Module 2.

Reference Systems and Reference

Frames
In geodesy, time is relevant for the measurement
Lesson 2.1 Basic units and constants, time of most geodetic observation especially in
systems and reference coordinates systems electromagnetic waves especially in remote
distance measurement such as in electronic
Definition of a such position can be defined through
distance measurement and Global Navigation
Cartesian coordinate system, and for global Satellite Systems ranging.
positioning, the geographic coordinate system is
used. ▪ Atomic time, dynamic time systems
The reference system is represented by ▪ a uniform time scale of high accuracy
coordinate system, defining the orientation in
▪ given by International Atomic Time
space, origin, and scale.
(Temps Atomique International, TAI)
• Basic units and constants In geodesy, time,
▪ origin of TAI: selected epoch January 1,
length, and mass are the basic quantities used.
1958, 0 h
The following units are listed as follow (Torge &
Müller, 2012): ▪ corresponds to Julian century 63,525
TAI days
▪ Second – defined from the duration of
9,192,631,770 period of the radiation ▪ TAI is provided by the BIPM time,
corresponding to the transition between the two frequency and gravity section, from the
hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium- readings of a large set of atomic clocks
133 atom
▪ TAI stability is better than 10-15
▪ Meter – is the length of the path traveled
by light in vacuum during a time interval of ▪ Sidereal and Universal Time
1/299,792,458 of a second. ▪ The diurnal rotation of the Earth which
▪ Kilogram – unit of mass; it is equal to the provides a natural measure of time
mass of the international prototype of the kilogram. ▪ This is to relate Earth-based observations
▪ Angle – a geometrical shaped formed by to a space-fixed system
the intersection of two lines in a plane (Burkholder, ▪ Figure 1 shows the difference of solar day
2017). Radian is used for angle measurement. It is and sidereal day
defined by an arc on the circumference having
equal to the radius. The use of sexagesimal
graduation is also used with the following definition:
▪ One full rotation = 360° = 2π rad
▪ 1° = 60’ (arcminutes)
▪ 1’ = 60” (arcseconds)
▪ Speed of light: c = 299,792,458 ms-1
▪ Gravitational constant: G = (6.67428 ± 0.00067) ×
10-11m 3kg-1s -2
The Bureau International des Poids et Mésures
(BIPM) in Sèvres, France established and
maintained the reference standards of the units.
• Time systems
▪ The diurnal rotation of the Earth about its ▪ Mean solar time, or civil time is a time
polar axis. This approximately coincides related to a fictitious sun. This sun is
with the axis of maximum moment of inertia, assumed to move at a uniform rate.
and it passes through the Earth’s center
▪ Equation of time is the difference between
mass (Figure 2)
apparent solar and mean solar time.
▪ Annual revolution of the Earth around the
sun. Understanding Kepler’s law of
▪ Standard time is the mean time at
planetary motion, the sun is one of the foci
meridians 15° or 1 hour apart, being
of the ellipse in which the orbit of the Earth.
measured from Greenwich in eastward (0°
The Earth’s orbit is called the ecliptic
to 180°) or westward (0° to -180°).
plane, which has an obliquity of 23.5° with
respect to the equatorial plane (Figure 2).

▪ Sidereal time is related to the rotation of

the Earth • Reference coordinate systems
▪ Local Apparent Sidereal Time (LAST) The Reference system contains a set of three-
refers to the observer local meridian which dimensional geometric coordinates and time
is equal to the hour angle h of the true coordinates:
vernal equinox. The vernal equinox is
▪ Celestial Reference System
affected by precession and nutation in
longitude. When the nutation is removed, ▪ A space fixed system represents an
the Local Mean Sidereal Time (LMST) is approximation to an inertial system
obtained referring to the mean vernal
equinox. ▪ The coordinates of the classical celestial
reference system are defined by the
▪ Greenwich Apparent Sidereal Time equatorial system of spherical astronomy
(GAST) and Greenwich Mean Sidereal
Time (GMST) is referred to Greenwich ▪ Figure 4 shows the astronomic equatorial
meridian. system which is a three-dimensional
Cartesian coordinate system
▪ The astronomic longitude (λ or Λ) is the
angle between the meridian planes of the
observer and Greenwich:
Λ = 𝐿𝐴𝑆𝑇 −𝐺𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 𝐿𝑀𝑆𝑇 − 𝐺𝑀𝑆𝑇
▪ LAST is used at the evaluation of
astronomical observations to fixed stars and
extra galactic radio sources.
▪ Apparent solar time is sun time. The sun is
not constantly moving, though it is more
related to the motion of the Earth. ▪ Origin at the center of the Earth
 ▪ X-axis is on the equatorial plane and
pointing to the vernal equinox (First point of
▪ Figure 5 shows the geocentric Cartesian
Aries)
system:
▪ Y-axis is on the equatorial plane and
perpendicular to X-axis, denoting a right-
handed system
▪ The rotational axis meets the sphere at
the celestial north (PN) and south (PS)
poles
▪ The right ascension α is the angle
measured in the plane of the equator
between the planes of the hour circles
passing through the vernal equinox and the
celestial body S
▪ Represented by Cartesian coordinates,
▪ The declination δ is the angle measured XYZ
in the plane of the hour circle between the
equatorial plane and the line OS (+ from ▪ The center is defined and located at the
equator to PN and – from equator to PS) ▪ Earth’s center of mass (geocenter),
Celestial body can be described in including oceans and atmosphere
Cartesian coordinates, XYZ, or by spherical ▪ The Z-axis coincide the mean rotational
coordinates α, δ, r. The transformation as axis
follows:
▪ X-axis and Y-axis is perpendicular to
𝑆 = ( 𝑋 𝑌 𝑍 ) = 𝑟 ( cos 𝛼 cos 𝛿 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛿 sin each other and lies on the equatorial plane
𝛿)
▪ The X, Z-plane is generated by the
▪ In geodesy, the directions are the only conventional mean meridian plane of
concern, given that r=1, deducing an unit Greenwich, this is where the Universal
sphere. Time referred
▪ Terrestrial Reference System ▪ A point can be described its position by
▪ An Earth-fixed reference system, rotating spherical coordinates r (radius), ϑ (co-
within the Earth latitude), λ (longitude) or by Cartesian
coordinates (XYZ) (refer to Figure 6):
▪ Used to describe positions and
movements pf objects on and close to the 𝑆 = ( 𝑋 𝑌 𝑍 ) = 𝑟 ( sin 𝜗 cos 𝜆 sin 𝜗 sin 𝜆 cos
Earth’s surface 𝜗)

▪ Basis for the national surveys,

geoinformation systems and navigation
▪ A three-dimensional geocentric Cartesian
coordinate system
▪ Realized through the coordinates which
are precisely determined of a set of
fundamental stations of a regional, national,
and global geodetic network
 A. International Celestial Reference System and
Frame
The basis of this system is on the position of a set
of selected celestial bodies. (Torge & Müller, 2012).
▪ The barycenter of the solar system
(SSB) is the origin of the spatial coordinate
system
▪ The direction of the system axis is
defined by equatorial plane and ecliptic or
by the positions of extragalactic radio
sources
▪ Measured right ascension and declination
▪ Referred to a specified date (epoch)
Lesson 2.2 International reference systems and
reference frames ▪ Celestial reference frames (CRF) have
been tied to the Earth’s rotation and its
annual revolution around the sun

International Astronomical Union (IAU) &

International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
(IUGG) – defines the conventional celestial and
terrestrial reference system .
International Earth Rotation and Reference
Systems Service (IERS) – responsible for the
realization and maintenance of the reference
frames.
The reference systems are realized by reference
frames. ▪ The global coordinate system defines the
positions with reference to the Earth’s
Frames and Systems: ecliptic & equatorial plane
Reference system: ▪ The first point of Aries (♈︎) is the one of
the two intersections of the ecliptic and the
• A set of basic concepts and models used
equator that the sun passes about March 21
to define at any instant the orientation of the
reference axes ▪ε ≈ 23°27’: inclination of equatorial plane
▪ Individual star catalogues are like
Reference frame : compilations of geodetic coordinates with
relative positions:
• A specific realization for observing and
▪ 4th fundamental catalogue
computing in agreement with the theory
(FK4), 1963 – contained 1,535 stars
• Has a origin, usually fixed to the Earth’s in various equinoxes from 1950.
center • Reference axes, such as Cartesian FK4S (supplement) was an
coordinate system with three orthogonal, amendment to FK4 that contains a
straight axes, and a metric scale further, 1,987 stars.
 ▪ FK5, 1988 – an update of FK4 with a. The origin is located at the Earth’s center
new positions for the 1,535 stars. of mass, including oceans and atmosphere
Contains precise positions and
b. The unit of length is SI, consistent with
proper motions of fundamental stars
the Geocentric Coordinate Time (TCG)
for epoch J2000 as referred to the
coordinate
given reference frame.
c. The orientation of the IERS Reference
▪ IUGG (1991) defined by convention
Pole (IRP) and IERS Reference Meridian
the celestial reference frame is a
(IRM) are consistent with the Bureau
geocentric, equatorial frame with the
International de l’Heure, Paris (BIH)
Earth mean equator and equinox of
epoch J2000.0 orientation at epoch 1984.0, and the
Conventional International Origin (CIO)
▪ FK5 extension, 1991 – added
3,117 new stars d. The time evolution of the ITRS is such
that is exhibits no-net-rotation with respect
▪ FK6, 2000 – update of FK5 to the Earth’s crust
correlated with the ICRF through the
Hipparcos satellite. e. CIO is approximately the average
position, on the Earth, of the Earth’s axis of
▪ the mean X- and Y-axes lie on the mean rotation
equatorial plane of the SSB at the
conventional date of January 1, 2000
(epoch J2000.0)
▪ the Z-axis (polar axis) is orthogonal to the
XY-plane
It was decided in 1898 during the 12th
▪ Figure 2 shows the ICRF which utilizes General Conference Internationale Erdmessung
more than 3,400 compact radio (IR), now IAG, to set up the international polar
astronomical sources, including 295 motion service (IPMS) and the Greenwich Meridian
defining sources. fixed a common worldwide reference X-axis in the
equatorial plane. The mean polar axis 1900-05
defined the Z-axis as the CIO. Figure 3 shows the
IERS adopting the pole at the 1903.0 CIO frame
adopted in 1967.
The figure represents the rectangular system.

B. International Terrestrial Reference System

and Frame
With consideration of relativistic effects, the
International Terrestrial Reference System
The realizations of ITRS are provided by the
(ITRS) provides the conceptual definition of an
IERS, through the International Terrestrial
Earth-fixed reference system.
Reference Frame (ITRF). It comprises a global set
of space geodetic observing stations with their
precisely known coordinates and the horizontal However, there are some physical points that
velocities (Figure 4). The frame succeeded by the two datums overlap, e.g., GRS80 &
GPS-stations and other space techniques. The WGS84.
frame is a set of points with their 3-dimensional
D. World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84)
Cartesian coordinates (X, Y, Z) with reference
epoch (t). In 1986, the WGS84 is based on geocentric
GRS80. The ellipsoidal parameters for both
systems are based on the same equatorial radius
and three physical constants for the GRS80. The
differences of both systems is shown below:

WGS84, realized through Doppler

observations from the TRANSIT satellite system
using a worldwide group of TRANET (tracking
network) stations, which is a conventional terrestrial
C. Geodetic Reference System of 1980 (GRS80) system (CTS)

The GRS80 is a geocentric as specified in

the IUGG Resolution No. 7. Figure 5 shows the WGS84 provides the means by which about
orientation of the system. The rotation axis 115 local and regional geodetic horizontal
coincides with the CIO for polar motion, the zero- datums can be referenced to a single geocentric
meridian as defined by BIH is used (Hooijberg, system. The table below shows the WGS84
2008). constants:

In satellite positioning, GPS is based on World

Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84).
Reference ellipsoid defined by its semimajor axis
(a) = 6,378,137.00 m.
a. The rectangular coordinate system XYZ flattening (f) = 1/298.257223563
whose origin is the geocenter
Generally, software, computer program, and
applications when employing GNSS can already
derive ground positions that could be in 3-D
Cartesian Earth Center Earth Fixed (ECEF)
system (X, Y, Z) or geodetic coordinates (Φ, λ,
h).