GEODESY

ASTRONOMY

In making observations of the sun and the stars, the surveyor is not interested in the distance of
the celestial bodies from the earth but merely in their angular positions. It is convenient to
imagine their being attached to the inner surface of a hollow sphere of infinite radius of which
the earth is the center. The imaginary sphere is the celestial sphere.

The portion of the celestial sphere seen by the observer is the hemisphere above the plane of
his own horizon. The reference plane passes through the center of the earth parallel with the
observer’s horizon, but the radius of the earth is so small in relation to the distances to the
stars. Figure 1 represents the celestial sphere.

North Celestial Pole

Zenith

O North

Nadir
South Celestial Pole
Figure 1. Celestial Sphere
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Celestial Poles – are the points on the earth’s surface of the celestial sphere pierced by the
extension of the earth’s polar axis.

Celestial Axis – is the prolongation of the earth’s polar axis.

Zenith – is the point where the plumb line at the place of observation projected above the
horizon meets the celestial sphere. It is also defined on the celestial sphere vertically above the
observer.

Nadir – is that point on the celestial sphere directly beneath the observer, and directly opposite
the zenith.

Great Circle – a great circle of a sphere is the trace in its surface of the intersection of a plane
passing through the center of the sphere.

Observer’s Horizon – a great circle on the sphere where a plane perpendicular through a plumb
line at the place of observation and passing through the center of the earth, cuts the celestial
sphere.

Observer’s Vertical – a vertical line at the location of the observer which coincides with the
plumb line and is normal to the observer’s horizon.

Celestial Equator – a great circle which is perpendicular to the polar axis of the celestial sphere.
It is an extension on the plane of the earth’s equator outward until it intersects the celestial
sphere.

Vertical Circle – a great circle passing through the observer’s zenith and any celestial body.
Such a circle is perpendicular to the horizon, and represents the line of intersection of a vertical
plane with the celestial sphere.

Hour Circle – a great circle passing through a celestial body and whose plane is perpendicular to
the plane of the celestial equator.

Meridian – is the great circle of the celestial sphere which passes through the celestial poles
and the observer’s zenith. This circle is both a vertical and an hour circle.

The position of any point on the surface the sphere may be fixed by angular measurements
from two planes of reference at right angles to each other passing through the center of the
sphere; these measurements are called the spherical coordinates of the point.
HORIZON SYSTEM

In the horizon system of coordinates, the position of a star is uniquely specified by its azimuth
and either its altitude or its zenith distance.

AZIMUTH (A) - the angular distance

measured along the horizon from the
observer’s meridian to the vertical circle
through the body. (yung azimuth na alam
nating lahat)

ALTITUDE (h) – the angular distance

measured along the vertical circle from the
horizon to the celestial body

ZENITH DISTANCE (z) – the complement of

the altitude. It is the angular distance
measured from the zenith to the star along
the vertical circle passing through the
celestial body

h + z = 90

The Horizon System is also called the Altazimuth System

RIGHT ASCENCION SYSTEM

In the Right Ascension System of coordinates, the position of a star is uniquely specified by its
right ascension (RA) and either its declination (δ) or its polar distance (p)

RIGHT ASCENSION (RA) - The angle taken

counter clockwise along the celestial equator
from the First Point of Aries (Vernal Equinox)
to the hour circle of the star.

DECLINATION (δ δ) – the angular distance

measured along the hour circle from the
celestial equator to the celestial body

POLAR DISTANCE (p) – the complement of

the declination. It is the angular distance
measured from the celestial pole to the star
along the hour circle passing through the
celestial body

δ + p = 90
HOUR ANGLE SYSTEM

In the hour angle system, the position of the celestial body is based on the location of the
observer. The position of the star is defined by the local hour angle of the star and its
declination or polar distance.

LOCAL HOUR ANGLE (LHA) – The angle

measured clockwise from the upper branch
of the meridian of observation to the
meridian of the celestial body.

DECLINATION (δ δ) – the angular distance

measured along the hour circle from the
celestial equator to the celestial body

POLAR DISTANCE (p) – the complement of

the declination. It is the angular distance
measured from the celestial pole to the star
along the hour circle passing through the
celestial body

δ + p = 90

The relationship between the Local Hour Angle (LHA), Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA), Sidereal
Hour Angle, and the Right Ascension is shown in the figure below.

LOCAL HOUR ANGLE (LHA) – The angle

measured clockwise from the upper branch
of the meridian of observation to the
meridian of the celestial body.

GREENWICH HOUR ANGLE (GHA) – The

angle measured clockwise from the
Greenwich Meridian to the Hour Angle of
the star.

SIDEREAL HOUR ANGLE (SHA) - The angle

measured clockwise from the Vernal Equinox
to the Hour Angle of the star.

LONGITUDE (λ λ) – The longitude of the place

of observation.
Since the earth rotates around its axis from west to east, all celestial bodies appear to rotate
east to west. Therefore, when one faces north, the stars revolve around the North Celestial
Pole in a counter clockwise direction. A star which revolves around the North Celestial Pole and
never goes below the observer’s horizon is called a circumpolar star.

OBSERVATION OF POLARIS

The instant that Polaris is directly above the pole, it is said to be at upper culmination (UC) and
when directly below the pole, it is at lower culmination (LC). The star is at western elongation
(WE) when in its most westerly position; and when in its most easterly position, the star is at
eastern elongation.

φ), ALTITUDE (h), AND DECLINATION (δ

RELATIONS AMONG LATITUDE (φ δ)

LATITUDE (φ) – the angular distance measured from the equator along the meridian of
longitude to the vertical line through the observer’s station

DECLINATION (δ) – the angular distance measured from the equator along the hour circle to the
celestial body

ALTITUDE (h) – the angular distance measured from the horizon along the hour circle to the
celestial body

POLAR DISTANCE (P) – the angular distance measured from the polar axis along the hour circle
to the celestial body

ZENITH DISTANCE (z) – the angular distance measured from the vertical axis along the hour
circle to the celestial body
PZS TRIANGLE
A spherical triangle is the figure formed by joining any
three points on the surface of a sphere by arcs of great
circles. The astronomical triangle commonly known as the
PZS triangle is formed by the three points on the celestial
sphere.

P – the north pole of the celestial sphere

Z – the observer’s zenith
S – the celestial body observed

The PZS triangle may be formed either east or west of the

meridian

The sides of the PZS triangle are:

Side PS or p – polar distance

Side PZ or y – co-latitude
Side ZS or z – zenith distance or co-altitude

The angles of the PZS triangle are:

Angle p – parallactic angle

Angle t – meridian angle before or after culmination
Angle Z – true azimuth (reckoned from the north) of the celestial body

In surveying, the PZS Triangle is solved in connection with determinations of azimuth (Z) and
the solution involves spherical trigonometry.

Solving for the angle Z from the laws of spherical trigonometry yields

Since the azimuth in Republika ng Pilipinas is reckoned from the south, the azimuth of the body
would then be:

180 degrees + Z if the celestial body is east of the observer’s meridian or morning
observation of the sun

180 degrees – Z if the celestial body is west of the observer’s meridian or afternoon
observation of the sun
 MORNING OBSERVAT
VATION AFTERNOON OBSERVATION
TION

Note: The angle Z is reckoned

ed fr
from north. The angle “A” from other formulas ulas that you have
encountered (i.e. official
cial gazette, “the-review-center-that-cannot-be-na named” book) is
reckoned from the south.
th. Do the necessary corrections for solving the
e azimuth.
azi

Solving for the angle t yields

The angle t (converted to hourur u

units) is subtracted from 12 o’clock for mornin
rning observations
and added to 12 o’clock for aftern
ternoon observations.

AZIMUTH OF POLARIS AT ELONG

NGATION

During elongation, the apparent

ent path of Polaris is vertically upward or downw nward. Therefore,
the not-so-very-important paralla
rallactic angle is 90 degrees. Solving for the angle
le Z yields

or (Z”and p” are in seconds)

The azimuth of Polaris would then be:

180 + Z for Eastern Elongation and 180 – Z for Western Elongation.

AZIMUTH OF POLARIS AT ANY

Y HO
HOUR ANGLE

Given the hour angle (t), declinati

nation (δ) and the altitude (h)
If the latitude φ of the place of observation is known:

APPENDIX A: MOTION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO THE EARTH

Relative to the stars, it is found that, during the course of a year, the Sun moves eastward along
great circle that is inclined to the equator at an angle of about 23.4 degrees. This great circle is
called the ecliptic, and it is the projection of the plane of Earth’s orbit on the celestial sphere.

The angle between the ecliptic and the equator is called the Obliquity of the Ecliptic. The ecliptic
crosses the equator at two points. The Sun reaches one of these points on about March 21 each
year on its way north at which time the Sun’s declination changes from negative to positive.
This point, the ascending node of the Sun’s path on the equator, is the First Point of Aries which
is actually in the constellation Pisces rather than Aries. Nevertheless it is still known as the First
Point of Aries. It is the point from which right ascensions are measured. The instant of time
when the Sun crosses the equator from north to south at the First Point of Aries is the March
Equinox. Days and nights are of equal length all over the world on that date (“equinox” = “equal
night”), and that date marks the first day of Spring in the northern hemisphere. For that reason
it is also called the “vernal equinox” (Latin verna = “spring”) – but that is hardly fair to southern
hemisphere astronomers, for it marks the beginning of the southern autumn. About three
months later, on or near June 21, the Sun reaches the June Solstice (called by those who live in
the Northern hemisphere, the summer solstice). The declination of the Sun is then at its highest
point, +23.4 degrees. At that instant the rate of change of the Sun’s declination is zero, which
explains the origin of the word “solstice”, which implies that the Sun is momentarily standing
still. The Sun is then in the constellation Gemini. After a further three months, the Sun has
descended back to the equator on its way south, at the September equinox (the “autumnal
equinox” for northerners) on or near September 23, when the Sun is in the constellation Virgo.
And after a further three months the Sun reaches its most southerly declination at the
December solstice (“winter solstice” to northerners) on or near December 21, when the Sun is
in the constellation Sagittarius.