Welcome to

Thermal properties of matter

 Heat & Thermodynamics

Heat Thermodynamics

Energy in transit by virtue of Heat becomes a cause of motion

temperature difference and does mechanical work
 Temperature

Temperature may be defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body

Thermometer
A device used to measure the temperature of an object.
 Temperature Scales

Lord Kelvin (William Thomson) Carolus Linnaeus Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit

Kelvin Scale Celsius Scale Fahrenheit Scale

Boiling point of water: 373 𝐾 Boiling point of water: 100 °𝐶 Boiling point of water: 212 °𝐹
Freezing point of water: 273 𝐾 Freezing point of water: 0 °𝐶 Freezing point of water: 32 °𝐹
 Comparing Scales

𝐾 °𝐶 °𝐹
373 100 212
Water Boils

Body Temperature

Room temperature

273 0 32
Water Freezes

Absolute Zero

Why only two values are important?

 Comparing Scales
For relating 𝐹 & 𝐶,

𝐹 − 32 𝐶
=
180 100

9𝐶 5
𝐹= + 32 or 𝐶= 𝐹 − 32
5 9

For relating 𝐾 & 𝐶,

𝐾 − 273 𝐶
For any scale, =
100 100

Reading on scale − Lower fixed point 𝐾 = 𝐶 + 273

= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Upper fixed point − Lower fixed point
For relating 𝐹 & 𝐾,

𝐾 − 273 𝐶 𝐹 − 32 5
= = = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐾= 𝐹 − 32 + 273
100 100 180 9
 Thermal Expansion

The tendency of matter to change in shape, volume, area,

and configuration in response to a change in temperature.

Real-Life Examples

• Expansion of Mercury

• Railway buckling
 Thermal Expansion

Linear Areal

Volumetric
 Linear Expansion

The change in one-dimension (length) measurement of an object due to thermal expansion.

Δ𝐿 𝖺 Δ𝑇

Δ𝐿 𝖺 𝐿0 Δ

𝐿 𝖺 𝐿0Δ𝑇

Δ𝐿 = 𝛼𝐿0 Δ𝑇 (𝛼 - coefficient of linear expansion)

𝐿 = 𝐿0(1 + 𝛼Δ𝑇)

Coefficient of linear expansion

The ratio of increase in length to original length for 1∘ rise in temperature is defined as the coefficient of linear
expansion.
Δ𝐿
𝛼=
𝐿0Δ𝑇
Unit of 𝛼 is °𝐶 −1 or °𝐾 −1
 What is the percentage change in length of 1 𝑚 iron rod, if its
temperature changes by 100 °𝐶? ( α Iron = 2 × 10−5 °𝐶−1)

Given: 𝐿0 = 1 𝑚 , Δ𝑇 = 100 °𝐶, αIron = 2 × 10−5 °𝐶 −1

To find: Percentage change in length

Solution: Percentage change in length is given by

ΔL
= 100%
𝐿0

𝛼𝐿0Δ𝑇
= 100%
𝐿0

= 2 × 10−5 × 102 × 100

= 2 × 10−1

The percentage change in 𝐿0 is 0.2%

 An isosceles triangle is formed with a thin rod of length 𝑙1 and coefficient of
linear expansion 𝛼1 as the base and two thin rods each of length l2 and
coefficient of linear expansion 𝛼2 as the two sides. If the distance between the
apex and the midpoint of the base remains unchanged as the temperature is
𝛼2
varied, show that 𝑙 1 = 2 .
𝑙2 𝛼1

Solution:

𝑙12 𝑙′ 2
𝐴𝐷2 = 𝑙2 = 𝑙22 − and 𝐴𝐷2 = 𝑙2 = 𝑙 2′ 2 − 1
4 4

𝑙1′ = 𝑙1(1 + 𝛼1Δ𝑇) and 𝑙2′ = 𝑙2(1 + 𝛼2Δ𝑇)

𝑙12 𝑙12 2
𝑙22 − = 𝑙22 1 + 𝛼2 Δ 2 − 1 + 𝛼1Δ𝑇
4 4

1+𝑥 𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 if 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑥 << 1

𝑙12 𝑙12
𝑙22 − = 𝑙22 1 + 2𝛼 2Δ𝑇 − 1 + 2𝛼1Δ𝑇
4 4

𝑙1
= 2 𝛼2
𝑙2 𝛼1
 Areal Expansion

The expansion in the area of an object due to the increase in temperature.

Δ𝐴 = 𝛽𝐴0 Δ𝑇 (𝛽 - coefficient of areal expansion)

Final Area, Change in Area Δ𝐴 = 𝐴0𝛽Δ𝑇

𝐴 = 𝐴0 + 𝛥𝐴

Final Area of plate A = 𝐴0(1 + 𝛽Δ𝑇)

𝐴 = 𝐴0 + 𝐴0𝛽𝛥𝑇

𝐴 = 𝐴0(1 + 𝛽Δ𝑇)
Coefficient of areal ∆𝐴
𝐴 = 𝐿2 1 + 𝛼Δ𝑇 2 𝛽=
0 expansion (𝐴𝑜∆𝑇)

1+𝑥 𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 if 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑥 << 1

𝐴 = 𝐴0 1 + 2𝛼Δ𝑇
Relation b/w 𝛼 & 𝛽 𝛽 = 2𝛼
𝛽 = 2𝛼
 A rectangular plate has a circular cavity as shown. If we increase its
temperature, then

Solution:

a, b, d increases because of expansion, c

decreases because of expansion in all
direction.

Distance between any two points will

increase.
So, all the shown length should increase.

a, b, c and d will increase

 Volume Expansion

The increase in volume of a solid/liquid due to rise in temperature.

𝐿
Change in volume ∆𝑉 = 𝛾𝑉0∆𝑇
𝐿
𝑙0
𝑙0
Final volume 𝑉 = Vo(1 + 𝛾∆𝑇)

𝑙0 𝐿

Coefficient of volume ∆𝑉
𝑉0
𝛾=
expansion 𝑉𝑂 ∆𝑇
𝑇0
𝑇
Relation b/w 𝛼 & 𝛾 𝛾 = 3𝛼
𝑉 = 𝑉0 + Δ𝑉

This type of expansion is also known as Cubic expansion.

 Thermal Expansion

Linear Expansion Areal Expansion Volume Expansion

Δ𝐿 = 𝐿0𝛼Δ𝑇 Δ𝐴 = 𝐴0𝛽Δ𝑇 ∆𝑉 = 𝛾𝑉0∆𝑇

𝐿 = 𝐿0 (1 + 𝛼Δ𝑇) A = 𝐴0(1 + 𝛽Δ𝑇) 𝑉 = 𝑉0(1 + 𝛾∆𝑇)

Δ𝐿 Δ𝐴 ∆𝑉
𝛼= 𝛽= 𝛾=
𝐴0Δ𝑇 𝐴0Δ𝑇 𝑉0∆𝑇

𝛼 𝛽 = 2𝛼 𝛾 = 3𝛼
 Negative Thermal coefficient

Negative thermal coefficient of expansion.

Material will contract on an increase in temperature i. e supply of heat

𝐿 = 𝐿0 (1 + 𝛼Δ𝑇) A = 𝐴0(1 + 𝛽Δ𝑇) 𝑉 = Vo(1 + 𝛾∆𝑇)

If 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 are negative

𝐿 < 𝐿0 𝐴 < 𝐴0 𝑉 < 𝑉0

Directional Properties
Isotropic materials: The materials whose Anisotropic materials: The materials whose
physical properties are independent of physical properties are dependent on the
the orientation of the system. orientation of the system.
𝛽 = 𝛼 + 𝛼 = 2𝛼 𝛽 = 𝛼X + 𝛼𝑦
𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝛼 + 𝛼 = 3𝛼 𝛾 = 𝛼 𝑥 + 𝛼 𝑦 + 𝛼𝑧
 Apparent Expansion of Liquid in a Container

Before Heating

Volume of container (𝑉𝑐)= Volume of liquid(𝑉𝐿 )

After Heating:

𝑉′𝐿 = 𝑉0 1 + 𝛾𝐿∆𝑇 , 𝑉′𝐶 = 𝑉0 1 + 𝛾𝐶∆𝑇

Overflow volume of liquid relative to container:

∆𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝛾𝐿 − 𝛾𝐶 ∆𝑇

𝛾 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝛾𝐿 − 𝛾𝐶
 The volume of a glass vessel is 1000𝑐𝑚3 at 20 °𝐶. What volume of
mercury should be poured into it at this temperature so that the
T volume of the remaining space does not change with temperature?
𝛾𝑚 𝑒 𝑟 𝑐 𝑢 𝑟 𝑦 = 1.8 × 10−4 °𝐶 −1 and 𝛾𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 9.0 × °𝐶−1
10−6
Given: 𝑉0 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 1000𝑐𝑚3 𝑎𝑡 200 𝐶, 𝛾𝑚 𝑒 𝑟 𝑐 𝑢 𝑟 𝑦 = 1.8 × 10−4 °𝐶 −1 , 𝛾𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 9.0 × °𝐶−1
10−6
To find: 𝑉𝑜 𝐻𝑔

Solution: • The volume of mercury to be poured into the vessel should be

such that the change in the volume of mercury and that of the
glass vessel with temperature are equal.

∆𝑉 𝐻𝑔 = ∆𝑉 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠
𝑠

⇒ 𝑉0 𝐻𝑔 𝛾 𝐻𝑔 ∆𝑇 = 𝑉0 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝛾 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠∆𝑇

𝑉0 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝛾 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠
⇒ 𝑉0 𝐻𝑔 = = 50 𝑐𝑚3
𝛾𝐻𝑔

(𝛾𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 = 1.8 × 10−4 °𝐶−1 and 𝛾𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 9.0 × 10−6 °𝐶−1)

 Bimetallic strip

• Two strips of different materials welded together.

𝑙0
𝛼1 𝑑 T > T0
At temperature 𝑇0:
𝑑 𝛼2
𝑙1 = 𝑙0(1 + 𝛼1∆𝑇)

𝑙2 = 𝑙0(1 + 𝛼2∆𝑇)
𝛼1
𝛼2
If 𝛼1 > 𝛼2
At temperature 𝑇:
⇒ 𝑙1 > 𝑙 2

𝑅 𝜃
𝑑
𝑅=
(𝛼1−𝛼2)Δ𝑇
 Density and Temperature

𝑚
⚫ Density before heating (at 𝑇0): 𝜌0 =
𝑉0

⚫ Density after heating:

𝑇
𝑚 𝑚
𝜌𝑓 = =
𝑉𝑓 𝑉0 (1 + 𝛾∆𝑇)

𝜌0 Mass (𝑚) 𝑇0
𝜌𝑓 = Volume (𝑉𝑓)
(1 + 𝛾∆𝑇)

⚫ For solids, 𝛾 << 1

𝜌𝑓 = 𝜌0(1 − 𝛾∆𝑇)
 The densities of wood and benzene at 0° 𝐶 are 880 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 and
900 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 respectively. 𝛾𝑤 = 1.2 × 10−3 °𝐶−1 and 𝛾𝑏 = 1.5 × 10−3 °𝐶−1.
At what temperature will a piece of wood just sink in benzene?

Given: Parameter Wood Benzene

𝜌 at 0 °𝐶 (𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ) 880 900

𝛾 (× 10−3 ∘ 𝐶 −1 ) 1.2 1.5

To find: 𝑇 at which the wood just sink

Solution:

The wood just start sinking when 𝜌𝑤 = 𝜌𝑏

880 900
=
(1 + 𝛾𝑤Δ𝑇) (1 + 𝛾𝑏Δ𝑇)

2
⇒ Δ𝑇 = = 83.3 °𝐶
88𝛾𝑏 − 90𝛾𝑤

Δ𝑇 = 𝑇 − 0 = 83.3 °𝐶 𝑇 = 83.3 °𝐶
 Thermal Stress

Heating Cooling
 Thermal Strain = Prevented Change in Dimension
Original Dimension
𝐿 𝐿0
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
𝐿′

Case

No Free expansion Entire free expansion Partial expansion

prevented prevented prevented
𝐿 − 𝐿0 𝛼Δ𝑇 𝐿′ − 𝐿0
Strain (𝜖) 0 = ≈ 𝛼Δ𝑇
𝐿 1 + 𝛼Δ𝑇 𝐿
𝐹 𝐿 − 𝐿0 𝐹 𝐿′ − 𝐿0
Stress (𝜎) 0 =𝑌 ≈ 𝑌𝛼Δ𝑇 =𝑌
𝐴 𝐿 𝐴 𝐿
Reaction 𝐿′ − 𝐿0
0 𝑌𝛼Δ𝑇𝐴 𝐹=𝑌 𝐴
Force (𝐹) 𝐿
 A steel rod is clamped at its two ends and rests on a fixed horizontal
surface. The rod is in natural length at 20 °𝐶. Find the longitudinal
strain developed in the rod if the temperature rises to 50 °𝐶.
(𝛼𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 1.2 × 10−5 °𝐶−1)

Given: 𝑇0 = 20 °𝐶, 𝑇 = 50 °𝐶, 𝛼𝑠𝑡𝑒 𝑒 𝑙 = 1.2 × 10−5 °𝐶 −1

To find: 𝜖

Solution:

Thermal Strain, 𝜖 ≈ 𝛼Δ𝑇

𝜖 ≈ 1.2 × 10−5 × (50 − 20)

𝜖 ≈ 3.6 × 10−4
 Time Period of Simple Pendulum

𝑡 𝐿 𝐿0 1 + 𝛼∆𝑇 1
= = ≈1+ 𝛼∆𝑇
𝑡0 𝐿0 𝐿0 2

𝑡 − 𝑡0 1
⚫ Change in time per unit time lapsed: ≈ 𝛼 ∆𝑇
𝑡0 2
 Gain and Loss in Time

1
∆𝑡 ≈ 𝛼 ∆𝑇 𝑡′
2

𝑇 < 𝑇0 𝑇 > 𝑇0

𝑡 < t0 𝑡 > 𝑡0

Clock becomes fast Clock becomes slow

and gains time and looses time
 A pendulum clock consists of an iron rod connected to a small
heavy bob. If it is designed to keep correct time at 20 °𝐶, how fast or
slow will it go in 24 hours at 40 °𝐶? (𝛼𝑖 𝑟 𝑜 𝑛 = 1.2 × 10−6 °𝐶 −1 )

Given: 𝑇0 = 20 ∘𝐶, 𝑇 = 40 ∘ 𝐶, 𝛼 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 1.2 × 10−6 °𝐶−1, 𝑡 ′ = 24 ℎ𝑟

To find: Gain or loss in time

Solution:

Gain/Loss in time:

1
Δ𝑡 ≈ 𝛼 ∆𝑇𝑡′
2

1
Δ𝑡 ≈ × 1.2 × 10−6 × 20 × 24 × 60 × 60
2

Δ𝑡 ≈ 1.04 𝑠
 Heat

⚫ Energy transfer due to temperature difference

⚫ Transfer from high to low temperature object
⚫ Unit: 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝐽 , 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒 (𝐶𝑎𝑙)

⚫ 1 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒 = 4.18 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒

Results of Heating
 Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

⚫ (Heat produced in system) 𝖺 (Mechanical work done on it)

⚫ If 𝑊 produces same temperature change as 𝐻,

𝑊 = 𝐽𝐻

⚫ 𝐽:Mechanical equivalent of heat

⚫ 𝐽 represents the amount of work required to raise temperature of 1 𝑔 of water by 1 ℃
⚫ Heat and work are equivalent

Specific Heat
⚫ The amount of heat (Δ𝑄) required by a unit ⚫ SI Unit:𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 ⚫ For Adiabatic P rocess (Δ𝑄 = 0),
mass of substance to raise its temperature by
⚫ CGS Unit:𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 1 Δ𝑄
1°C
𝑠= =0
⚫ Δ𝑄 𝖺 𝑚 ⚫ For Isothermal P rocess (Δ𝑇 = 0), 𝑚 Δ𝑇
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑠Δ𝑇 𝑄 = න𝑚 𝑠 𝑑𝑇
⚫ Δ𝑄 𝖺 Δ𝑇 1 Δ𝑄
𝑠= =∞
𝑠  specific heat constant 𝑚 Δ𝑇
 Find the heat required to increase the temperature of 1 𝑘𝑔 water by
20 ℃ (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙)

Given: 𝑚 = 1 𝑘𝑔, Δ𝑇 = 20 ℃, 𝑠𝑤 = 1𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑔−1 𝐾 −1

Δ𝑇 = 20∘𝐶
To find: Δ𝑄 1 𝑘𝑔

Solution:

Heat Required,

Δ𝑄 = 𝑚𝑠Δ𝑇

Δ𝑄 = 1000 𝑔 × 1𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑔−1𝐾−1 × 20 ℃

Δ𝑄 = 20 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
 Heat Capacity

⚫ The quantity of heat necessary to

produce a unit change in
temperature for the given mass of a 𝑚, 𝑠
material. +1∘𝐶

Heat capacity (𝐶) = 𝑚𝑠

S.I unit: 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒/𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 (𝐽/𝐾)

C.G.S unit: 𝑐𝑎𝑙/ ∘ 𝐶

 Water Equivalent

⚫ Amount of water that is required to consume the same quantity of heat

as the substance does for a unit rise in temperature

𝑚𝑠∆𝑇 = 𝑚 𝑤 𝑠𝑤 ∆𝑇 Δ𝑇 = 1∘𝐶
𝑚, 𝑠 𝑚𝑤 , 𝑠𝑤
𝑚𝑠
𝑚𝑤 =
𝑠𝑤
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

⚫ 𝑚𝑤 is the water equivalent

of the substance
 Phase Change

⚫ Latent Heat: Changes the phase of substance at constant temperature

1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚

Melting Point Boiling Point

Solid Liquid Gas

Latent heat of Latent heat of

Fusion (𝐿𝐹 ) Vaporization (𝐿𝑉 )

Δ𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿𝐹 Δ𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿𝑉
 Phase Change: Water

Ice Cube Water Steam

1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
0℃ 100 ℃

𝐿𝐹 = 80 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔 𝐿𝑉 = 540 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔

Temperature-Heat curve for Water

• Specific heat

𝐶𝑤 > 𝐶𝑖 > 𝐶𝑠

𝜃𝑠 > 𝜃𝑖 > 𝜃𝑤
• Latent heat:
𝐿 𝑉 > 𝐿𝐹
 Calorimetry

Heat
System Surrounding
Exchange • The science associated with determining the
changes in energy of a system by measuring the
heat exchanged with the surroundings.

Energy Exchange

Stirrer
Thermometer • For an insulated system,

Wooden Heat Lost by Heat Gain by

chamber =
hotter substance cooler substance
Water

Object
 Law of Mixture

• Assumptions: i)No phase change is involved.

ii)there is no heat lost to the surroundings.

• The exchange of heat continues to take place till the temperature

of substances become equal.

Substance Substance
Mixture
A + B
Tm
(m1 , s1 , T1 ) (m2 , s2 , T2 )

Heat Lost by hotter substance = Heat Gain by cooler substance

𝑚1𝑠1(𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑚 ) = 𝑚2𝑠2 (𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇2) ⇒ 𝑇1> 𝑇𝑚 > 𝑇2

 The temperature of three different liquids 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 of equal masses are
10°𝐶, 15°𝐶 and 20°𝐶 respectively. The temperature when 𝐴 and 𝐵 are mixed
T is 13°𝐶 and when 𝐵 and 𝐶 are mixed is 16°𝐶. What will be the temperature
when 𝐴 and 𝐶 are mixed?
Solution:
B , C are mixed
𝑇𝑚
𝑚𝑆𝐵Δ𝑇 = 𝑚𝑆𝐶Δ𝑇

10∘𝐶 15∘𝐶 20∘𝐶 𝑚𝑆𝐵 16 − 15 = 𝑚𝑆𝑐(20 − 16)

1
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝑆𝐵 = 4𝑆𝑐 ⇒ 𝑆𝐶 = 𝑆𝐵
4

13∘𝐶 16∘𝐶 A , C are mixed

𝑚𝑆𝐴Δ𝑇 = 𝑚𝑆𝐶Δ𝑇
A , B are mixed
𝑚𝑆𝐴 𝑇𝑚 − 10 = 𝑚𝑆𝐶(20 − 𝑇𝑚)

𝑚𝑆𝐴Δ𝑇 = 𝑚𝑆𝐵Δ𝑇 2 𝑆𝐵
𝑆𝐵 𝑇𝑚 − 10 = (20 − 𝑇𝑚 )
3 4
𝑚𝑆𝐴 13 − 10 = 𝑚𝑆𝐵(15 − 13) 140
8 𝑇𝑚 − 10 = 3(20 − 𝑇𝑚) ⇒ 𝑇𝑚 = ≈ 12.72 ℃
2 11
3𝑆𝐴 = 2𝑆𝐵 ⇒ 𝑆𝐴 = 𝑆𝐵
3
 1 𝑘𝑔 ice at −20°𝐶 is converted to 1 𝑘𝑔 water at 100°𝐶. Find the heat 𝑄
T required to change the state of the substance?

Solution: 𝑄1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑆𝑖𝑐𝑒 Δ𝑇 = 1000 × 0.5 × 0 − −20

𝑄1 = 10 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑄
𝑄2 = 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒𝐿𝑓 = 1000 × 80
𝑄2 = 80 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
1 𝑘𝑔 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑄1 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑄2 𝑄3 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
1 𝑘𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
−20℃ 0℃ 0℃ 100℃ 𝑄3 = 𝑚 𝑤 𝑆𝑤 Δ𝑇 = 1000 × 1 × (100 − 0)

𝑄3 = 100 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙

Total heat required:

𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3

𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 𝑄 = 10 + 80 + 100 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝐿𝑓 = 80 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑄 = 190 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑆𝑤 = 1 𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑔℃
 300 𝑔 of water at 25 ℃ is added to 100 𝑔 of ice at 0 ℃. The final
temperature of the mixture is

Solution: Heat required for melting ice = 𝐻𝑟 𝑒 𝑞 𝑢 𝑖 𝑟 𝑒 𝑑

𝐻 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑚𝐿 =100 × 80 𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 8 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙

Assumption: final temperature = 0 ℃
Hear released from water = 𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑

𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 𝑚𝑠 Δ𝑇 = 300 × 1 × (25 − 0)

25 ℃
𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 7500 𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 7.5 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
0℃
0℃
𝐻 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 > 𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑
100 𝑔 400 𝑔
⇒ So some part of ice remains not melted.

And water and ice co-exist at only one

𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑙 temperature i.e. at 0 ℃.
𝑠 𝐻2𝑂 = 1 𝐿𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 80
𝑔℃ 𝑔
∴ final temperature = 0 ℃
 Heat Transfer

• Heat transfer refers to the flow of heat(thermal energy) due to temperature

differences and the subsequent temperature changes.

Convection
Conduction

Heat Transfer Convection

Radiation Radiation
 Conduction

• Heat conduction is the flow of internal energy from a

region of higher temperature to one at lower
temperature by the interaction of adjacent particles in
the intervening space without the actual transfer of
particles.

• Conduction involves heat transfer but not mass transfer.

• Heat transfer due to molecular collisions.

• Kinetic energy gained is shared between

adjacent molecules.

• Average position of a molecule does not

change.
 Steady State Conduction

• Steady state: If the temperature of a cross-section at any position x in the slab remains
constant with time. It is different from thermal equilibrium.

• Consider a slab of face area 𝐴, Lateral thickness 𝐿,

T1 > T2 whose faces have temperatures 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 .
𝐿
• For Steady state conduction, rate of heat transfer,

𝑑𝑄 𝐴𝑑𝑇
𝐻= 𝖺
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑄
T1 Where, dQ is the amount of heat transferred
through any cross section in time dt.

𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑇
= −𝐾𝐴 ⟶ Fourier’s law
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
T1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 T2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 Thermal Conductivity(𝑲)

𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑇
= −𝐾𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

• 𝑑𝑄
𝑑
is called the Rate of heat flow.
𝑡
Thermal conductivity
• 𝑑𝑇
𝑑
is called the temperature gradient.
𝑥

𝐾𝑠𝑜 𝑙 𝑖 > 𝐾𝑙 𝑖 > 𝐾𝑔𝑎 𝐾𝑚 𝑒 𝑡 𝑎 𝑙 > 𝐾𝑛𝑜𝑛−𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑠

• 𝐾 is a constant for the material of the slab and is
𝑑 𝑞 𝑠 𝑠
called Thermal Conductivity of material.

• Thermal conductivity refers to the ability of a

given material to conduct/transfer heat.

• The greater the value of 𝐾 for a material, the

more rapidly will it conduct heat.
 A hollow tube has a length 𝑙, inner radius 𝑟1 and outer radius 𝑟2. The material
has a thermal conductivity 𝐾. Find the rate of heat flow through the walls of
the tube if the flat ends are maintained at temperature 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 (𝑇2 > 𝑇1).

Solution:

Steady state has been maintained i.e. 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 are constant.

∆𝑄 −𝐾𝐴 ∆𝑇
=
∆𝑡 𝑙
𝑟1
𝑇1 𝑇2
∆𝑄 𝐾 𝑙
= − (𝜋𝑟22 − 𝜋𝑟12)(𝑇1 − 𝑇2) 𝑟2
∆𝑡 𝑙

∆𝑄 𝐾 𝑇1 < 𝑇2
= 𝜋(𝑟22 − 𝑟12 )(𝑇2 − 𝑇1)
∆𝑡 𝑙
 Analogy b/w Fourier’s law and Ohm's law

Fourier’s Law: Ohm’s Law:

𝐿
𝑉1 𝑅Ω 𝑉2

𝐼
T1 𝐴

Δ𝑇 T1 > 𝑇2 Δ𝑉

∆𝑇 ∆𝑉
• Rate of Heat transfer: 𝐻=
𝑅𝑡ℎ
• Rate of Charge transfer: 𝐼=
𝑅

𝐿
• Thermal Resistance: 𝑅𝑡 =
𝐾𝐴
• Resistance: 𝑅
ℎ
 Consider the situation shown in the figure. The frame is made of the same
material and has a uniform cross-sectional area everywhere. Calculate the
amount of heat flowing per second through a cross section of the bent part if the
total heat taken out per second from the end at 100°𝐶 is 130 𝐽.

Given: 𝐻 = 130 𝐽Τ𝑠

To find: 𝐻1 Solution: 𝐻 = 𝐻1 + 𝐻2

Δ𝑇 Δ𝑇
𝐻1 = , 𝐻2 =
14𝑅 12𝑅

𝐻1 12 6
= =
𝐻2 14 7

7𝐻1
𝐻2 =
6
7𝐻1
𝐻 = 𝐻 1+
6

𝐻1 = 60 𝐽Τ𝑠
 A composite slab is prepared by pasting two plates of thicknesses 𝐿1 and
𝐿2 and thermal conductivities 𝐾1 and 𝐾2. The slabs have equal cross-
sectional area. Find the equivalent conductivity of the composite slab.

To find: 𝐾𝑒𝑞 Solution:

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝐾1 𝐾2
𝐿1
+ 𝐿2 𝐿1 𝐿
𝐿1 𝐿2 = + 2
𝐾𝑒𝑞𝐴 𝐾1𝐴 𝐾2𝐴
𝐾1𝐾2 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
𝐾𝑒 =
𝑞
𝐾 1𝐿2 + 𝐾 2𝐿1
𝐾𝑒𝑞

𝐿 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿 2
 𝒏 identical slabs in series

• For 𝑛 identical slabs,

𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = ⋯ 𝐴𝑛 & 𝐿1 = 𝐿2 = ⋯ 𝐿 𝑛
𝑛
• The equivalent thermal conductivity is, 𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓 =1 1 1 1
+ +
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 + ⋯ 𝐾𝑛

𝒏 identical slabs in parallel

• The net heat current for parallel combination of slabs,

𝑞𝑒 𝑓 𝑓 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 + ⋯ 𝑞𝑛 • For 𝑛 identical slabs,

𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = ⋯ 𝐴𝑛
𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓𝐴 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑞𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 + 𝐾3 + ⋯ 𝐾𝑛
𝐿
𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
𝑛
𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓𝐴 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝐾1𝐴1 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝐾2𝐴2 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝐾𝑛𝐴𝑛 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
= + +⋯
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
 Two thin metallic spherical shells of radii 𝑟1 and 𝑟2(𝑟1 <𝑟2) are placed with
their centres coinciding. A material of thermal conductivity 𝐾 is filled in
the space between the shells. The inner shell is maintained at
temperature 𝜃1 and the outer shell at temperature 𝜃2 𝜃1 < 𝜃2 . Calculate
the rate at which heat flows radially through the material.

Given: 𝜃2 > 𝜃1

𝜃2
Solution:
dθ 𝑟2
H = 𝐾 4π𝑟2 = constant
dr 𝜃1
dr
H
𝑟2
= 4π𝐾dθ 𝑟1

r 2 dr θ2
Hන = 4π𝐾 න dθ
r1
𝑟2 θ1

4πK𝑟1𝑟2(θ2 − θ1)
H=
𝑟2 − 𝑟1
 The atmospheric temperature is −𝜃 °C. A cylindrical drum of height ℎ
made of a bad conductor is completely filled with water at 0 °𝐶 and is kept
outside without a lid. Calculate the time taken for the whole mass of
water to freeze. Thermal conductivity of ice is 𝐾 and its latent heat of
fusion is 𝐿. Neglect expansion of water on freezing. (𝜌 is the density of
water)
𝑑𝑄 𝐾𝐴 0 − (−𝜃)
Given: 𝑇𝑎𝑡𝑚 = −𝜃 ℃, 𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0 ℃ Solution: 𝐻 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 = = … … (𝑇)
𝑑𝑡 𝑥
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑚 𝜌𝐴𝑑𝑥
=𝐿 =𝐿 … … (𝐴)
−𝜃 °𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑥 From equations (𝑇) & (𝐴),

𝑑𝑥 𝐾𝜃
ℎ 𝐿𝜌 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑥
0 °𝐶 ℎ 𝑡0
𝐿𝜌 න 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐾𝜃 න 𝑑𝑡
0 0

𝜌𝐿ℎ2
𝑡0 =
2𝐾𝜃
Ratio of time taken for the thickness of the ice to grow from 0 to 1 𝑐𝑚,
1 to 2 𝑐𝑚, 2 to 3 𝑐𝑚 and so on.

To find: ∆𝑡1 : ∆𝑡2 : ∆𝑡3 : … … . ∆𝑡𝑛

2
Solution: Time taken by the ice to grow a thickness of 𝑦 is 𝑡 = 𝜌𝐿𝑦
2𝐾𝜃

The time intervals to change the thickness from 0 to 𝑦, 𝑦 to

2𝑦 and so on will be in the ratio:
∆𝑡1: ∆𝑡2: ∆𝑡3= 12 − 02 ∶ 22 − 12 ∶ 32 − 22
∆𝑡1: ∆𝑡2: ∆𝑡3= 1 ∶ 3 ∶ 5

∆𝑡1 : ∆𝑡2 : ∆𝑡3 : … … ∆𝑡𝑛 = 1 ∶ 3 ∶ 5 ∶ … … .

 Figure shows two adiabatic vessels, each containing mass 𝑚 of water at different
temperatures. The ends of metal rod of length 𝐿, area of cross section 𝐴 and thermal
conductivity 𝐾, are inserted in water as shown in the figure. Find the time taken for the
T difference between the temperature in vessels to become half of the original value. The heat
capacity of the water is 𝑠. Neglect the heat capacity of rod and the container and any loss of
heat to the atmosphere.

To find: 𝑡 for ∆𝑇 = ∆𝑇0

2
𝑑𝑄 𝐾𝐴 𝑇𝐴 − 𝑇𝐵
Solution: 𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 = = … . . (𝑇)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿

𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄
− =
𝑑𝑡 𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝐵

𝑑𝑇𝐴 𝑑𝑇𝐵
𝑚𝑠 − = 𝑚𝑠 …… 𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑇𝐴 𝑑𝑇𝐵 𝑑∆𝑇

− =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2 𝐾𝐴 𝑑∆𝑇
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄 − ∆𝑇 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑∆𝑇 𝑚𝑠 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
− − =
𝑚𝑠 𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑇0
2 𝑑∆𝑇 2𝐾𝐴 𝑡 𝑚𝑠𝐿
2 𝑑𝑄 𝑑∆𝑇 න − = න𝑑𝑡 𝑡= ln 2
− = ∆𝑇0 ∆𝑇 𝑚𝑠𝐿 0
2𝐾𝐴
𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Convection

Convection is a mode of heat transfer by actual

motion of matter.

It is possible only in fluids.

• Natural- Fluid moves due to density difference.

• Forced- Fluid is moved by means of ext. force

Ex - fan, blower, etc.

Conduction Convection

Energy transfer

Mass transfer
 Radiation

Heat transfer without the need for a material medium.

 Prevost Theory of Heat Exchange

It states that every material body, at any temperature above absolute zero, radiates heat to the surroundings
and at the same time absorbs heat from the surroundings.

• The rate of thermal radiation emitted per unit time depends on:

a) Surface area of emitting body.

b) Nature of emitting surface.

c) Temperature of emitting surface.

• If a body radiates more amount of heat than it absorbs, its temperature falls.

• If a body absorbs more amount of heat than it radiates, its temperature rises.

• In thermal equilibrium a body absorbs and radiates the same amount of heat, its temperature remains constant.
 Black Body Radiation

• It is a theoretical model which

is a perfect absorber of
radiation over all wavelengths.

Ferry’s Black Body

 Room temperature

Surface area =A

Reflects more. Absorbs little. Reflects little. Absorbs more.

Emits little. Emits more.

Good absorbers of Radiation are also good Emitters.

 Kirchhoff's Law

• Ratio of emissive power to absorptive power is same for all

bodies at a given temperature and is equal to emissive power
of a blackbody at that temperature.

𝐸 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
= 𝐸 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑎(𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦)

𝐸 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝖺 𝑎 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦

⇒ Good absorbers are good emitters & bad absorbers are bad emitters.
 Energy Spectrum of Black Body

A black body emits radiation of all possible wavelength.

At a given temperature:
• Energy is not uniformly distributed

Intensity (Eλ )
over all wavelengths.

• Intensity increases up to a certain

maximum value with wavelength,
then decreases.

Area = 𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 𝜎𝑇 4 𝜆𝑚 Wavelength,λ
 Wien’s Displacement Law

• The wavelength of highest intensity(𝜆𝑚) is inversely

proportional to the absolute temperature of the emitter.

10
𝜆𝑚 𝑇 = 𝑏 where b is a called

8
Wien’s constant [𝑏 = 2.89 × 10−3 𝑚 − 𝐾]
Intensit

𝑇4 𝑇4 > 𝑇3 > 𝑇2 > 𝑇1

6

𝜆𝑚4 < 𝜆𝑚3 < 𝜆𝑚2 < 𝜆m1

y

4
𝑇3

2 𝑇2
𝑇1

1.0 2.0 3.0

Wavelength, 𝜆
 Stefan’s Law
• The thermal energy emitted by a body of surface area A per unit time is given by

𝑑𝑄
= 𝑒𝜎𝐴𝑇4
𝑑𝑡

𝜎 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant 𝑇𝑠
[𝜎 = 5.67 × 10−8 𝑊𝑚−2𝐾−4] 𝑒, 𝐴, 𝑇

𝑇 = Temperature on Absolute scale

𝑒 = emissivity of the surface (constant & 0 ≤ 𝑒 ≤ 1)

𝑇 > 𝑇𝑠
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑒𝜎𝐴𝑇4

𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑎𝜎𝐴𝑇4
𝑠

Net rate of heat loss, 𝑑𝑇

𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑒𝜎𝐴(𝑇4 − 𝑇 4𝑠 ) = −𝑚𝑠
𝑑𝑡
 A copper sphere is kept in a chamber maintained at 300 𝐾. The sphere is
maintained at a constant temperature of 500 𝐾 by heating it electrically.
A total of 210 𝑊 of electric power is needed to do it. When the surface of
the copper sphere is completely blackened, 700 𝑊 is needed to maintain
T the same temperature of the sphere. Calculate the emissivity of copper.

Power required to maintain the temperature of copper sphere,

𝑃𝐶𝑢 = 𝑒𝐶𝑢 𝐴𝜎 𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑠4 = 210 𝑊 … … (1)

Power required to maintain the temperature of sphere after

blackening it,

𝑃𝐶𝑢 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 = 1 𝐴𝜎 𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑠4 = 700 𝑊 … … (2)

On dividing equation (1) by equation (2), we get,

𝑒𝐶𝑢𝐴𝜎 𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑠4 210

⇒ =
𝐴𝜎(𝑇4 − 𝑇𝑠4 ) 700
⇒ 𝑒𝐶𝑢 = 0.3
 Rate of Cooling

• −𝑑𝑄
The rate of loss of heat, 𝑑 of the body is directly proportional to the
difference of temperature ∆𝑇
𝑡 = (𝑇 – 𝑇𝑠) of the body and the surroundings.

• The law holds good only for small difference in the temperature.

𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄
= 𝑒𝜎𝐴𝑇4 , = 𝑒𝜎𝐴𝑇𝑠4
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
1

(Emitted) (Absorbed)
𝑇𝑠
𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑃𝑛 𝑒 = 𝑒𝜎𝐴 𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑠4 = ms −
𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Rate of Cooling,

𝑑𝑇
− 𝖺 (𝑇4 − 𝑇𝑠4 )
𝑑𝑡
 Newton’s Law of Cooling

• Rate of Cooling:

𝑑𝑇
− 𝖺 (𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑠4)
𝑑𝑡

• Let Δ𝑇 = 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑆 • From Stephen-Boltzmann law

𝑑𝑇
⇒ 𝑇 4 = 𝑇𝑆 + Δ𝑇 4 − 𝖺 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑆
𝑑𝑡
4
Δ𝑇
⇒ 𝑇 4 = 𝑇𝑆4 1+
𝑇𝑆 • In integral form,

Δ𝑇
⇒ 𝑇 4 ≈ 𝑇𝑆4 1 + 4 [∵ Δ𝑇 ≪ 𝑇𝑆] 𝑑𝑇
𝑇𝑆 −න = න𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑆
⇒ (𝑇4 − 𝑇𝑆4 ) 𝖺 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑆
 The temperature of a body falls from 40 °𝐶 to 36 °𝐶 in 5 minutes
when placed in a surrounding of constant temperature 16 °𝐶. Find
the time taken for the temperature of the body to become 32 °𝐶.

Solution:

𝑑𝑇
Newton’s Law of Cooling, − = 𝑘(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠)
𝑑𝑡

For small temperature differences, the curve 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔

𝑑𝑇 Δ𝑇
can be assumed to be linear =
𝑑𝑡 Δ𝑡

Case 1: Case 2:
5 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑡
40 °𝐶 36 °𝐶 36 °𝐶 32 °𝐶

36 − 32 36 + 32
40 − 36 40 + 36 =𝑘 − 16
=𝑘 − 16 𝑡 2
5 2

𝑡 = 6.1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
 A hot body placed in the air is cooled down according to Newton’s law of
cooling, the rate of decrease of temperature being 𝑘 times the temperature
difference from the surrounding. Starting from
𝑡 = 0, find the time in which the body will lose half the maximum heat it can
lose.

𝑇 − 𝑇0
Solution: −ln = 𝑘𝑡
𝑇1 − 𝑇0

𝑇 − 𝑇0
⇒ = 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
𝑇1 − 𝑇0

⇒ Δ𝑇 𝑡 = Δ𝑇 0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

Heat lost by the body: 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑠(Δ𝑇)

𝑄 𝑚𝑎𝑥 Δ𝑇0
For 𝑄 = , Δ𝑇 =
2 2
Δ𝑇0
⇒ = Δ𝑇0𝑒 −𝑘
2 𝑡

ln 2
⇒ 𝑡=
𝑘
 Solar Constant

• Solar electromagnetic radiation per meter square area on Earth’s surface.

• Power radiated by sun:

𝜎 = 5.67 × 10−8, 𝑑 = 1.5 × 1011
𝑃𝑆 = 𝜎𝐴𝑇4 = σ4𝜋𝑅2𝑇4
𝑅𝑆 = 7 × 108, 𝑇 = 5778 𝐾
Intensity on Earth’s surface:
5.67 × 10−8 × 4𝜋 × (7 × 108)2(5778)4
𝐼𝐸 =
4𝜋 × (1.5 × 1011)2
σ4𝜋𝑅2𝑇4
𝐼𝐸 =
4𝜋𝑑2
𝐼𝐸 ≈ 1400 𝑊/𝑚2
 The variation of temperature of a material as heat is given to it at a
constant rate is shown in the figure. The material is in solid state at
the point 𝑂. The state of the material at the point 𝑃 is

𝑇
𝐸

𝐶
𝐷
𝐴 𝑃
𝐵

𝑂 𝑄
Solution:

From Point 𝐴 to point 𝐵, the sold converts into liquid. At point 𝐴, the phase is
completely solid and at point 𝐵, it is completely liquid. Thus, at point 𝑃, it will be
partly solid and partly liquid.
 The Earth receives on its surface radiation from the Sun at the rate
of 1400 𝑊/𝑚2. The distance of the center of the Sun from the
surface of the Earth is 1.5 × 1011 𝑚 and the radius of the Sun is 7 ×
108 𝑚. Treating Sun as a block body, it follows from the above data
that its surface temperature is (𝐽𝐸𝐸 1989)

Given: 𝐼𝐸 = 1400 𝑊/𝑚2 , 𝑑 = 1.5 × 1011 , 𝑅𝑆 = 7 × 108

To find: 𝑇

Solution:
Power radiated by Sun
Intensity at Earth’s Surface, 𝐼𝐸 =
4𝜋𝑑2
σ4𝜋𝑅2𝑇4
𝐼𝐸 =
4𝜋𝑑2

1/4
1400 × 1.5 × 1011 2
⇒𝑇=
5.67 × 10−8 2 7 × 108 2

𝑇 = 5801 𝐾
 Earth receives 1400 𝑊/𝑚2 of solar power. If all the solar energy
falling on a lens of area 0.2 𝑚2 is focused onto a block of ice of
mass 280 𝑔, the time taken to melt the ice will be minutes.
(Latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.3 × 105 𝐽/𝑘𝑔). (𝐽𝐸𝐸 1997)

Given: 𝐼𝐸 = 1400 𝑊/𝑚2, 𝐴 = 0.2 𝑚2

𝑚 = 280 𝑔, 𝐿𝐹 = 3.3 × 105 𝐽/𝑘𝑔

Solution:

Solar power concentrated by the lens melts the ice.

Heat required for melting:

𝑄 = 𝑚 × 𝐿𝐹

Energy from the Sun in time 𝑡:

𝑄 = 𝐼𝐸 × 𝐴 × 𝑡

𝑡 = 330 𝑠 = 5.5 𝑚𝑖𝑛

0.28 × 3.3 × 105 = 1400 × 0.2 × 𝑡
 Three rods of Copper, Brass and Steel are welded together to form a
Y shaped structure. Area of cross section of each rod is 4 𝑐𝑚2.
End of copper rod is maintained at 100 ℃ whereas the ends of brass
and steel are kept at 0 ℃.
Lengths of the copper, brass and steel rods are 46 𝑐𝑚, 13 𝑐𝑚 and
12 𝑐𝑚 respectively. The rods are thermally insulated from
surrounding except at ends. Thermal conductivities of copper brass
and steel are 0.92, 0.26 and 0.12 CGS units respectively.
Find the rate of heat flow through copper rod. (𝐽𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛 2014)

Given: Parameter Copper Brass Steel

𝐿 (𝑐𝑚) 46 13 12

𝐴 (𝑐𝑚2) 4 4 4
𝑇 (℃) 100 0 0
𝑘 (𝐶𝐺𝑆 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡) 0.92 0.26 0.12
Solution:
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 0℃ 0℃
Rate of Heat Flow: 𝑄 = 𝐾𝐴
𝐿 Brass Steel

If the junction temperature is 𝑇, 13 𝑐𝑚 12 𝑐𝑚

Conservation of energy:
Copper 46 𝑐𝑚
𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 𝑄𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 + 𝑄𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙

100 − 𝑇 𝑇−0 𝑇−0

0.92 × 4 × = 0.26 × 4 × + 0.12 × 4 ×
46 13 12
100 ℃
⇒ 𝑇 = 40 ℃
 A vessel of volume 𝑉0 contains an ideal gas at pressure 𝑃0 and
temperature 𝑇. Gas is contiy pumped out of this vessel at a constant
volume-rate 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑟 keeping the temperature constant. The pressure of
the gas being taken out equals the pressure inside the vessel. Find
(a)The pressure of the gas as a function of time.
(b)The time taken before half of the original gas is pumped out.
𝑑𝑉
Given: =𝑟 Solution: 𝑚𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 +𝑑
𝑑𝑡 Solution:
𝑡
𝜌𝑉0 = 𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌 𝑉0 + 𝑑𝑉 𝑡=0 𝑡 = 𝑡0
To find: 𝑃 𝑡 𝑛0 𝑃0
𝑛0 𝑃0
𝜌 𝑟𝑑𝑡 = −𝑑𝜌 𝑉0 2 2

𝑑𝜌 = − 𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑃 𝑃𝑀
= ……… 𝜌 =
𝜌 𝑉0 𝜌 𝑃 𝑅𝑇 𝑟
−
𝑃= 𝑉
𝑃0𝑒 𝑡 0

𝑃 𝑃0 − 𝑟𝑡
𝑡 = 𝑃0𝑒 𝑉0
𝑑𝑃 𝑟 𝑑𝑡 2
න = න−
𝑃 𝑉0
𝑃0 0
𝑡 = 𝑉0 ln 2
𝑟
− 𝑟𝑡
𝑃= 𝑃0𝑒 𝑉0
The temperature difference of 120℃ is maintained between two ends of a
uniform rod 𝐴𝐵 of length 2𝐿. Another bent rod 𝑃𝑄, of same cross-section
as 𝐴𝐵 and length 3𝐿
2
, is connected across 𝐴𝐵. In steady-state, the
temperature difference between 𝑃 and 𝑄 will be close to:
Solution:

3𝑅Τ2 × R 3
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = = R
𝑃𝑄 3R 5
2 +R

8
𝑅𝑒 𝑞 = R
5

∵ 𝐻𝑃𝑄 = 𝐻𝐴𝐵
120
∆𝑇𝑃𝑄 = 8 ×3R
R 5
5
∆𝑇 ∆𝑇
=
𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒
𝑞 𝑃𝑄 𝑞 𝐴𝐵

∆𝑇𝑃𝑄 120
=
3 8 ∆𝑇𝑃𝑄 = 45℃
5R 5R
 A bullet of mass 10 𝑔 moving with a speed of 20 𝑚/𝑠 hits an ice block of
mass 990 𝑔 kept on a frictionless floor and gets stuck in it. How much
ice will melt if 50% of the lost KE goes to ice?

1
initial 𝐾. 𝐸. 𝐾𝐸𝑖 = 𝑚𝐵 𝑣 2 = 2 𝐽
2
1
Final 𝐾. 𝐸. 𝐾𝐸𝑖 = (𝑚𝐵 + 𝑚𝑖𝑐 )𝑉2 = 0.02 𝐽
2 𝑒

Loss of Kinetic Energy,

Solution: Since No 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 ∆𝐾𝐸 = 1.98 𝐽

Using Momentum Conservation, 50% of Loss of Kinetic Energy is absorbed by

the ice for melting,
𝑚𝐵𝑣 = 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 + 𝑚𝐵 𝑉
50 % of 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑒 𝐿
𝑉 = 0.2 𝑚/𝑠
50
× 1.98 𝐽 = 𝑚 𝑖𝑐𝑒−𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 × 80 × 4.2
100

𝑚 𝑖𝑐𝑒−𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 0.003 𝑔
Two stars 𝐴 and 𝐵 of same size, have thermal emissivity of 0.2 and 0.64 respectively. Both
stars emit total radiant power at same rate. If the temperature of 𝐴 is 5000 𝐾 and the
wavelength λ𝐴 corresponding to maximum spectral radiancy in the radiation from 𝐵 is
shifted from the wavelength corresponding to maximum spectral radiancy in radiations
from 𝐴 by 2.0 𝜇𝑚, then find the temperature of star 𝐵 and wavelength λ𝐵.

Solution:

𝑃 = 𝜖𝜎𝐴𝑇4
𝜀𝐴 𝑇 4 = 𝜀𝐵 𝑇 4 … … . . 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 , 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵
𝐴 𝐵
0.2
𝑇𝐵4 = 50004
0.64

𝑇𝐵 = 3738 𝐾

Here, 𝜖𝐴 < 𝜖𝐵
According to Wien’s displacement law,
But 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵, & 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵
λ𝐴 𝑇𝐴 = λ𝐵 𝑇𝐵
∴ 𝑇𝐴 > 𝑇𝐵 (Stefan′s Law)
∴ 𝜆𝐴 < 𝜆𝐵 (Wien′s Displacement Law) 5000
λ𝐵 = × λ𝐴
3740
∴ λ𝐵 − λ𝐴 = 2.0 𝜇𝑚 λ𝐵 = 7.93 𝜇𝑚
λ𝐵 − λ𝐴 = 2.0 𝜇𝑚
 The plots of intensity versus wavelength for three black bodies at
temperatures 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 and 𝑇3 respectively are shown in figure.
Their temperatures are such that:

𝑇3 Solution:

According to Wein’s displacement law,

Intensit

𝑇2
λ 𝑚 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇1
y

λ2 > λ3 > λ1

⇒ 𝑇1 > 𝑇3 > 𝑇2
𝜆1 𝜆3 𝜆2
Wavelength, 𝜆
 Two conducting cylinders of equal length but different radii are connected in series between
two heat baths kept at temperatures 𝑇1 = 300𝐾 and 𝑇2 = 100𝐾 as shown in the figure. The
radius of the bigger cylinder is twice that of the smaller one and the thermal conductivities of
the materials of the smaller and the larger cylinders are 𝐾1 and 𝐾2 respectively. If the
temperature at the junction of the two cylinders in the steady state is 200𝐾, then 𝐾1 =
𝐾2

Given: 𝑇1 = 300 𝐾, 𝑇2 = 100 𝐾 Solution:

𝑟2 = 2𝑟1 In steady-state heat flow across the two cylinders
will be same,
𝐻1 = 𝐻2
To find:𝐾𝐾1
2
∆𝑇1 ∆𝑇2
=
𝐿 𝐿
𝐾1𝐴1 𝐾 1 𝐴2

300 − 200 200 − 100

=
𝐿 𝐿
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾1𝜋𝑟12 𝐾1𝜋 2𝑟1 2
𝑇1 𝑇2

𝐾1
=4
𝐿 𝐿 𝐾2
 A solid copper sphere of density 𝜌 and specific capacity 𝐶 has radius 𝑅.
If it is heated to a temperature of 400 𝐾 is suspended inside a chamber
whose walls are at almost 0 𝐾. The time required for the temperature
of the sphere to drop to 200 𝐾 is

Given: 𝑇1 = 400 𝐾, 𝑇2 = 0 𝐾 Solution:

Assuming, Heat loss from the sphere is only due to
radiation
To find: 𝑡
𝑑𝑇
𝜖𝜎𝐴𝑇4 = −𝑚𝐶
𝑑𝑡

𝑇2 = 0 𝐾 4 3 𝑑𝑇
𝜖𝜎 × 4𝜋𝑅2 × 𝑇 4 = − 𝜋𝑅 × 𝜌 𝐶
3 𝑑𝑡

𝑅𝜌𝐶 200 𝑑𝑇 𝑡
න = − න 𝑑𝑡
3𝜖𝜎 400 𝑇 4 0
𝑇1 = 400 𝐾

7 𝑅𝜌𝐶
𝑡= × 10−6 𝑠
576 𝜖𝜎