-powered devices
5. Used in embedded systems, robotics, automotive, medical devices, etc.
• Key Differences
1. Integration: MCU has integrated memory and peripherals, MPU does not.
2. Power Consumption: MCU consumes less power than MPU.
3. Application: MPU for general-purpose computing, MCU for embedded systems.
4. Cost: MCU generally less expensive than MPU.
5. Size: MCU smaller than MPU due to integration.
C O M PA R I S O N TA B L E : -

Microprocessors(MPU) Microcontroller (MCU)

• Standalone CPU • CPU + Memory + Peripherals

• External memory required • Integrated memory (RAM, ROM)

• External peripherals required • Integrated peripherals

• Power Consumption High • Power Consumption Low
• Application:- General-purpose computing • Application:- Embedded systems, IoT

• Higher Cost • Lower in Cost

• Larger in Size • Smaller in Size

Examples:-
Microprocessors:-
- Intel Core i7
- AMD Ryzen 9
Microcontrollers:-
- Arduino Uno (ATmega328P)
- Raspberry Pi Pico (RP2040)
- 8051/8052
 5. How many interrupts are present in 8051 micro controller. Describe in brief.
Ans:- The 8051 microcontroller has 6 interrupt sources with 4 priority levels.
• Interrupt Sources:-
1. External Interrupt 0 (IE0) Brief Description:-
2. External Interrupt 1 (IE1)
3. Timer 0 Overflow (TF0) 1. External Interrupts (IE0, IE1): Triggered by external events.
4. Timer 1 Overflow (TF1) 2. Timer Interrupts (TF0, TF1): Triggered by timer overflows.
5. Serial Communication Interrupt (RI/TI) 3. Serial Communication Interrupt (RI/TI): Triggered by serial data
6. Internal Interrupt (no external pin) transmission/reception.
4. Internal Interrupt: Triggered by internal events.
• Priority Levels:
1. Highest Priority: IE0 (External Interrupt 0) Interrupt Handling:-
2. High Priority: IE1, TF0, TF1
3. Low Priority: RI/TI (Serial Communication) 1. Interrupt detection
4. Lowest Priority: Internal Interrupt 2. Interrupt acknowledgement
3. Vectoring to interrupt service routine (ISR)
• Interrupt Enable Register (IE): 4. Execution of ISR
- Bit 0: EA (Global Interrupt Enable) 5. Return from interrupt
- Bit 1-6: Individual Interrupt Enables

• Interrupt Priority Register (IP):

- Bit 0-5: Priority bits for each interrupt source
6. Explain in brief the need of microcontroller.
Ans:- Microcontrollers are essential in modern technology due to their:
• Key Benefits:-
1. Compact Size
5. Energy Efficiency
2. Low Power Consumption
6. Real-time Control
3. High Performance
7. Multitasking Capabilities
4. Flexibility
8. Cost Savings
5. Cost-Effectiveness
• Applications:-
• Industries that rely on Microcontrollers:
1. Embedded Systems
2. Robotics
1. Aerospace
3. Automotive Systems
2. Automotive
4. Medical Devices
3. Healthcare
5. Consumer Electronics
4. Consumer Electronics
6. Industrial Automation
5. Industrial Automation
7. IoT (Internet of Things)
6. Robotics
8. Wearable Devices
7. Telecommunications
• Reasons for using Microcontrollers:-
1. Improved Efficiency
In summary, microcontrollers are vital in modern technology due
2. Increased Accuracy
to their compact size, low power consumption, high performance,
3. Enhanced Reliability
flexibility, and cost-effectiveness.
4. Reduced Size and Weight-
7. Write a program in assembly language that subtracts 32H from 49H ?

Ans:- Program to subtract 32H from 49H :-

Registers Used:
MOV A, #49H ; Load 49H into Accumulator
MOV B, #32H ; Load 32H into Register B
- A (Accumulator): Holds the result of subtraction.
SUBB A, B ; Subtract B from A
Instructions Used:
; Result will be stored in Accumulator (A)
- MOV: Moves data into the Accumulator.
HALT ; End of program
- SUBB: Subtracts bytes with borrow.
- HALT: Halts program execution.
Result:

Accumulator (A) will hold the result: 17H

8. Write down the diffrent addressing modes of 8051 micro controller explain any two.
Ans:-Here are the different addressing modes of the 8051 microcontroller:-

1. Immediate Addressing
2. Direct Addressing Other addressing modes:
3. Indirect Addressing
4. Register Addressing - Indirect Addressing: MOV A, @R0 (Move data from address in
5. Register Indirect Addressing R0 to Accumulator)
6. Indexed Addressing - Register Addressing: MOV A, B (Move data from B to A)
7. Stack Addressing - Register Indirect Addressing: MOV A, @DPTR (Move data
from address in DPTR to Accumulator)
Let's explain two addressing modes: - Indexed Addressing: MOV A, 20H + A (Move data from 20H +
Accumulator to Accumulator)
1.Immediate Addressing - Stack Addressing: PUSH ACC (Push Accumulator onto stack)
- Syntax: MOV A, #data
- Example: MOV A, #0FH (Move 0FH into Accumulator)
- Operation: The data is embedded in the instruction itself.

2.Direct Addressing
- Syntax: MOV A, addr
- Example: MOV A, 20H (Move data from 20H to Accumulator)
- Operation: The memory address is specified directly in the instruction.
 9. Explain in brief evolution of micro controller.
Ans:- brief evolution of microcontrollers: • Sixth Generation (2005-Present)
• First Generation (1971-1975) 1. ARM Cortex-M3 (2006): 32-bit, high-performance
1. Intel 4004 (1971): First microprocessor 2. 100 MHz, 512 KB memory
2. 4-bit, 740 kHz, 1 KB memory 3. Integrated DSP, USB, Ethernet
• Second Generation (1975-1980) • Current Trends
1. Intel 8048 (1977): First microcontroller 1. IoT-focused microcontrollers
2. 8-bit, 11 MHz, 1 KB memory 2. Low-power consumption
3. Integrated peripherals (timers, I/O) 3. Integration of AI, machine learning
• Third Generation (1980-1985) 4. Wireless connectivity (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth)
1. Intel 8051 (1980): Popular 8-bit microcontroller 5. Secure boot, encryption
2. 12 MHz, 4 KB memory • Key players:
3. Expanded peripherals (serial communication, interrupts) 1. Intel
• Fourth Generation (1985-1995) 2. Microchip
1. Motorola 68HC11 (1984): 8-bit microcontroller 3. Texas Instruments
2. 16 MHz, 16 KB memory 4. STMicroelectronics
3. On-chip EEPROM, ADC 5. NXP Semiconductors
• Fifth Generation (1995-2005) 6. ARM Holdings
1. Microchip PIC16C84 (1994): Low-cost, high-performance
2. 20 MHz, 16 KB memory
3. Flash memory, I2C, SPI
10. Explain the following instruction in 8051 micro controller.SUBB, ADDC, SJMP, and LCALL.
Ans:- SUBB (Subtract with Borrow) • LCALL (Long Call)
- Syntax: SUBB A, Rn (Rn = Register) - Syntax: LCALL addr (addr = 16-bit address)
- Operation: A = A - Rn - Borrow - Operation: PC = addr
- Description: Subtracts the contents of register Rn and the borrow flag from - Description: Unconditionally calls a subroutine
the Accumulator (A). located at the specified 16-bit address.
- Example: SUBB A, B (Subtract B and borrow from A) - Example: LCALL SUB_ROUTINE (Call
SUB_ROUTINE)
• ADDC (Add with Carry)
- Syntax: ADDC A, Rn (Rn = Register) • Additional Information
- Operation: A = A + Rn + Carry - All instructions are 1-3 bytes long.
- Description: Adds the contents of register Rn and the carry flag to the - Rn can be any of the 8051 registers (A, B, C,
Accumulator (A). D, E, H, L).
- Example: ADDC A, B (Add B and carry to A) - Offset is a signed 8-bit value.
- Addr is a 16-bit address.
• SJMP (Short Jump)
- Syntax: SJMP offset (offset = -128 to 127) • Flags Affected
- Operation: PC = PC + offset - SUBB: CY (Carry), AC (Auxiliary Carry), OV
- Description: Unconditionally jumps to a location within 128 bytes of the (Overflow)
current program counter (PC). - ADDC: CY, AC, OV
- Example: SJMP LABEL (Jump to LABEL) - SJMP: None
- LCALL: None
 6 MARKS
1. Draw and explain the Architecture of 8085 microprocessor.

ANS:- The 8085 microprocessor is an 8-bit microprocessor developed by Intel in the mid-1970s. It is capable
of addressing 64KB of memory and has a 16-bit address bus. Here is a basic architecture diagram of the 8085
microprocessor:
Explanation of the 8085 2. Registers:- 6. Memory Organization:-
microprocessor architecture:- - Accumulator (A)
- Flag Register (F) - Program Memory (up to 64 KB)
Block Diagram: - General Purpose Registers (B, C, D, E, - Data Memory (up to 64 KB)
H, L) - Stack Memory
1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) - Stack Pointer (SP)
2. Registers - Program Counter (PC) 7. Input/Output (I/O) System:-
3. Instruction Decoder - 40 pins for I/O operations
4. Control Unit 3. Instruction Decoder:- - Supports 256 I/O devices
5. Bus System
6. Memory Organization - Decodes instructions 8. Interrupt Control:-
7. Input/Output (I/O) System - Generates control signals
8. Interrupt Control - 5 interrupt inputs
4. Control Unit:- - RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, TRAP,
Components:- INTR
- Manages data transfer
1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):- - Generates control signals Signal Flow:-
- Handles interrupts
- 8-bit ALU 1. Instruction Fetch
- Performs arithmetic and logical 5. Bus System:- 2. Instruction Decode
operations - Address Bus (16-bit) 3. Operand Fetch
- Flags: CY (Carry), P (Parity), Z (Zero), S - Data Bus (8-bit) 4. Execution
(Sign) - Control Bus 5. Data Store
Key Features:
8085 Instruction Set:
- 8-bit processor
- 4.77 MHz clock speed - 78 instructions
- 64 KB memory address space - 1-3 byte instructions
- Single +5V power supply - Supports various addressing modes.
- Low power consumption

Applications:

- Embedded systems
- Industrial control
- Consumer electronics
- Robotics

8085 Pin Configuration:

- 40 pins
- Divided into:
- Address pins (A0-A15)
- Data pins (D0-D7)
- Control pins (RD, WR, IO/M, etc.)
- Power and Ground pins
2. Describe the various classification of 8051 instruction set.
ANS:- The 8051 instruction set can be classified into several categories:
5. Bit Manipulation Instructions
1. Data Transfer Instructions
- Perform bit-level operations
- Move data between registers, memory, and Accumulator
- Examples: SETB, CLR, MOV C
- Examples: MOV, MOVC, MOVX
6. I/O Instructions
2. Arithmetic Instructions
- Input/Output operations
- Perform arithmetic operations
- Examples: MOVX, MOVC
- Examples: ADD, SUBB, MUL, DIV
7. Stack Operations
3. Logical Instructions
- Push and pop data from the stack
- Perform bitwise logical operations
- Examples: PUSH, POP
- Examples: AND, ORL, XRL
8. Miscellaneous Instructions
4. Control Transfer Instructions
- NOP (No Operation), RESET, etc.
- Unconditional jumps, conditional jumps, and subroutine calls
- Examples: JMP, JZ, JNC, LCALL, RET
Instruction Classification by Operand Type

1. Immediate Instructions (e.g., MOV A, #data)

2. Register Instructions (e.g., MOV A, Rn)
3. Direct Addressing Instructions (e.g., MOV A, addr)
4. Indirect Addressing Instructions (e.g., MOV A, @Rn)
5. Indexed Addressing Instructions (e.g., MOV A, addr + Rn)

Instruction Classification by Byte Count

1. 1-Byte Instructions (e.g., NOP)

2. 2-Byte Instructions (e.g., MOV A, #data)
3. 3-Byte Instructions (e.g., LCALL addr)

Instruction Classification by Cycle Count

1. 1-Cycle Instructions (e.g., NOP)

2. 2-Cycle Instructions (e.g., MOV A, Rn)
3. 4-Cycle Instructions (e.g., LCALL addr)

The 8051 instruction set consists of 111 instructions, each with its own opcode, operand type, and execution time.
3. Draw the pin diagram of 8085 microprocessor and explain in brief.
ANS:- The pin diagram of the Intel 8085 microprocessor shows the various pins and their functions, including:-

• Power supply: The Vcc pin provides a +5V power supply voltage.

• Address bus: The A0-A15 pins

transmit memory addresses during read and write operations.

• Interrupt pins: These pins handle different priority interrupts.

• Serial I/O pins: These pins manage serial communication.

• Reset pins: These pins initialize and synchronize the system

on reset.

• Data bus: The AD0-AD7 pins transmit data between the

microprocessor and external memory or I/O devices.

• Control signals: The READ, WRITE, and ALE pins

control data transfer.
• Here are some other details about the 8085 microprocessor:

• The 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor with 40 pins.

• It has an operating voltage of 5V and a clock frequency between 500KHz and 3MHz.

• The 8085 uses a multiplexed address/data bus to maximize the functions on the available pins.

• The 8085 requires an 8-bit address latch, so Intel manufactured several support chips with an address latch built in.

• The 8085 was introduced in March 1976 and was Intel's last 8-bit microprocessor.
4.Draw block diagram of 8051 microcontroller. Explain function of each block.

ANS:- Block Diagram:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

2. Memory Organization

3. Input/Output (I/O) Ports

4. Timer/Counter

5. Serial Communication

6. Interrupt Control

7. Oscillator Circuit
Function of Each Block: 6. Interrupt Control:
- 5 interrupt sources (External, Timer 0, Timer 1, Serial, and Internal)
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU): - Prioritizes and handles interrupts
- Executes instructions
- Performs arithmetic and logical operations 7. Oscillator Circuit:
- Manages data transfer - Generates clock signal for CPU operation
- External crystal or ceramic resonator required.
2. Memory Organization:
- 4 KB On-Chip Program Memory (ROM) Additional Features:
- 128 Bytes On-Chip Data Memory (RAM)
- External Memory Interface (up to 64 KB) - Low power consumption
- Single +5V power supply
3. Input/Output (I/O) Ports: - 80/40 pins DIP/PLCC package
- 4 ports (P0, P1, P2, P3) for I/O operations
- 40 pins for I/O connectivity Applications:
4. Timer/Counter: - Embedded systems
- 2 timers (Timer 0, Timer 1) - Industrial control
- Counts external events or generates time delays - Consumer electronics
- Robotics
5. Serial Communication: - Automotive systems
- Serial Communication Interface (SCI)
- Supports asynchronous serial communication
5. Draw and explain pin diagram of 8051 micro controller.

ANS:- Explanation of the 8051 microcontroller pin

diagram:

40-Pin DIP Package:

Port 0 (P0): Pins 32-39

- P0.0 - P0.7: 8-bit bidirectional I/O port

- Also serves as AD0-AD7 (Address/Data bus)

Port 1 (P1): Pins 1-8

- P1.0 - P1.7: 8-bit bidirectional I/O port

Port 2 (P2): Pins 21-28

- P2.0 - P2.7: 8-bit bidirectional I/O port

- Also serves as A8-A15 (Address bus)
 • Port 3 (P3): Pins 10-17
Additional Pins:-
- P3.0 - P3.7: 8-bit bidirectional I/O port
- Alternate functions: - RST (Reset): Pin 9
- P3.0: RXD (Serial input)
- P3.1: TXD (Serial output) Features:-
- P3.2: INT0 (External interrupt 0)
- P3.3: INT1 (External interrupt 1) - 40/80 pins DIP/PLCC package
- P3.4: T0 (Timer 0 input) - 8-bit microcontroller
- P3.5: T1 (Timer 1 input) - 4 KB on-chip program memory
- P3.6: WR (Write signal) - 128 bytes on-chip data memory
- P3.7: RD (Read signal) - 5 interrupt sources
• Control Signals: - 2 timers
- Serial communication interface
- ALE (Address Latch Enable): Pin 30
- PSEN (Program Store Enable): Pin 29
- EA (External Access): Pin 31
- VCC (+5V): Pin 40
- GND (Ground): Pin 20

• Oscillator Circuit:
- XTAL1 (Crystal input): Pin 19
- XTAL2 (Crystal output): Pin 18
6. A). Describe the function of SFRs.
List of SFRs:
ANS:- Special Function Registers (SFRs) in 8051 microcontroller: 16. TH0 (Timer 0 High)
17. TH1 (Timer 1 High)
Description: 18. SCON (Serial Control)
19. SBUF (Serial Buffer)
SFRs are a set of 21 registers that provide control and status information 20. IE (Interrupt Enable)
for various 8051 microcontroller functions. 21. IP (Interrupt Priority)

Functions: List of SFRs: Key Features:

1. I/O Port Control 4. P3 (Port 3) - 8-bit registers

2. Timer/Counter Control 5. PSW (Program Status Word) - Accessible using direct addressing
3. Serial Communication Control 6. ACC (Accumulator) mode
4. Interrupt Control 7. B (Register B) - Used to control and monitor 8051
5. Status and Flag Registers 8. SP (Stack Pointer) microcontroller operations
6. Memory Organization 9. DPL (Data Pointer Low)
7. Arithmetic and Logical Operations 10. DPH (Data Pointer High) Programming Considerations:
List of SFRs: 11. PCON (Power Control)
12. TCON (Timer Control) - Initialize SFRs before use
1. P0 (Port 0) 13. TMOD (Timer Mode) - Use correct bit-level operations
2. P1 (Port 1) 14. TL0 (Timer 0 Low) - Consider interrupt priorities and
3. P2 (Port 2) 15. TL1 (Timer 1 Low) enable/disable status
6. B). Explain basic of serial communication in 8051 micro controller.
ANS:- Serial Communication in 8051 Microcontroller:
SCON Register
Overview
- Bit 0: RI (Receive Interrupt flag)
- Bit 1: TI (Transmit Interrupt flag)
Serial communication allows data transfer between devices
- Bit 2: RB8 (9th bit receive)
using a single communication channel.
- Bit 3: TB8 (9th bit transmit)
- Bit 4: REN (Receive Enable)
8051 Serial Communication Features
- Bit 5: SM0 (Serial Mode 0)
- Bit 6: SM1 (Serial Mode 1)
1. Full-duplex serial communication
- Bit 7: SM2 (Serial Mode 2)
2. Asynchronous serial communication
3. 8-bit UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter)
Serial Modes
4. Baud Rate: 4800 to 115200 bps
5. Support for various data formats (8-bit, 7-bit, 6-bit, 5-bit)
- Mode 0: Shift Register (8-bit)
- Mode 1: 8-bit UART
Serial Communication Registers
- Mode 2: 9-bit UART
- Mode 3: 9-bit UART (bidirectional)
1. SCON (Serial Control Register)
2. SBUF (Serial Buffer Register)
Serial Communication Process
Example Code
1. Initialize SCON and SBUF registers
2. Set baud rate
3. Enable serial communication assembly
4. Transmit data (write to SBUF) ; Initialize serial communication
5. Receive data (read from SBUF) MOV SCON, #0x50 ; Mode 1, 8-bit UART, enable
receive
Baud Rate Calculation MOV PCON, #0x00 ; Set baud rate

- Baud Rate = (Crystal Frequency) / (32 × (SMOD × 2 + 1) × (12/13)) ; Transmit data

- SMOD (Single Mode): 0 or 1 MOV SBUF, #0x41 ; Send 'A'

Interrupts
Key Considerations
- Receive Interrupt (RI)
- Transmit Interrupt (TI) - Baud rate matching between devices
- Data format consistency
- Interrupt handling
7. Describe various timers / counters in 8051 micro controller with the help of neat diagram.
ANS:- The 8051 microcontroller has two timers/counters, Timer 0 and Timer 1, which can operate in various modes.

Timer/Counter Overview Mode 0 of Timer/Counter:-

- 16-bit timers/counters The Mode 0 operation is the 8-bit timer or counter with a 5-bit pre-scaler.
- Can operate as timers or counters So it is a 13-bit timer/counter. It uses 5 bits of TL0 or TL1 and all of the 8-
- Support multiple operating modes bits of TH0 or TH1.
Timer/Counter Modes
1. Mode 0: 13-bit Timer Mode
2. Mode 1: 16-bit Timer Mode
3. Mode 2: 8-bit Auto-Reload Mode
4. Mode 3: Split Timer Mode Mode 1 of Timer/Counter:-
The Mode 1 operation is the 16-bit timer or counter. In the following
Timer/Counter Registers diagram, we are using Mode 1 for Timer0.

1. TL0 (Timer 0 Low)

2. TH0 (Timer 0 High)
3. TL1 (Timer 1 Low)
4. TH1 (Timer 1 High)
5. TCON (Timer Control)
6. TMOD (Timer Mode)
TCON Register
Applications
- Bit 0: TF0 (Timer 0 Overflow flag)
- Timekeeping
- Bit 1: TF1 (Timer 1 Overflow flag)
- Pulse generation
- Bit 2: IE0 (Timer 0 External Interrupt flag)
- Frequency measurement
- Bit 3: IE1 (Timer 1 External Interrupt flag)
- Motor control
- Bit 4: TR0 (Timer 0 Run control)
- PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
- Bit 5: TR1 (Timer 1 Run control)
Key Considerations
TMOD Register
- Mode selection
- Bits 0-1: T0M (Timer 0 Mode select)
- Clock source selection
- Bits 2-3: T1M (Timer 1 Mode select)
- Interrupt handling
- Bits 4-5: T0G (Timer 0 Gate control)
- Overflow handling
- Bits 6-7: T1G (Timer 1 Gate control)

Timer/Counter Operations

- Counting: Internal clock or external events

- Timing: Generating time delays
- Pulse width modulation
Mode 2 ofTimer/Counter
The Mode 2 operation is the 8-bit auto
reload timer or counter. In the following
diagram, we are using Mode 2 for Timer1.

Mode 3 of Timer/Counter
Mode 3 is different for Timer0 and Timer1. When the Timer0 is working in mode 3,
the TL0 will be used as an 8-bit timer/counter. It will be controlled by the standard
Timer0 control bits, T0 and INT0 inputs. The TH0 is used as an 8-bit timer but not
the counter.
8.Explain Harvard architecture in micro contoller.
ANS:- Harvard Architecture in Microcontrollers:

Overview
Harvard Architecture Components
Harvard architecture is a computer architecture that separates the memory
1. Program Memory (PM):
spaces for program instructions and data. This design improves performance,
- Stores program instructions
security, and efficiency.
- Typically ROM, EPROM, or Flash
2. Data Memory (DM):
Key Features
- Stores data variables
- Typically RAM
1. Separate Program Memory (PM) and Data Memory (DM)
3. Program Counter (PC):
2. Independent buses for PM and DM
- Keeps track of current instruction
3. Program Counter (PC) and Data Pointer (DP) registers
address
4. Instruction and Data caches (optional)
4. Data Pointer (DP):
- Points to current data location
Advantages
5. Instruction Decoder:
- Decodes program instructions
1. Improved performance: Separate buses reduce memory contention
6. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):
2. Enhanced security: Program memory is protected from data corruption
- Performs arithmetic and logical
3. Increased efficiency: Reduced memory access conflicts
operations
4. Simplified debugging: Separate memory spaces ease debugging
Microcontroller Implementation:-

1. 8051, PIC, and AVR microcontrollers use Harvard architecture.

2. Modified Harvard architecture: Some microcontrollers Real-World Applications
combine program and data memory, but maintain separate buses.
Example: 8051 Microcontroller 1. Embedded systems
2. Robotics
1. Program Memory: 4 KB on-chip ROM 3. Automotive control systems
2. Data Memory: 128 bytes on-chip RAM 4. Industrial automation
3. Program Counter: 16-bit PC register 5. Consumer electronics
4. Data Pointer: 8-bit DPTR register

Programming Considerations

1. Separate program and data memory spaces

2. Use of program counter and data pointer registers
3. Efficient use of memory resources
9.Explain I/O port pins and their function in 8051 micro controller.
ANS:- I/O Port Pins in 8051 Microcontroller:

Overview

The 8051 microcontroller has 4 I/O port pins, each with 8

bits, labeled as P0, P1, P2, and P3. These ports can be
configured as input or output.
2. Output Mode:
Port Pins - Drive external devices
- Connect to LEDs, motors, or displays
1. Port 0 (P0): Pins 32-39
2. Port 1 (P1): Pins 1-8 Port Configuration
3. Port 2 (P2): Pins 21-28
4. Port 3 (P3): Pins 10-17 1. Quasi-Bidirectional (P0, P1, P2):
- Can be configured as input or output
Port Pin Functions - Default: Input
2. Bidirectional (P3):
1. Input Mode: - Can be configured as input or output
- Read external signals - Alternate functions (e.g., serial communication,
- Connect to sensors, switches, or keyboards interrupts)
Port Pin Characteristics
Real-World Applications
1. TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic) compatible
2. Logic 0: 0V (Ground) 1. Interfacing with sensors and actuators
3. Logic 1: 5V (VCC)
4. Input impedance: 10kΩ (typical) 2. LED displays and indicators
5. Output current: 10mA (maximum)
3. Keypads and keyboards
Programming Considerations
4. Motor control and robotics
1. Configure ports as input or output using SFRs (Special
Function Registers) 5. Communication interfaces (e.g., serial,
2. Read/write data using port registers (e.g., P0, P1, P2, P3) parallel)
3. Use bit-level operations for individual pins

Example Code
assembly
; Configure P0 as output
MOV P0, #0xFF ; Set all pins high

; Read P1 pins
MOV A, P1 ; Read P1 into Accumulator
10.Write an assembly language program to find the largest number in a data array.
 (4MARKS)2023.
1.Discuss the evolution of microprocessor in brief.
ANS:- The evolution of microprocessors has transformed computing, enabling smaller, faster, and more powerful
devices.

Generations:-

1. 1st Generation (1971-1978): 4-bit processors (Intel 4004, Intel 8080)

- PMOS technology
- Low performance (kHz range)

2. 2nd Generation (1978-1984): 8-bit processors (Zilog Z80, Intel 8085)

- NMOS technology
- Improved performance (MHz range)

3. 3rd Generation (1984-1990): 16-bit processors (Intel 8086, Motorola 68000)

- HMOS technology
- Increased performance (tens of MHz)

4. 4th Generation (1990-1999): 32-bit processors (Intel 80386, Motorola 68040)

- CMOS technology
- Pipelining, caching, and RISC architectures
5. 5th Generation (1999-2005): 64-bit processors (Intel
Industry Leaders:
Pentium, AMD Athlon)
- Increased clock speeds (GHz range)
1. Intel
- Multi-core processors
2. AMD
3. ARM
6. 6th Generation (2005-present): Multi-core, mobile, and
4. IBM
embedded processors
5. Motorola (Freescale)
- Nanometer technology (45nm, 32nm, 14nm)
- Low power consumption, increased integration
Impact:
Key Milestones:
1. Personal computing
2. Mobile devices
1. Microprocessor integration (1971)
3. Embedded systems
2. RISC architecture (1985)
4. Internet of Things (IoT)
3. Pipelining (1985)
5. Artificial intelligence (AI)
4. Caching (1989)
6. Cloud computing
5. Multi-core processors (2005)
6. Mobile processors (2009)
The microprocessor's evolution has transformed
7. 3D stacked processors (2017)
industries and revolutionized daily life.
2. Explain in brief the features of microcontroller.
ANS:- Microcontroller Features:

Hardware Features: Key Characteristics: Benefits:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU) 1. Small Size 1. Increased Efficiency

2. Memory (RAM, ROM, EEPROM) 2. Low Power 2. Improved Accuracy
3. Input/Output (I/O) Ports Consumption 3. Reduced Size
4. Timers/Counters 3. High Performance 4. Lower Power Consumption
5. Serial Communication Interfaces (SCI) 4. Low Cost 5. Cost-Effective
6. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) 5. Real-Time Processing 6. Enhanced Reliability
7. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Generator 6. Embedded Capabilities
8. Interrupt Controller • Microcontrollers are versatile,
Applications: powerful, and compact devices
Software Features: that enable intelligent control and
1. Robotics automation in various
1. Programming Languages (Assembly, C, C++) 2. Automotive Systems applications.
2. Development Tools (IDEs, Compilers) 3. Industrial Automation
3. Operating Systems (optional) 4. Medical Devices
4. Firmware Updates 5. Consumer Electronics
6. IoT Devices
7. Smart Home Systems
3. Write down the diffrence between volatile and non volatile memory.
ANS:- Volatile Memory vs Non-Volatile Memory
Key Differences
Volatile Memory
1. Power Dependency: Volatile memory requires power to
retain data, while non-volatile memory does not.
1. Loses data when power is turned off
2. Data Retention: Volatile memory loses data when power
2. Stores data temporarily
is turned off, while non-volatile memory retains data.
3. Faster access times
3. Access Speed: Volatile memory is faster than non-volatile
4. Lower storage capacity
memory.
5. Examples: RAM (Random Access Memory), Cache
4. Storage Capacity: Non-volatile memory has higher
Memory
storage capacity than volatile memory.
5. Purpose: Volatile memory is used for temporary storage,
Non-Volatile Memory
while non-volatile memory is used for permanent storage.
1. Retains data even when power is turned off
2. Stores data permanently In summary,
3. Slower access times volatile memory is used for temporary storage and requires
4. Higher storage capacity power to retain data, while non-volatile memory is used for
5. Examples: ROM (Read-Only Memory), EPROM permanent storage and retains data even when power is turned
(Erasable Programmable ROM), EEPROM off.
(Electrically Erasable PROM), Flash Memory, Hard
Disk Drives
4. Write an assembly language programme to subtract 40H from 50H.

Ans:- Program to subtract 40H from 50H :-

MOV A, #50H ; Load 50H into Accumulator Registers Used:

MOV B, #40H ; Load 40H into Register B
SUBB A, B ; Subtract B from A - A (Accumulator): Holds the result of subtraction.

; Result will be stored in Accumulator (A) Instructions Used:

HALT ; End of program - MOV: Moves data into the Accumulator.

- SUBB: Subtracts bytes with borrow.
- HALT: Halts program execution.
Result:

Accumulator (A) will hold the result: 10H

5.Explain the following instruction in 8051 microcontroller- INCA,SCON.

ANS:- INCA and SCON Instructions in 8051 Microcontroller

INCA Instruction:
Example:
INCA is an assembly language instruction in 8051
microcontroller that increments the value in the Accumulator
(A) by 1. MOV A, #0FH ; Load 0FH into Accumulator
INCA ; Increment Accumulator (A = 10H)
Syntax: INCA

Operation: A = A + 1

Flags Affected:

- CY (Carry Flag): Set if result exceeds FFH.

- AC (Auxiliary Carry Flag): Set if there's a carry from bit 3 to
bit 4.
- P (Parity Flag): Updated based on result.
SCON Instruction:

SCON is a Special Function Register (SFR) in 8051 microcontroller that controls serial
communication.

Address: 98H (or 0x98) In summary:

Bits: - INCA increments the Accumulator value.

- SCON configures serial communication settings.
- SM0 (Bit 0): Serial Mode 0
- SM1 (Bit 1): Serial Mode 1
- SM2 (Bit 2): Serial Mode 2
- REN (Bit 4): Receive Enable
- TB8 (Bit 3): 9th bit transmit
- RB8 (Bit 2): 9th bit receive
- TI (Bit 1): Transmit Interrupt flag
- RI (Bit 0): Receive Interrupt flag

Example:

MOV SCON, #0x50 ; Initialize serial communication

; (Mode 1, 8-bit UART, enable receive)
6.Explain in brief diffrent power saving modes used in 8051 microcontroller.
ANS:- 8051 Microcontroller Power Saving Modes: Enabling Power Saving Modes:

The 8051 microcontroller has four power-saving modes to reduce power - Use instructions: IDL, POWER DOWN, or
consumption: STOP CLOCK
- Configure Power Control Register (PCON)
1. Idle Mode:
Benefits:
- CPU halted, peripherals active
- Power consumption: 20-50% of normal operation - Reduced power consumption
- Exit: External interrupt or hardware reset - Increased battery life
- Improved system efficiency
1. Power Down Mode (Power-Off Mode):
Applications:
- CPU halted, peripherals disabled
- Power consumption: 1-10% of normal operation - Battery-powered devices
- Exit: External interrupt or hardware reset - Low-power embedded systems
- IoT devices.
1. Stop Clock Mode:
- Oscillator stopped, CPU halted
- Power consumption: minimal (near zero)
- Exit: External reset or oscillator restart
7.Write down the diffrent control pins of 8085 microprocessor and discuss the use of each single pin.

ANS:- 8085 Microprocessor Control Pins: 4. RESET OUT: Pin 35

The 8085 microprocessor has several control pins that manage
data transfer, memory access, and input/output operations. - Indicates microprocessor reset status.
- Active Low.
Control Pins:
5. IO/M (Input/Output or Memory): Pin 6
1. ALE (Address Latch Enable): Pin 30
- Distinguishes I/O operations from memory access.
- Latches the address bus (A0-A7) into the address latch. - Low: Memory access, High: I/O operation.
- Active High.
6. RD (Read): Pin 32
2. CLK (Clock): Pin 31
- Enables data read from memory or I/O devices.
- System clock input. - Active Low.
- 3-4 MHz clock frequency.
7. WR (Write): Pin 33
3. RESET IN: Pin 36
- Resets the microprocessor. - Enables data write to memory or I/O devices.
- Active Low. - Active Low.
 Use of Control Pins:
8. READY: Pin 34
1. ALE: Latches address for memory access.
- Indicates memory or I/O device readiness.
- Active High.
2. CLK: Drives microprocessor operation.
9. HOLD: Pin 39
3. RESET IN: Initializes microprocessor.
- Requests bus release for DMA operations.
- Active High
4. RESET OUT: Indicates reset status.
10. HLDA (Hold Acknowledge): Pin 38
5. IO/M: Differentiates I/O and memory operations.
- Acknowledges bus release.
- Active High. 6. RD: Enables data read.

7. WR: Enables data write.

8. READY: Ensures memory or I/O device readiness.

9. HOLD: Requests bus release for DMA.

10. HLDA: Confirms bus release.

 (6MARKS)
1. Compare CALL,RET,PUSH and SBUF instructions with examples.
CALL Instruction: ; Subroutine
SUBRTN:
Syntax: CALL label ADD A, #01H
RET ; Returns to main program
Function: Calls a subroutine.
Types of CALL Instructions:
Operation:
1. Unconditional CALL: Calls subroutine without conditions.
1. Saves the current Program Counter (PC) value on the Example: CALL SUBRTN
stack. 2. Conditional CALL: Calls subroutine based on conditions.
2. Jumps to the label (subroutine) specified. Example: JC SUBRTN (Jump if Carry)
Flags Affected: None Addressing Modes:
1. Direct Addressing: CALL 0x1000
Example: 2. Indirect Addressing: CALL (HL)

CALL Instruction Format:

; Main program CALL label (3-byte instruction)
MOV A, #0FH
CALL SUBRTN ; Calls subroutine Machine Cycles: 5-6 machine cycles
HALT
RET Instruction: ; Subroutine Key Points:
SUBRTN:
Syntax: RET ADD A, #01H 1. RET instruction is used
RET ; Returns to main program to exit a subroutine.
Function: Returns from a subroutine. 2. Saves PC value on the
stack using CALL.
Operation: Types of RET Instructions: 3. Retrieves saved PC value
using RET.
1. Retrieves the saved Program Counter (PC) value from 1. Unconditional RET: Returns unconditionally.
the stack. Example: RET
2. Continues execution from the next instruction after 2. Conditional RET: Returns based on conditions.
the CALL. Example: RZ (Return if Zero)
Purpose:
Flags Affected: None Addressing Modes:
1. Subroutine termination
Example: 2. Program control transfer 1. Implicit Addressing: RET (no operand)
3. Efficient program
structure RET Instruction Format:
; Main program
MOV A, #0FH RET (1-byte instruction)
CALL SUBRTN ; Calls subroutine
HALT Machine Cycles: 5-6 machine cycles
 PUSH Instruction Format:
PUSH Instruction: Registers that can be pushed:
PUSH reg (1-byte instruction)
Syntax: PUSH reg 1. Accumulator (A)
2. Flag Register (PSW)
Machine Cycles: 4-5 machine cycles
Function: Pushes a register onto the stack. 3. B
4. C
Purpose:
Operation: 5. D
6. E
1. Data preservation
1. Decrements the Stack Pointer (SP) by 1. 7. H
2. Subroutine parameter passing
2. Stores the register's contents at the new 8. L 3. Stack-based operations
SP location.
Related Instructions:
Types of PUSH Instructions:
Flags Affected: None
1. POP (Pop from stack)
2. CALL (Call subroutine) 1. PUSH reg (Push register)
Example:
3. RET (Return from subroutine) 2. PUSH immediate (Push
immediate value)
Key Points:
MOV A, #0FH
Addressing Modes:
PUSH PSW ; Saves Accumulator and flags
1. PUSH decrements SP before storing data.
; ...
2. PUSH stores data in Last-In-First-Out 1. Register Addressing
POP PSW ; Restores Accumulator and flags
(LIFO) order. 2. Immediate Addressing
3. Stack size is limited; avoid overflow.
SBUF Instruction: Registers: Key Points:
Syntax: MOV SBUF, data (transmit) or MOV Can use any register (A, B, C, etc.). 1. SBUF is used for serial communication.
data, SBUF (receive) 2. Transmit/receive data using SBUF.
SBUF Instruction Format: 3. Serial communication requires proper
Function: configuration.
MOV SBUF, data or MOV data, SBUF
Transfers data to/from the serial buffer (SBUF). (2-byte instruction)
Types of Serial Communication:
Operation: Machine Cycles:
1. Asynchronous (UART)
1. Transmit: Loads data into SBUF for serial 4-5 machine cycles 2. Synchronous
transmission.
2. Receive: Loads received data from SBUF into Purpose: Serial Communication Modes:
a register.
1. Serial communication 1. Full-duplex
Flags Affected: None 2. Data transmission/reception 2. Half-duplex
3. Simplex
Examples: ; Transmit 'A' Related Instructions:
MOV SBUF, #041H Addressing Modes:
1. MOV (Move)
; Receive data 2. SETB (Set bit) 1. Immediate Addressing
MOV A, SBUF 3. CLR (Clear) 2. Register Addressing
 2.Explain the architecture of the 8051 microcontroller with a neat block diagram.
ANS:- 8051 Microcontroller Architecture:

Overview

The Intel 8051 is an 8-bit microcontroller with

Harvard architecture, consisting of:-
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2. Memory (Program, Data, and Stack)
3. Input/Output (I/O) ports
4. Timer/Counter
5. Serial Communication

```Key Components*
1. CPU: 8-bit ALU, 8-bit Registers (A, B, C, etc.)
2. Program Memory: 4KB on-chip ROM, expandable to 64KB
3. Data Memory: 128 bytes on-chip RAM
4. Stack Memory: 256 bytes
5. I/O Ports: 32 pins (4 ports: P0, P1, P2, P3)
6. Timer/Counter: 2 x 16-bit timers (Timer 0, Timer 1)
7. Serial Communication: UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver-
Transmitter)
Features
Applications
1. 12 MHz clock speed
2. 64 KB program memory address space 1. Embedded systems
3. 128 bytes data memory 2. Robotics
4. 32 I/O pins 3. Industrial control
5. 2 timers 4. Automotive systems
6. Serial communication 5. Consumer electronics
7. Low power consumption

Programming

1. Assembly language
2. C programming
3. Keil, SDCC, and other compilers
 3.Discuss diffrent version of microcontroller with their specification.
ANS:-Microcontrollers (MCUs) have evolved significantly, with various versions offering improved performance, features,
and power efficiency. Here's a discussion on different versions of microcontrollers, their specifications, and applications:

8-bit Microcontrollers
1. Intel 8051
16-bit Microcontrollers
- 8-bit CPU, 4KB ROM, 128B RAM
- 12 MHz clock speed
1. Intel 8096
- 32 I/O pins
- 16-bit CPU, 16KB ROM, 256B RAM
- Applications: Industrial control, robotics
- 16 MHz clock speed
- 64 I/O pins
2. AVR ATmega328P (Arduino Uno)
- Applications: Industrial control, medical devices
- 8-bit CPU, 32KB Flash, 2KB SRAM
- 20 MHz clock speed
2. MSP430F149 (Texas Instruments)
- 23 I/O pins
- 16-bit CPU, 60KB Flash, 2KB SRAM
- Applications: DIY projects, robotics, IoT
- 8 MHz clock speed
- 48 I/O pins
3. PIC16F877A (Microchip)
- Applications: Low-power devices, IoT
- 8-bit CPU, 14.3KB Flash, 368B RAM
- 20 MHz clock speed
- 33 I/O pins
- Applications: Industrial control, automotive
32-bit Microcontrollers Specialized Microcontrollers

1. ARM Cortex-M3 (STM32F103) 1. ESP32 (Espressif)

- 32-bit CPU, 128KB Flash, 20KB SRAM - 32-bit CPU, 4MB Flash, 520KB SRAM
- 72 MHz clock speed - Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and BLE
- 37 I/O pins - Applications: IoT, smart home devices
- Applications: Automotive, industrial control, IoT
2. Arduino Nano 33 IoT (STM32L476)
2. Arduino Due (AT91SAM3X8E) - 32-bit CPU, 256KB Flash, 80KB SRAM
- 32-bit CPU, 512KB Flash, 100KB SRAM - Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and BLE
- 84 MHz clock speed - Applications: IoT, wearable devices
- 54 I/O pins • When selecting a microcontroller, consider factors such as:
- Applications: Robotics, DIY projects, IoT
1. Performance requirements
64-bit Microcontrollers 2. Power consumption
3. Memory and storage needs
1. ARM Cortex-A53 (Qualcomm Snapdragon) 4. I/O pin count
- 64-bit CPU, 2GB RAM 5. Communication protocols (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, etc.)
- 2.2 GHz clock speed 6. Operating voltage
- Applications: Smartphones, tablets 7. Cost and availability

The choice of microcontroller depends on the specific project requirements.

4. Define interrupt. Write down and explain all the interrupt associated with the 8051 microcontrollers.
ANS:- Interrupt:-

An interrupt is a signal to the microcontroller that an event has occurred, requiring immediate
attention. It temporarily suspends the normal execution of the program, executes a specialized
routine (Interrupt Service Routine, ISR), and then returns to the main program.
Interrupt Types:
8051 Microcontroller Interrupts:
1. External Interrupts (IE0, IE1):
The 8051 has five interrupt sources, each with a unique priority level.
- Triggered by external events (e.g., button press).
| Interrupt Source | Priority Level | Vector Address | - IE0 has higher priority than IE1.
| --- | --- | --- |
| External Interrupt 0 (IE0) | Highest | 0003H | 2. Timer Interrupts (TF0, TF1):
| Timer 0 Overflow (TF0) | Medium | 000BH |
| External Interrupt 1 (IE1) | Medium | 0013H | - Generated when timer/counter overflows.
| Timer 1 Overflow (TF1) | Medium | 001BH | - Used for timing, counting, and waveform generation.
| Serial Interrupt (RI/TI) | Lowest | 0023H |
3. Serial Interrupt (RI/TI):

- Occurs when serial transmission/reception is

complete.
Interrupt Configuration: Interrupt Handling Steps:

1. Interrupt Enable Register (IE): 1. Interrupt Occurs:

- Microcontroller receives interrupt signal.
- Enables/disables individual interrupts.
2. Context Save:
2. Priority Register (IP): - Current program state is saved.

- Sets priority levels for interrupts. 3. Vector Fetch:

- ISR address is retrieved from vector table.
Interrupt Service Routine (ISR):
4. ISR Execution:
1. Vector Table: - ISR routine is executed.

- Contains addresses of ISR routines. 5. Context Restore:

- Program state is restored.
2. ISR Routine:
6. Return from Interrupt:
- Executes when interrupt occurs. - Program execution resumes.
- Saves context, performs task, and restores context.
• Understanding interrupts is crucial for efficient microcontroller
programming and real-time system design.
5.Write short notes on any two of the following-
a) Harward architecture
b) SFRS
c) RAM and ROM of 8051 architecture
ANS:- Here are short notes on:

a) Harvard Architecture Advantages:

b) SFRs (Special Function Registers) of 8051 1. Improved performance

2. Enhanced security
a) Harvard Architecture 3. Efficient use of memory

Definition: Harvard architecture is a computer architecture that separates Disadvantages:

program memory (flash) and data memory (RAM) into two distinct
buses. 1. Increased complexity
2. Higher cost
Key Features:
8051 Implementation: The 8051
1. Separate program and data memory spaces microcontroller uses Harvard architecture,
2. Two independent buses for program and data with separate program (4KB) and data
3. Faster execution and improved performance memory (128B) spaces.
4. Reduced memory conflicts
b) SFRs (Special Function Registers) of 8051
Definition: SFRs are specialized registers in the 8051 microcontroller that control various
peripheral functions.

Types of SFRs:
Accessing SFRs:
1. Control Registers (e.g., IE, IP)
2. Status Registers (e.g., PSW, SCON) 1. Direct addressing
3. Data Registers (e.g., SBUF, ACC) 2. Indirect addressing
4. Timer/Counter Registers (e.g., TL0, TH0)
Importance: SFRs play a crucial role in 8051
Key Features: programming, allowing efficient control and
monitoring of peripheral functions.
1. Control peripheral functions (timers, serial communication, etc.)
2. Provide status information (interrupts, flags, etc.)
3. Used for data transfer and manipulation

Examples of SFRs:
1. P0 (Port 0)
2. SP (Stack Pointer)
3. IE (Interrupt Enable)
4. SCON (Serial Control)
C).Here are short notes on RAM and ROM of 8051
ROM (Read-Only Memory)
architecture:
RAM (Random Access Memory)
Definition: ROM is a non-volatile memory that stores
program code permanently.
Definition: RAM is a volatile memory that stores data
temporarily.
8051 ROM Features:
8051 RAM Features:
1. 4KB of internal ROM
2. Stores program code and constants
1. 128 bytes of internal RAM
3. Non-volatile (retains data when power off )
2. Divided into four banks (32 bytes each)
4. Accessible using code memory addressing
3. Accessible using direct or indirect addressing
4. Stores variables, stack, and program data
Types of ROM:
Types of RAM:
1. Internal ROM (4KB)
2. External ROM (up to 64KB)
1. Internal RAM (128 bytes)
2. External RAM (up to 64KB)
Key Features:
Key Features:
1. Non-volatile (retains data when power off )
1. Volatile (loses data when power off )
2. Slow write time (during programming)
2. Fast access time
3. Used for program storage and execution
3. Used for data manipulation and storage
 4MARKS(2024)
1.Compare von neumann and hardward architecture.

ANS:-Comparison of Von Neumann and Harvard Architecture Disadvantages:

Von Neumann Architecture 1. Slower execution due to shared bus

2. Limited scalability
Named after John von Neumann 3. Security concerns (code and data in same space)
Developed in 1945
Harvard Architecture
Key Features:
Named after Harvard University
1. Shared bus for program and data Developed in 1980s
2. Single memory space for code and data
3. Program and data are stored in the same memory Key Features:
4. Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle
1. Separate buses for program and data
Advantages: 2. Separate memory spaces for code and data
3. Program and data are stored in different memories
1. Simplified design 4. Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle
2. Easier programming
3. Efficient use of memory
4. Cost-effective
Advantages: Comparison Table:

1. Faster execution due to separate buses | Feature | Von Neumann | Harvard |

2. Improved security (code and data separated) | --- | --- | --- |
3. Better scalability | Bus | Shared | Separate |
4. Efficient use of memory | Memory Space | Single | Separate |
| Program/Data Storage | Same | Different |
Disadvantages: | Execution Speed | Slower | Faster |
| Security | Limited | Improved |
1. Complex design | Scalability | Limited | Better |
2. Higher cost | Design Complexity | Simple | Complex |
3. More challenging programming | Cost | Low | High |

• In summary, Von Neumann architecture is

Applications: simpler and more cost-effective, while Harvard
architecture offers improved performance,
- Von Neumann: General-purpose computing, PCs, laptops
security, and scalability.
- Harvard: Embedded systems, microcontrollers, DSPs, security-
critical systems
2.Explain internal and external memory in brief.
External Memory:
Internal Memory:
External memory, also known as off-chip memory, refers to
Internal memory, also known as on-chip memory, additional memory chips or modules connected to the
refers to the memory that is built into the microcontroller or processor. It expands the internal memory
microcontroller or processor. It is an integral part of capacity and is used to store:
the chip and is used to store:
1. Large programs
1. Program code (ROM) 2. Data storage
2. Data (RAM) 3. Virtual memory
3. Stack
Characteristics:
Characteristics:
1. Larger capacity (e.g., up to 64KB)
1. Limited capacity (e.g., 8051: 4KB ROM, 128B 2. Slower access time compared to internal memory
RAM) 3. Higher power consumption
2. Fast access time 4. Expandable
3. Low power consumption
4. Non-expandable
Types of External Memory:

1. RAM (Random Access Memory) Disadvantages:

2. ROM (Read-Only Memory)
3. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) 1. Increased complexity
4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) 2. Higher cost
5. Flash Memory 3. Slower access time

Interfacing: • In summary, internal memory is built-in and

limited, while external memory expands
External memory is interfaced with the microcontroller using: capacity but introduces additional complexity
and cost.
1. Address bus
2. Data bus
3. Control signals (e.g., chip select, read/write)

Advantages:

1. Increased memory capacity

2. Flexibility
3. Upgradability
3.Discuss the special function registers of 8051 microcontroller.
ANS:- Special Function Registers (SFRs) of 8051 Microcontroller
7. Interrupt Priority (IP): Sets interrupt priority levels
SFRs are specialized registers in the 8051 microcontroller that 8. Timer 0/1 Control (TCON): Controls timer/counter
control and monitor various peripheral functions. operation
9. Timer 0/1 Registers (TL0/1, TH0/1): Stores timer/counter
Classification of SFRs: values
10. Serial Control (SCON): Configures serial communication
1. Control Registers 11. Serial Buffer (SBUF): Stores serial data
2. Status Registers 12. Port Registers (P0, P1, P2, P3): Controls I/O ports
3. Data Registers
4. Timer/Counter Registers
5. Serial Communication Registers Key Features:

List of SFRs: 1. Control peripheral functions (timers, serial

communication, etc.)
1. Program Status Word (PSW): Stores flags and program status 2. Provide status information (interrupts, flags, etc.)
2. Accumulator (A): Stores arithmetic and logical results 3. Used for data transfer and manipulation
3. B Register: Stores temporary data 4. Accessible using direct or indirect addressing
4. Stack Pointer (SP): Points to the top of the stack
5. Program Counter (PC): Stores the current program address
6. Interrupt Enable (IE): Enables/disables interrupts
Accessing SFRs: Example Code:

1. Direct Addressing: MOV A, P0

2. Indirect Addressing: MOV A, @R0 assembly
MOV IE, #80h ; Enable external interrupt 0
Importance: MOV TCON, #40h ; Start timer 0
MOV SCON, #50h ; Configure serial communication
1. Efficient control and monitoring of MOV P0, #0FFh ; Set port 0 as output
peripherals
2. Improved program performance
3. Simplified programming *In summary, SFRs play a crucial role in 8051 programming,
allowing efficient control and monitoring of peripheral functions.
Programming Considerations:

1. Understand SFR functions and bit

assignments
2. Use correct addressing modes
3. Handle interrupts and priorities carefully
4.Explain instruction set of 8051 microcontroller.
Bit Manipulation Addressing Modes
ANS:- Instruction Set of 8051 Microcontroller Instructions
1. Immediate Addressing
The 8051 instruction set consists of 255 instructions, 1. ANL (Bitwise AND Logical) 2. Register Addressing
divided into several categories: Logical Instructions 2. ORL (Bitwise OR Logical) 3. Direct Addressing
3. XRL (Bitwise XOR Logical) 4. Indirect Addressing
Data Transfer Instructions 1. AND (Bitwise AND) 4. RL (Rotate Left) 5. Indexed Addressing
2. OR (Bitwise OR) 5. RR (Rotate Right) Instruction Length
1. MOV (Move) 3. XOR (Bitwise XOR) 6. SWAP (Swap Nibbles)
2. MOVC (Move Code) 4. CLR (Clear) 1. 1-byte instructions (e.g.,
3. MOVX (Move External) 5. SETB (Set Bit) Miscellaneous Instructions NOP)
4. PUSH (Push) 6. CPL (Complement) 2. 2-byte instructions (e.g.,
5. POP (Pop) 1. NOP (No Operation) MOV A, #data)
Control Flow Instructions 2. HALT (Halt) 3. 3-byte instructions (e.g.,
Arithmetic Instructions 3. RESET (Reset) MOV DPTR, #data16)
1. JMP ( Jump)
1. ADD (Add) 2. JC (Jump if Carry) Instruction Format Instruction Cycles
2. SUB (Subtract) 3. JNC (Jump if No Carry)
3. MUL (Multiply) 4. JZ (Jump if Zero) 1. Opcode (1 byte) 1. Single-cycle instructions
4. DIV (Divide) 5. JNZ (Jump if Not Zero) 2. Operand (1 or 2 bytes) (e.g., MOV A, R0)
5. INC (Increment) 6. CALL (Call Subroutine) 2. Multi-cycle instructions
6. DEC (Decrement) 7. RET (Return) (e.g., MUL AB)
5. Classify the instruction groups of 8085 microprocessor. Explain in brief.
ANS:- Instruction Groups of 8085 Microprocessor

The 8085 microprocessor has a total of 246 instructions, classified into the following groups:
3. Logical Group
1. Data Transfer Group
- MOV (Move) - ANA (And)
- MVI (Move Immediate) - ORA (Or)
- LXI (Load Register Pair Immediate) - XRA (Xor)
- LDAX (Load Register Indirect) - CMP (Compare)
- STAX (Store Register Indirect) - CMA (Complement)
- XCHG (Exchange) Performs bitwise logical operations.
Transfers data between registers, memory, and I/O devices.
4. Control Group
2. Arithmetic Group - JMP ( Jump)
- ADD (Add) - JC (Jump if Carry)
- SUB (Subtract) - JNC (Jump if No Carry)
- INR (Increment) - JZ (Jump if Zero)
- DCR (Decrement) - JNZ (Jump if Not Zero)
- MUL (Multiply) - CALL (Call Subroutine)
- DIV (Divide) - RET (Return)
Performs arithmetic operations. Controls program flow.
5. Branching Group 7. Miscellaneous Group

- JMP ( Jump) - NOP (No Operation)

- JC (Jump if Carry) - HALT (Halt)
- JNC (Jump if No Carry) - RST (Reset)
- JZ (Jump if Zero) - DI (Disable Interrupts)
- JNZ (Jump if Not Zero) - EI (Enable Interrupts)
- PCHL (Program Counter High Load)
Performs miscellaneous functions.
Changes program execution sequence.
Each instruction has a unique opcode and operates on
6. Stack and I/O Group specific registers or memory locations.

- PUSH (Push)
- POP (Pop)
- OUT (Output)
- IN (Input)
- XTHL (Exchange Top of Stack and HL)

Manages stack and I/O operations.

6.Explain the status flags of 8085 microprocessor.
Flag Usage:
ANS:- Status Flags of 8085 Microprocessor
1. Conditional jumps (JC, JNC, JZ, JNZ)
The 8085 microprocessor has five status flags, stored in the Flags register (F).
2. Conditional calls (CC, CNC)
These flags indicate the outcome of arithmetic and logical operations.
3. Arithmetic and logical operations
| Flag | Symbol | Description | Instructions Affecting Flags:
| --- | --- | --- | 1. Arithmetic instructions (ADD, SUB, INR,
| Carry Flag | CY | Set when an operation generates a carry-out | DCR)
| Zero Flag | Z | Set when the result of an operation is zero | 2. Logical instructions (ANA, ORA, XRA)
| Sign Flag | S | Set when the result of an operation is negative | 3. Shift/rotate instructions (RLC, RRC,RAL,
| Parity Flag | P | Set when the result of an operation has even parity | RAR)
| Auxiliary Carry Flag | AC | Set when an operation generates a carry-out from 4. Compare instructions (CMP)
bit 3 to bit 4 |
3. S (Sign Flag): Set when:
Flag Settings: - Result of an operation is negative (MSB is 1).
4. P (Parity Flag): Set when:
1. CY (Carry Flag): Set when: - Result of an operation has even parity (even number of 1s).
- Arithmetic operation generates a carry-out. 5. AC (Auxiliary Carry Flag): Set when:
- Shift/rotate operation generates a carry-out. - Arithmetic operation generates a carry-out from bit 3 to
2. Z (Zero Flag): Set when: bit 4.
- Result of an operation is zero.
7. Explain the interrupts of 8085 microprocessor.
Interrupt Handling:
ANS:- Interrupts of 8085 Microprocessor 1. Interrupt Request (INTR):
- External devices assert INT input
Interrupts are signals to the microprocessor that - Microprocessor acknowledges interrupt
temporarily suspend normal execution and execute a - Executes interrupt service routine (ISR)
specialized routine. 2. Non-Maskable Interrupt (NMI):
- High-priority interrupt
Types of Interrupts: - Cannot be masked or disabled
3. Trap Interrupt:
1. External Interrupts: - Used for debugging and error handling
- INTR (Interrupt Request)
- NMI (Non-Maskable Interrupt) Interrupt Vector Table:
- TRAP (Trap Interrupt) | Interrupt | Vector Address |
- RST 5.5, 6.5, 7.5 (Restart Interrupts) | --- | --- |
2. Internal Interrupts: | RST 0 | 0000H |
- Software Interrupts (RST instructions) | RST 1 | 0008H |
| RST 2 | 0010H |
Interrupt Sources: | ... | ... |
| RST 7.5 | 003CH |
1. External devices (I/O devices, peripherals) | NMI | 0066H |
2. Software (RST instructions) | TRAP | 0064H |
3. Internal events (timer/counter overflow) | INTR | 0068H |
Interrupt Service Routine (ISR):

1. Saves context
2. Executes interrupt handling code
3. Restores context
4. Returns from interrupt (RET or REti)

Instructions Related to Interrupts:

1. EI (Enable Interrupts)
2. DI (Disable Interrupts)
3. SIM (Set Interrupt Mask)
4. RIM (Read Interrupt Mask)
5. RST (Restart)

Understanding interrupts is crucial for efficient

handling of I/O operations, error handling, and
real-time systems.
8. Write an assembly language program to addition of two 8 hexadecimal number( sum 8 bits).
ANS:- Here's an assembly language program for the 8085 microprocessor to add two 8-bit hexadecimal
numbers:
Or

assembly
; Addition of two 8-bit hexadecimal numbers assembly
; Addition of two 8-bit hexadecimal numbers
ORG 0000H ; Origin at 0000H
ORG 0000H ; Origin at 0000H
LXI H, 0000H ; Initialize HL pair with 0000H
MVI A, 0AH ; Load accumulator with first number (0AH) MVI A, 0AH ; Load accumulator with first
MVI B, 05H ; Load register B with second number (05H) number (0AH)
ADD B ; Add contents of B to A MVI B, 05H ; Load register B with second
MOV H, A ; Move result to HL pair (low byte) number (05H)
MVI L, 00H ; Clear high byte of HL pair ADD B ; Add contents of B to A
HLT ; Halt program HLT ; Halt program

END END
Explanation:

1. ORG 0000H: Sets the origin address to 0000H.

2. MVI A, 0AH: Loads the accumulator (A) with the first number (0AH).

3. MVI B, 05H: Loads register B with the second number (05H).

4. ADD B: Adds the contents of B to A, storing the result in A.

5. MOV H, A and MVI L, 00H: Stores the result in the HL register pair (low byte).

6. HLT: Halts the program.

Input:
- First number: 0AH (10 decimal)
- Second number: 05H (5 decimal)

Output:
- Result: 0FH (15 decimal)

Run this program on an 8085 simulator or assembler to verify the result.

 (6MARKS)
1.State timer and counter. Describe mode 0 operation in 8051.
ANS:- Timer/Counter in 8051
The 8051 microcontroller has two 16-bit timer/counter registers: Timer 0 and Timer 1.

Timer/Counter Modes:
Mode 0 Configuration:
1. Mode 0: 13-bit Timer/Counter
1. TMOD (Timer Mode) register: Set bit 0 and 1 to 0
2. Mode 1: 16-bit Timer/Counter
(TMOD = 00xx xxxx)
3. Mode 2: 8-bit Auto-Reload Timer/Counter
2. TCON (Timer Control) register: Set bit 4 (TF0) to 0
4. Mode 3: Split Timer/Counter
Mode 0 Operation:
Mode 0 Operation (13-bit Timer/Counter)
1. Counter increments every clock cycle (Fosc/12)
In Mode 0, the timer/counter operates as a 13-bit timer/counter.
2. When counter overflows (reaches FFFFH), TF0 flag is
set
Key Features:
3. Overflow interrupt is generated if enabled (IE.0 = 1)
1. 13-bit counter (TH0 and TL0)
2. External clock source (optional)
3. Internal clock source (Fosc/12)
4. Overflow interrupt generated when counter overflows
Timer/Counter Registers:
Example Code:
1. TH0 (Timer 0 High Byte)
2. TL0 (Timer 0 Low Byte)
assembly
3. TMOD (Timer Mode)
; Mode 0 Timer/Counter example
4. TCON (Timer Control)
5. IE (Interrupt Enable)
ORG 0000H

; Initialize Timer 0
MOV TMOD, #00H ; Mode 0
In Mode 0, the timer/counter operates as a 13-bit counter,
MOV TH0, #0FFH ; Initial value
incrementing every clock cycle. When the counter overflows, an
MOV TL0, #0FFH
interrupt is generated.
SETB TR0 ; Start timer

; Interrupt service routine

ISR:
; Handle overflow interrupt
CLR TF0 ; Clear overflow flag
RETI

END
 2.Explain serial communication and its diffrent modes in microcontroller 8051.
ANS:- Serial Communication in 8051 Microcontroller Mode 2: 9-bit UART Mode

Serial communication is a method of transmitting data one bit at 1. 9-bit serial transmission (1 start bit, 8 data bits, 1
a time, sequentially, over a communication channel. stop bit)
2. Internal baud rate generation
Serial Communication Modes in 8051: 3. Full-duplex communication

The 8051 microcontroller supports three serial communication Mode 3: 9-bit UART Mode with Fixed Baud Rate
modes:
1. 9-bit serial transmission (1 start bit, 8 data bits, 1
Mode 0: Shift Register Mode stop bit)
2. Fixed baud rate (1/32 of oscillator frequency)
1. 8-bit serial transmission
2. External clock source Serial Communication Registers:
3. No baud rate generation
1. SCON (Serial Control Register)
Mode 1: 8-bit UART Mode 2. SBUF (Serial Buffer Register)
3. PCON (Power Control Register)
1. 8-bit serial transmission
2. Internal baud rate generation
3. Full-duplex communication
Serial Communication Parameters:

1. Baud Rate
2. Data Bits (8 or 9)
3. Stop Bits (1 or 2)
4. Parity (Even, Odd, or None)

Serial Communication Protocol:

1. Asynchronous serial communication

2. Start bit (low-to-high transition)
3. Data bits (LSB first)
4. Stop bit (high level)

In summary, the 8051 microcontroller supports three serial

communication modes, each with its own configuration and
application.
3.Explain stack pointer and subroutine in 8051 microcontroller.
ANS:- Stack Pointer (SP) in 8051 Microcontroller
Types of Subroutines:
The Stack Pointer (SP) is a 16-bit register that stores the memory address
1. Near subroutine: Located within 2KB of calling
of the top of the stack.
program
2. Far subroutine: Located beyond 2KB of calling
Functions of Stack Pointer:
program
1. Stores return addresses of subroutines
Subroutine Instructions:
2. Stores data temporarily during subroutine execution
3. Manages stack operations (PUSH, POP, CALL, RET)
1. CALL addr: Calls subroutine at address 'addr'
2. RET: Returns from subroutine
Stack Operations:
3. RETI: Returns from interrupt service routine
1. PUSH: Decrements SP, stores data at SP
Subroutine Structure:
2. POP: Retrieves data from SP, increments SP
1. SUBROUTINE LABEL:
3. CALL: Stores return address on stack, jumps to subroutine
2. ; Subroutine code
4. RET: Retrieves return address from stack, returns from subroutine
3. RET
Subroutines in 8051 Microcontroller In summary, the Stack Pointer manages stack
operations, while subroutines enable modular
A subroutine is a self-contained block of code that performs a specific task. programming and efficient code reuse.
4.In 8051 microcontroller, Write an assembly language program to subtract 23H from 98H.
ANS:- Here's an assembly language program for the 8051 microcontroller to subtract 23H from 98H:

``assembly Explanation:
; Subtraction program
1. ORG 0000H: Sets the origin address to 0000H.
ORG 0000H
2. MOV A, #98H: Loads the accumulator (A) with 98H.
; Load operands
MOV A, #98H ; Load 98H into accumulator 3. MOV B, #23H: Loads register B with 23H.
MOV B, #23H ; Load 23H into register B
4. SUBB A, B: Subtracts B from A with borrow.
; Subtract B from A
SUBB A, B ; Subtract B from A with borrow 5. MOV R0, A: Stores the result in register R0.

; Store result 6. HLT: Halts the program.

MOV R0, A ; Move result to register R0
Input:
; Halt program
HLT - Operand 1: 98H
```Output: - Operand 2: 23H
- Result: 75H
Registers Used:

- Accumulator (A)
- Register B
- Register R0

Run this program on an 8051 simulator or assembler to verify the result.

5.Discuss the interrupts of microcontroller 8051.
4. Internal Interrupts:
ANS:- Interrupts in 8051 Microcontroller - Software Interrupts

Interrupts are signals to the microcontroller that Interrupt Priority:

temporarily suspend normal execution and execute a
specialized routine. 1. External Interrupts (INT0, INT1)
2. Timer Interrupts (TF0, TF1)
Types of Interrupts: 3. Serial Interrupts (RI, TI)

1. External Interrupts: Interrupt Registers:

- INT0 (External Interrupt 0)
- INT1 (External Interrupt 1) 1. IE (Interrupt Enable) Register
2. IP (Interrupt Priority) Register
2. Timer Interrupts: 3. TCON (Timer Control) Register
- TF0 (Timer 0 Overflow) 4. SCON (Serial Control) Register
- TF1 (Timer 1 Overflow)
Interrupt Service Routine (ISR):
3. Serial Interrupts:
- RI (Reception Interrupt) 1. Saves context
- TI (Transmission Interrupt) 2. Executes interrupt handling code
3. Restores context
4. Returns from interrupt (RET or REti)
Enabling Interrupts: Key Instructions:
1. Set corresponding bit in IE register
2. Clear corresponding bit in IP register 1. EI (Enable Interrupts)
2. DI (Disable Interrupts)
Disabling Interrupts: 3. RETI (Return from Interrupt)
1. Clear corresponding bit in IE register
2. Set corresponding bit in IP register Advantages:

Example Code: 1. Efficient handling of I/O operations

assembly 2. Improved system responsiveness
; Enable external interrupt 0 3. Simplified programming
MOV IE, #81H
Applications:
; Interrupt service routine
ISR: 1. Real-time systems
; Save context 2. Embedded systems
PUSH ACC 3. Robotics
; Handle interrupt 4. Automation
; ...
; Restore context • Understanding interrupts is crucial for efficient
POP ACC handling of I/O operations and improved system
RETI responsiveness.
6.Describe Pulse width modulator. Write its application in microcontroller.

ANS:- Pulse Width Modulator (PWM) Applications:

A Pulse Width Modulator (PWM) is a digital technique used to 1. Power control (motor speed, LED brightness)
generate a pulse wave with variable width, allowing control over 2. Audio amplification
the average power delivered to a load. 3. DC-DC conversion
4. Class-D amplifiers
Key Features: 5. Lighting control
6. Heating control
1. Variable pulse width 7. Servo motor control
2. Fixed frequency PWM in Microcontrollers:
3. Digital control
Most microcontrollers have built-in PWM modules.
How PWM Works:
8051 PWM Example:
1. Compare a reference signal with a triangle/sawtooth wave.
2. Generate a pulse when the reference signal exceeds the The 8051 has two 16-bit timer/counter registers
triangle/sawtooth wave. (Timer 0 and Timer 1) that can be used for PWM
3. Pulse width determined by reference signal amplitude. generation.
Configuration:
Benefits:
1. Set timer mode to Mode 2 (PWM mode)
1. High efficiency
2. Load timer value with desired pulse width
2. Low power consumption
3. Enable PWM output
3. Precise control
Example Code (8051): 4. Flexibility

assembly Microcontrollers with PWM:

; PWM example using Timer 0
MOV TMOD, #02H ; Mode 2 (PWM) 1. 8051
MOV TL0, #0FFH ; Pulse width 2. Arduino (e.g., Uno, Mega)
SETB P3.4 ; Enable PWM output 3. PIC microcontrollers (e.g., PIC16F877A)
4. ARM microcontrollers (e.g., STM32)
Applications in Microcontrollers:
• Understanding PWM is essential for
1. Motor speed control controlling power delivery and achieving
2. LED dimming efficient system design.
3. Power supply control
4. Audio output
5. Servo motor control