EDCI 312/PGDE 711: PEDAGOGY

Course content

1. Foundations of Teaching Methods

2. The Systems Approach to Teaching and Learning

3. Effective Communication in the Classroom

4. Quality Class Management Principles

5. Motivation and Learning

6. Preparation for Teaching

7. Strategies, Methods and Techniques of Teaching

8. Measurement, Assessment and Evaluation in Education

Requirements

 Respective subject syllabus

 Schemes of work and lesson plan formats

 Formats for records of work covered and students’ progress records

Course Code: EDCI 312/PGDE 711
Course Title PEDAGOGY
Credit Factors (CFs) 3.0
Prerequisite(s) NONE
Purpose of the The aims are to develop the prerequisite cognitive and affective
Course qualities in the students for handling classroom responsibilities
with wisdom, flexibility, creativity and a critical spirit. This is
envisaged to be achieved through two strategies. First,
students will be systematically initiated into a variety of
relevant theories – philosophical, scientific, cultured theorizing
and reflective practice – on which modern efficient and
effective pedagogical practice is based. Second, they will be
guided to examine traditional and state – of – the – art
pedagogy
Expected Learning By the end of the course students should be able to:
Outcomes
1. Define the common terms in pedagogy;
2. Give the rationale for studying methods and principles of
teaching;
3. Identify the contributions of the following to pedagogy:
Plato of Athens, Aristotle of Stageira, John Dewey,
Herbert J.F., Pestalozzi J. H., Amos Comenius, Froebel
F., Montessori M., Rousseau J.J.;
4. Discuss the importance of teaching to humanity;
5. Identify primary and secondary duties of a teacher in a
school;
6. Distinguish among the various ways and theories of
learning;
7. Distinguish among the various learning strategies ;
8. Compare and contrast traditional and modern methods
of teaching;
9. Evaluate the degree of competence expected of a
teacher in conducting a lesson in the classroom;
10. Discuss motivation theory and its application in the
classroom;
11. Explain how the systems theory can be used to enhance
pedagogy;
12. Describe the procedure of efficient planning for the
classroom;
13. Describe and explain principles of sound classroom
management;
 14. Discuss the theory of communication and relate insights
from it to communication in the classroom;
15. Discuss the following fundamentals of measurement
and evaluation: the purposes and importance of
measurement and evaluation, the components of a high
quality test and types of classroom tests.

Course Content Foundations of teaching method. Traditional and modern

methods of teaching. Dimensions of competence with respect
to conducting a lesson in the classroom. Theory of motivation
and the classroom. Systems theory and pedagogy. Planning for
classes. Quality classroom management. Theory of
Communication and the classroom.
Modes of Delivery Lecturing, Group discussion and Individual assignments
Instructional White board, White board pens and overhead projectors
Material/Equipment
Course Assessment CAT 1 15%.
CAT 2 15%.
Final examinations will account for 70%.
Total 100%
Core Reading
1. Ayot, H.D & Patel, M.M (1987) Instructional Methods.
Materials for the
Nairobi: Kenyatta University.
Course
2. Cangelozi, J.S (1990). Designing Tests For Evaluating
Student Achievement. NY: Longman.
3. Gronlund, N.E (1981) Measurement and Evaluation (4th
Edition). Ny: Macmillan Publishing Co.
4. Macharia K., Githua, B. & Mboruki, G. (2009). Methods of
Instruction. Ongata Rongai, Kenya: Gugno Books &
Allied.
5. Mukwa C.W (1988). Educational Communication &
Technology, Part One, General Methods. Nairobi:
University of Nairobi.
1. Brown, G. (1978). Lecturing and Explaining. London:
Recommended
Methuen & Co. Ltd.
Reference Materials
2. Bloom, B.S (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives:
Cognitive Domain. New York: David Mckay.
3. Chacha, S.S (1979) Innovation in Teaching – Learning
Process. New Delhi: Vika Publishing House.
4. Curson, L.B (1990) Teaching in Further Education: An
Outline Of Principles And Practice. Great Britain: Cassel.
5. Duke, D.L (1990). Teaching: An Introduction. New York:
 Mc Graw – Hill Pub. Co.
6. Glagne, R.M (Ed) (1987). Instructional Technology
Foundation. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
7. Gerlach, V.S & Ely, D.P (1971) Teaching and Media: A
Systematic Approach. New Jersey: Prentice Hall
8. Hyman, R.T (1970). Way of Teaching. Philadelphia:
Lippicott Co.
9. Lancaster, D.E. (1974). Effective Teaching and Learning.
New York: Garden 80 Breach.
10. Laska, J.A & Goldstein, S.L (1979). Foundation of
Teaching method. USA, Iowa: Wnc Brown Publishing.
11. Ratha, J. (Ed) (1971) Studying Teaching. USA: Prentice
Hall
 TOPIC ONE:

FOUNDATIONS OF TEACHING METHODS

Introduction

Q: What is teaching? What is learning?

Teaching and learning are two sides of the same coin. None is independent of the other.
Teaching can be defined as the process of imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes
and values to learners (Lefrancos, 1991). Therefore, teaching involves two parties; the
teacher and the learner.

Learning from a psychological point of view is defined as the process by which relatively
permanent change in behavior occurs as a result of experience and/or practice.
Therefore, learning is inferred from performance.

Experience
Learners’ Entry Behavior New Behavior
Practice

New behavior is in terms of gains in new knowledge, acquisition of skills and

development of positive attitude.

Behavior means any response that an individual makes to the environment by way of
actions, emotions or thoughts.

NOTE: Not all changes in behavior are the result of learning:

 Some changes result from maturation or simply physical growth while others are
as a result of illness, fatigue or effects of drugs.

 The former changes are not as a result of experience or practices while the later
are not relatively permanent and are they not out of experience or practice.

Q: What is the rationale of teaching and learning?

From a sociological point of view, any human society has a culture. Culture is the
collective way of life of society. It includes its ways of thinking, acting and feeling,
reflected in the society’s religion, law, language, art, customs, tools, housing, clothing
and others. The culture of a society is:

i. A heritage-meaning that it is transmitted from one generation to another

 ii. Learned- meaning that it is not genetically inherited

iii. Shared- among members of the society

Education means enculturation. It is the process of transmitting the desirable aspects

of a society’s culture from one generation to the next. Through education, a growing
person is initiated into the ways of life of the society.

Formal education entails enculturation through formal school attendance. The aspects
of culture to be transmitted are carefully selected and form educational outcomes
expressed as goals, aims and objectives.

i. The school – is the medium of selective cultural transmission through

programmes outlined in the curriculum

ii. Schooling – is the social process by which learners are made to come to terms
with their culture through learning. This way, the society is able to realize its
outcomes

iii. The Classroom – is the traditional area or space where the process of
enculturation (learning0 takes place.

iv. The Teacher – is the person entrusted by the society to guide, supervise and
control the process of cultural transmission (learning).

General methods of teaching (also known as pedagogy) are the salient practices in
teaching that are almost universal and indispensable. These great pedagogical
traditions trace back to the early Greek civilization. Through the works of great
philosophers like Plato, Socrates, Confucius and others and recent works by educators
and psychologists like Froebel, Pestalozzi, Comenius, Montessori, Piaget and others,
these traditions have developed into the modern and state-of-the art methods of
teaching.

Assignment

Briefly discuss the contribution of the following to pedagogy

1. Plato of Athens

2. Socrates of Stageira

3. Froebel

4. Maria Montessori

5. John Dewey
 6. Jean Piaget

7. Jerome Bruner

8. Albert Bandura

Rationale of Studying Pedagogy

A student-teacher is likely to accrue the following among other benefits after studying
general methods and principles of teaching:

i. Equips teacher trainee with adequate knowledge to deal with growing skepticism
on methods of instruction. An example is Neil, the founder of the summerhill
school of England who declared that, “whether a school has or has not a special
method of teaching long division is of no consequence. A child who wants to
learn long division will learn it no matter how it is taught”. Through wide exposure
to the theories of pedagogy, one realizes that Neil’s claim is a naive
oversimplification of the complex process of learning.

ii. The study of teaching methodology is expected to develop an awareness and

appreciation of human achievement in this area. This will enable teachers to
assume control of the means to the ends of the learning process. They will
therefore be in a position to engineer and design new instructional approaches
as well as improve on the existing ones.

iii. Teaching is a unique discipline. Teacher trainees should therefore be well

coordinated in execution of classroom instruction. Through study of pedagogy,
teachers will be able to develop an organized body of knowledge employing
definite concepts and approaches and therefore making collective progress.

iv. Through study of pedagogy, teachers acquire the skills to develop the right
rhythms for teaching and good teaching habits. This makes learning enjoyable
and satisfying.

Role of Teachers in the Society

Teachers play a vital role in the society. However, the primary roles of teachers are in
the school setting. The primary roles include-

(a) Human Resource Development – Teachers have been entrusted by the society
the responsibility of transmitting to the learners’ desirable knowledge, skills and
attitudes so that they become useful members of the society. This is achieved by

 Teaching academic subjects

  Participating in curriculum development

 Developing teaching and learning resources

 Preparing learners for examinations

 Setting, moderating, administering and marking examinations

(b) Administrative Leadership – Teachers play different administrative and

management roles in schools. These include

 Being appointed to administrative offices such as school principals,

deputy principals, Heads of Departments and Heads of Subjects teachers

 Being managers of the classroom teaching and learning process.

 Coordinating school events like music, drama, games pastoral

programmes etc.

(c) Disciplinarians – Teachers have the responsibility of molding learners into

responsible citizens. They are expected to train desirable behavior among
learners for achievement of earning outcomes. This is achieved through

 Creating rules and regulations to guide learners’ conduct

 Exercising control over learners

 Creating conducive learning environment in the classroom

 Creating good rapport with learners

 Meting out punishment to deter errant behavior

(d) Guidance and Counseling – with the dynamic changes in the society, teachers
have the responsibility to guide and counsel earners in order to live and cope with
the changes. Teachers guide learners on

 Coping with changes in technology

 Living with people infected and affected by HIV/AIDS

 Avoiding negative peer influences like involvement in drugs and substance

abuse

 Relationships

 Challenges in family and society

  Subject selection and career choices

 Further education and training

(e) Role Modeling – Teachers are expected to embody the central values of the
society and be role models to the learners. The society has placed high
standards of morals on teachers and teachers are therefore responsible for
maintenance of the values. They are the shining examples in the society and
learners are expected to emulate them. They are expected to

 Be smart

 Be of good physical appearance

 Eat well balanced diet

 Live in good housing

 Be at the forefront in fighting social vices like drunkenness and drugs and
substance abuse

(f) Surrogate Parenting – with the challenges of present day parenting, teachers
bridge the gap by playing the role of surrogate/substitute parents to learners
while in school. Challenges of parenting include

 Young and ignorant parents

 Very busy and occupied parents

 Unstable families

 Single parents

 Poverty

In addition, teachers play secondary roles in the society. These include

i. Political coordination and Facilitation

Teachers empower the society on prevailing political affairs like providing civic
education and coordinating elections. Teachers are also appointed to positions of
influence like chairing committees and mobilization drives. They also lead the society in
fighting social vices and outdated cultural practices like FGM.

ii. Instilling Moral and Spiritual Values

Most youth shun places of worship and other agents concerned with their moral and
spiritual growth. They view the church as a place for the old, the sick and the poor.
Sometimes they regard the teaching that goes on in the church as an attack on their
character. On the other hand, the church does not understand the youth nor address
their issues. Teachers are therefore left with the responsibility of ensuring their learners’
spiritual and moral growth.

Qualities of a Teacher
In order to achieve the status of a professional, a teacher is expected to possess the
following attributes

i. Initiative
This is the ability to know what to do in varying circumstances. It involves making
creative decisions to overcome unseen challenges. In cases of emergencies, the
actions should be such that they do not endanger the lives of the learners. The
decisions should be prompt and appropriate to the situation.

ii. Patience
This involves taking time to listen carefully before passing judgment. Teachers should
not be hasty in reactions. They should avoid physical aggression at all times. Being
patient cultivates learners’ confidence in the teacher.

iii. Respect
Teacher should be self-respecting in order to command respect from learners and other
staff. Teacher’s respect for the learners cultivates good rapport between them. Good
rapport is a necessary condition for creating a conducive teaching and learning
environment.

iv. Flexibility
This is the ability to adapt easily to new situations. It involves making decisions that are
suitable to the prevailing circumstances. For example, teachers should be flexible in
reacting to students’ grievances.

v. Firmness
Teachers should be highly principled and firm. They should not waiver in their decisions.
However, firmness should be weighed carefully with flexibility

vi. Honesty
Teachers must be transparent and seek after truth at all times. They should not be
involved in malpractices that include embezzlement of school funds, being accomplices
in examination cheating, being absent from school without reason and failing to attend
classes among others.
 vii. Foresight
This is the ability to project the future. Foresighted teachers are able to interpret the
trend of events and foretell the likely future scenario. They are therefore in a position to
advice their learners and the school accordingly. Foresighted teachers can forecast he
future more accurately compared to teachers without foresight.

viii. Intellectual Curiosity

This is the interest of a teacher to read widely and exposure in his/her area of
specialization. Such teachers have a broad perspective of their subject areas. They are
also keen to note new changes in their areas and adapt accordingly.
 TOPIC TWO

THE SYSTEMS APPROACH TO TEACHING AND LEARNING

Meaning of a System

A system is a set of objects, elements or components which are interrelated and work
in harmony towards an overall objective (Romiszouski, 1981). A system is also defined
as a set of complex factors that interact in a manner as to achieve a common goal or
purpose.

Examples of systems

i. Mechanical – examples include musical;, radio, computer, car, etc.

ii. Natural – drainage, rain, sewage etc.

iii. Human body – blood circulatory, respiratory, endocrine, digestive etc.

iv. Social – church, family, factory, political party etc.

Note a larger system can comprise smaller sub-systems. Each subsystem is self-
operating but all work for the common good of the larger system.

In a technological system, raw materials undergo a process to produce the finished

products. For any system, there are three basic parts:

a. Input – What is fed into the system for it to function

b. Process – the procedures that the input go through to become finished products

c. Output – the final or the finished products

Input Process Output yes

No

Feedback
Characteristics of a System and how they apply in the Country’s Education System

Characteristics of a System Application in Education System

Goals/ Aims/Objectives – These refer A country’s education system is guided
to the target to be achieved. They give by the National goals of education.
direction to the system. Every member They govern all aspirations of a nation.
works towards their achievement All stakeholders work towards their
achievement
Elements – These are the parts or Elements in a country’s education
components that make the system. system are the different components
The parts interact and interrelate. Each of the system. These include schools,
member has its own function vital for Ministry of Education, KNEC, KICD,
the functioning and survival of the publishing houses, Teacher unions,
system. One element is separated TSC among others. Each of the
from another by a boundary, yet the components constitutes a sub-system
elements are inter-dependent. Each within the education system. For
element constitutes a sub-system as it example, the school is a sub-system
performs individual tasks within the with many stakeholders – learners,
system teachers, parents …
Harmony – Despite the fact of each Components of a country’s education
element having its own function, there system must work in harmony as they
is coherence in the interaction of the play their different but interrelated
various elements of the system. The roles.
elements cooperate and work in Question – Identify the role of the key
harmony for the attainment of the components of the education system
system’s aspirations. in Kenya
Feedback – Refers to the knowledge of The education system must provide for
the performance of a system after its assessment of its components against
own assessment. Feedback indicates each of their targets. The overall
the success eve of the system. assessment of learners at the
Through feedback, the system checks summative level provides information
its own performance thereby about the success of each of the
stabilizing itself. components. When the feedback is
negative, it provides opportunity for
each component to evaluate its
contribution and develop remedial
strategies

Systems Approach Applied to Classroom Teaching and Learning

A general cyclic model of systems approach when applied to classroom teaching and
learning was provided by Ely and Gerlach (1987). The model is represented
diagrammatically as below
 Teaching/l
earning
process
Objectives -Method
Assessment
-Resources
Of
-Time
Learner’s Performanc
-Space
entry e
-Groups
behavior
-
Interaction
s
Content -
Formative
Analysis of
Summative Feedback
Feedback

The model indicates that-

 Teacher considers the instructional objectives as outlined in the syllabus and
considers the suitable content

 Teacher assesses the entry behavior of the learners to consider the suitability
of the instructional process

 Teacher organizes the instructional process. This involves considering and

interacting suitable methods and experiences, instructional space, time,
environment, and resources among other input.

 At the end of the instructional process, teacher plans and implements

assessment of performance against the expected earning outcomes.

 Based on analyses of the feedback, teacher decides on the follow-up activity. If

positive, earners are taken to the next level of instruction. If negative, teacher
 plans remedial action, by reviewing the instructional process.

Teacher’s Catering for Learners’ Underachievement

 Vary method and techniques of instruction

 Vary time and resources

 Consider individualized attention

 Create incentives to provide for motivation

Reasons why Teachers Fail to Employ Systems Approach

 Time constraints

 Overburdening curriculum

 Inadequate training – ignorance on the part of the teachers

 Inadequate resources

 Undue interference from outsiders like politicians

 TOPIC THREE

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION IN THE CLASSROOM

Meaning of Communication

Dictionary defines communication as the art of expressing ideas and feelings or giving
people information. Human communication signifies that other animals do
communicate. Wiseman and Baker (1974) define human communication as a process
which involves a series of interactions where relationships are discovered and
integrated towards a specific objective. The objective is an attempt to influence one
another.

Properties of Communication arising from the Definition

(a) Interaction

 suggests that more than one element are involved

 the elements are in dynamic engagement with each other

 indicates a relationship of equal and active partners who alternate in

originating and responding to ideas

(b) Relationship

 Indicates that the elements in the communication process have

similarities or differences in perspectives and depth of the discussion

 The communication process leads to bridging of the gaps thereby

establishing an equilibrium between the elements

(c) Integration

 Suggests pulling together of the elements towards a common purpose

 The elements must work in harmony for the achievement of the expected
outcomes

(d) Process

 Every communication process starts from a starting point and grows

towards an end point.

 The end point is the achievement of the planned and pre-stated objectives

(e) Influence
  Suggests that the ultimate evaluation as to whether the communication
process was successful or not is the impact that it will have on the
elements.

 The influence is a measure of the change in behavior produced on the

elements as a result of the process

(f) Purposive

 Suggests that every communication effort should be guided by an

intention of purpose

 The elements are guided by the purpose in development of the

communication process

Levels of Communication

Communication takes place at five hierarchical levels

(a) Intrapersonal Communication

 Takes place within an individual

 Through intrapersonal personal communication we evaluate our ideas before we

express them

 It is useful in application of the question/answer technique during instruction

(b) Interpersonal Communication

 Takes place when two parties engage in exchange of ideas and opinions

 The parties may be one -to - one individual like teacher – learner, doctor – patient,
child – parent, husband - wife etc. or one or the two parties may involve more
than one individual, like, teacher – class, priest – congregation, dowry negotiation
parties etc.

 When interpersonal communication is strictly between two persons, it is called

dyadic communication

 Positive relationships are formed and sustained through continuous engagement

in interpersonal communication

(c) Group Communication

 Involves more than two parties where individual members contribute from a
variety of stand points.
  Examples include discussion in a meeting, debates in parliament etc.

 For successful group discussion to occur, the participants the participants start
by agreeing on the acceptable norms and conduct, for example, the standing
orders that guide parliamentary debate

 Members may also agree to have a chairman to control and moderate

communication

 The level is applicable as group discussion during classroom instruction

(d) Mass Communication

 Is communication facilitated through mass media

 It makes it possible to reach many audience through mass communication

 The media may involve audio channels like radio, audio cassettes, etc. visual
channels like books, newspapers, journals etc. or audio-visual channels like films,
videos, computers etc.

 This mode has been applied in broadcasts to students in schools

(e) Cultural Communication

 Is concerned with transmission and upholding of a society’s culture

 Culture informs people about a society’s way of life

 It communicates the habits, customs, beliefs, customs, values, ethics and norms
of the society

 It makes different communities to appreciate and respect each other’s traditions

thereby cultivating harmony in a multi-ethnic society, leading to national unity

Elements of Communication Process

Effective communication involves the following elements

(a) Source (Encoder)

 Originator of the message

 Designs the stimulus within the message

(b) Message

 Is the stimulus originating from the source

 Message could be in form of language symbols or non-verbal cues

 Communication involves attaching meaning to the stimulus through personal

interpretation

 It is therefore subjective

(c) Channel

 These are the means used to transmit the message

 Should be carefully selected so that it does not distort the message

 Chalkboard has been an important traditional channel of communication in the

classroom

(d) Receiver

 Is the recipient of the message from the source

 Decodes the message depending on his/her perception of the stimulus in the

message

 Message should therefore be tailored to the needs and interests of the receiver

 Source should avoid burdening the message with his/her values and
perspectives

(e) Effects

 These are the changes in the behavior of the receiver resulting from the stimulus
in the message

 Effects could be gains in new knowledge, ability to perform tasks or change in

attitudes of the receiver

 These determine the effectiveness of the communication

(f) Feedback

 Is the receiver’s response to the message

 It is significant because

 It provides receiver an opportunity to express his/her opinion

 Provides source an opportunity to assess the effectiveness of the message

  Provides basis for the remedial action in case message was not effective

(g) The Environment

 Is the situation or context within which the communication process takes place

 Plays a significant role in determining the effectiveness of the message

 Environment should be carefully selected or created to suit the communication

process

 For example, noise is an environmental barrier to effective communication

Message
Source (Encoder) Receiver
Channel

Effect

Feedbac
Environmen

(Diagrammatic representation of the elements of communication process)

Barriers to Effective Communication

Barriers to communication are the factors that hinder effective communication process.
They can be grouped into four categories. Table below shows the barriers and
suggestions on how they can be addressed in the classroom

Barriers Suggestions on how they can be addressed

(a) Physical Barriers

Environmental like noise Careful selection of favourable environment
Inaudibility Seeking medical attention
Hearing disabilities Seeking medical attention
Inarticulate speaking Speaking slowly
(b) Social Barriers
Cognitive dissonance Change the attitude of the recipient(s)
Inferiority complex Cultivate sense of confidence
Superiority complex Address ego
Status/ego threat Cultivate sense of self-efficacy
 (c) Intellectual Barriers
Lack of prerequisites Arrange the content sequentially and logically
Language difficulties Use language suitable for the learners
Imbalance between known and Teach from what learners know and link it to
unknowns the new content to be taught
Ignorance of symbols Introduce and use symbols carefully
(d) Psychological Barriers
Anxiety Seek guidance and counselling intervention
Stress Seek guidance and counselling intervention
Physical discomfort Seek guidance and counselling intervention
Lack of interest Seek guidance and counselling intervention
Competition for attention Section of favourable environment
 TOPIC FOUR

QUALITY CASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Meaning of Management

 It is the process of getting activities completed efficiently and effectively with

and through people.

 The activities are designed to accomplish a goal or an objective

 Manager directs people’s effort and focus towards accomplishment of the

activities and attainment of the goals

Teacher and Classroom Management

 Teacher is the manager of the classroom teaching and learning process

 Teacher must therefore be systematic, efficient and effective in performing

his/her role expectations

 Effective classroom teaching and learning management revolves teacher paying

the four key managerial roles

(a) Planning for Instruction

Planning for teaching involves preparation of the series of activities and strategies
needed to achieve pre-stated objectives. Teacher should be able to forecast the
requirements for the task in relation to the needs of the learners. In effective planning
for teaching, teacher should

 Set out clear objectives of instruction

 Select suitable content for achievement of the objectives

 Arrange the content sequentially and logically

 Design suitable teaching/learning activities and experience

 Allocate time for activities appropriately

 Budget and source for required teaching/learning resources

 Plan for assessment of achievement of objectives

 (b) Organizing Instruction
This involves deliberate creation of an environment conducive for learning and hence
achievement of objectives. Teacher integrates instructional input in a manner that
produces maximum learning benefits. Learners are recognized as essential learning
input. In creating a teaching/learning organization teacher

 Allocates learners specific roles to play in the learning process

 Ensures that all learners are included in the learning process. Learning becomes
inclusive

 Identifies suitable environment for the process

 Includes requisite teaching/learning materials to enhance learning

(c) Directing Instruction

This entails ability of the teacher to focus earners’ attention and effort towards
accomplishment of the objectives. Teacher assumes leadership over the class. In
directing instruction teacher

 Adopts motivational teaching styles that guide and inspire learners

 Guides learners through the learning tasks and experiences

 Supervises students as they carry out the tasks

 Provides necessary support to weak learners (scaffolding learning)

 Assesses learners’ individual input

(d) Controlling Instruction

Teacher assumes authority over the class. This entails getting learners to comply with
laid out rules and regulations. Controlling sometimes involves forced compliance,
especially for activities deemed unpleasant by the learners. To command authority over
the learners, teacher can adopt the following strategies

i. Formulate reasonable rules

 Rules should create harmony in the classroom

 They should be well known and owned by the learners

 They should be followed to the full

 ii. Maintain dignity

 Avoid arguments and physical confrontation with students

 Set a good role model

 Create respectable distance with students

 Avoid populism

iii. Be consistent

 Apply disciplinary measures uniformly

 Punishment should measure up to the offence committed

 Avoid favourism (subjectivity)

iv. Be firm

 Do not waiver in decisions

 Make firm but wise decisions

 Tackle cases of disorder immediately

 Carry out and fulfill any promises made to the learners

v. Be self-critical

 Reflect upon your strengths and weaknesses

 Exploit the strengths while addressing the weaknesses

 Avoid emotional behavior in front of the class

 Cultivate a good working relationship with the learners

vi. Be efficient

 Prepare well for lessons

 Be methodical in lesson presentation

 Carry all items/materials needed

Discipline and Punishment

Sometimes the terms discipline and punishment are taken as synonyms. However, they
are different in meaning.

 Discipline is training expected to produce a specific character or pattern of

behavior suitable for achievement of objectives. Being a training implies that
discipline is a branch of knowledge

 Punishment are acts intended to correct errant behavior.

Theories/Schools of Discipline

There are three prevailing theories of discipline that are applicable in schools. These
together with their associated benefits and limitations are summarized in the Table
hereunder

School of Discipline Benefits Limitations

Authoritarian Ensures strict Coercive and does
Advocated by Plato of Athens. adherence to not allow for
Demands total obedience to authority. regulations flexibility
It is opposed to individual liberty.
Entails strict adherence to laid out
rules and regulations
Progressive Cultivates sense of Learners may
Advocated by John Dewey responsibility among abuse the liberty
Stresses individual liberty as opposed individual earners and misinterpret
to strict discipline. Also referred to as the provisions of
Laissez Faire. Learners are given free the discipline
will to choose what to do
Objective Motivates learners so No easy to
Advocated by John Kelly that they willingly maintain and
Based on the incentive contingency comply with the sustain on the part
theory that if the consequences regulations for the of the school and
contingent on an act are rewarding, one likely benefits that will teachers
will willingly repeat the act. Stresses on accrue
achieving conditions of a motivated
individual

Tips on Effecting Punishment

 Immediate punishment is most effective

 Limitations associated with punishment are inherent not in the technique used
but in its abuse

 Harsh and very frequent punishments are counter-productive

 Removal of reward/praise is a more effective punishment that presentation of an
unpleasant stimulus (like corporal punishment)
 TOPIC FIVE

MOTIVATION AND LEARNING

Meaning of Motivation

 Word motivation is derived from the basic word motive

 Motive means ‘reason for doing something’

 Therefore, to motivate is to give someone a reason to want to do something

 From a psychological point of view, motivation is the process of arousing,

directing, regulating and sustaining human behavior

 It is the set of conditions that cause one to initiate an activity and pursue it with
vigor and persistence

 Academic motivation is the psychological process that determines the direction,

intensity and persistence of behavior among learners related to learning

Properties of Motivation

 Motivation arouses behavior – causes one to initiate an activity and pursue it

with vigor and persistence

 Motivation directs behavior – determines and selects behavior suitable to the

activity

 Motivation energizes behavior – gives individual self-drive to accomplish an

activity

 Motivation sustains behavior – gives individual perseverance until the activity is

accomplished

Sources of Motives (Needs - Drive Theory)

 A need is a deficit or a lack in an organism.

 Needs can be unlearned or learned

 Unearned needs arise involuntarily, for example, need for food, drink, shelter

 Learned needs arise out of a conscious effort to fulfill a requirement, for

example, need for money, education etc.

 Drive is the tendency of behavior brought about by an unsatisfied need.

  Each drive is associated to a need

 For example, hunger is the drive related to the need for food

 Self-actualization is the drive related to the need for education

 Abraham Maslow (1954) identified a hierarchy of human needs. From the

hierarchy, there are three (3) primary sources of motives and two (2) secondary
sources.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs

(a) Primary (Basic) Needs

These include

i. Physiological Needs

These can also be called the biological needs. They include the need for food, water,
temperature regulation, sex etc. They are unlearned

ii. Safety Needs

These are generated by worries and concerns for issues of survival. They are
manifested by people’s need for social order, which is predictable and non-threatening.
It includes the need for social order, psychological safety and security.
 iii. Belongingness and Love Needs

These are deficiencies in matters of inclusion and belonging. They relate to the need to
develop relationships that attract affection. They include the need for affiliation,
affection, love, friendship, acceptance etc.

(b) Secondary (Growth) Needs

These include

iv. Self-esteem Needs

These are needs that lead one to cultivate and maintain a high opinion of oneself. It
brings the need to be held in high esteem by others. They include the need for
competence, approval, self-respect, confidence recognition etc.

v. Self-actualization Needs

These are needs that involve bringing out the best in oneself. They make one to pursue
such virtues as goodness (philanthropic), truth and justice, happiness etc. An important
aspect of self-actualization is the pursuit of knowledge and wisdom.

 According to Maslow (1954)

 Once the lower needs have been satisfied, the higher needs are released

 A need does not have to be completely satisfied before the next need emerges

 If the basic needs are not satisfied, they form a barrier to motivation in pursuit of
higher needs

 This has significant implications in a learning situation

Question – Discuss the implications of Maslow’s Theory to teaching and learning

 Hungry children cannot learn effectively – need for school feeding programme in
some regions in Kenya

 Children from broken homes and unstable family backgrounds have challenges
in learning

 Psychologically abused and stigmatized children develop learning difficulties

(bullying in schools). These have to be addressed before they are involved in the
learning process

Types of Motivation in Learning

Motivation to learn may be intrinsic or extrinsic

(a) Intrinsic Motivation

It is the incentive or self-drive that comes from within the person to perform a task.

 It is mainly instinctive (unconscious)

 Arises from the satisfaction ones

 derives when carrying out an activity, for example, a learner who performs well in
a subject is motivated to work even harder in the subject

 It may also arise from a rational decision, for example, a learner who makes a
decision to pursue engineering at the university is motivated to study
mathematics and sciences

 Intrinsic motivation is suitable in addressing Maslow’s higher level growth needs

 It is manifested in two forms

i. Self-efficacy – sense of achievement after successful completion of a

demanding task. It provides a measure of how successful one is in a given
situation and determines the effort one puts in pursuit of an activity. In
education, it is achieved in measurement and evaluation by use of the
criterion referenced assessment

ii. Competence motivation – is the of achievement derived when one competes

favorably among peers. It generates a sense of confidence and self-worth. In
measurement and evaluation, it can be implemented through use of norm
referenced assessment that involves ranking learners.

(b) Extrinsic Motivation

Refers to contextual factors imposed on a person by external agents. The factors are in
form of rewards and punishment, for example, praise/rebuke, approve/disapprove.
Extrinsic motivation is concerned with the lower of Maslow’s needs.

For example, a learner may fail to attend class regularly because he/she is

 Hungry

 Feeling insecure in class

 Has been alienated by other learners in class

 Is humiliated by the teacher in class

Extrinsic motivational interventions for addressing the needs or deficiencies are
external in the form of encouragement and reinforcement.

Dimensions of Motivation in Learning

Keller (1984) described four (4) dimensions of motivation to learn (Referred to as the
ARCS model). These include

i. Attention – the extent to which a learner’s curiosity is aroused to learn and

respond and attend to subject matter

ii. Relevance – extent to which learner perceives content of subject matter to be

significant and valuable

iii. Confidence – learner’s perceived likelihood of success through personal

control of behavior

iv. Satisfaction – learner’s psychological satisfaction (equilibrium) due to

experience of intrinsic growth needs and extrinsic rewards.

Effective Ways of Motivating Learners in the Classroom

(a) Reinforcement – these are rewards in the learning process. They come in the
form of

 Material rewards – for example, awarding with a book

 Verbal rewards – for example, praise

 activity rewards – for example, a trip

 intrinsic rewards – for example, a sense of humor

 reinforcement should be carefully managed with regard to frequency, intensity

and timing

 immediate feedback followed by suitable reinforcement is most effective

(b) Provision of feedback – this is the report of how successful learner was in
performing a task. Feedback on learners’ achievement in a task should be
appropriate and immediate. It generates a sense of self-efficacy among the
learners.

(c) Learner involvement – means integrating learner participation in the

teaching/learning process. Teacher should employ teaching methods and
techniques that continually engage learners. This attracts learners’ curiosity and
interest.
(d) Provision of incentives in learning – teacher should design learning tasks in ways
that provide learners an opportunity to experience personal achievement and
satisfaction. This involves building learner’s self-efficacy. For example,
application of child-centered methods of teaching lead to leaners discovering
knowledge with minimal teacher participation except guidance and facilitation,
and leads to learners with high self-esteem

(e) Teaching in hierarchies – teaching should proceed from the known to the
unknown. Teacher should review prerequisite knowledge and effectively link it
with the new content to be covered. This way, there is no knowledge
gap/continuity in learning.
 TOPIC SIX

PREPARING TO TEACH

Introduction

Teaching entails organizing or structuring learning experiences in a way that enables

learners to learn.

 It is therefore imperative for teacher to plan effectively for instruction

 Panning is laying out a course of actions to be followed in future

 It involves careful arrangement of the actions that need to be taken in order to

achieve set objectives

 Effective planning for teaching revolves around three important documents

(a) The Subject Syllabus

 It is a condensed outline of all the topics of a prescribed course of study for a

given level

 The topics are designed to be covered within a specified period of time

 In Kenya, the syllabus for schools/middle level colleges is written by subject

specialists coordinated by the Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD)

 However, universities write their own syllabus for the programmes they offer

 A subject syllabus will contain the following elements

i. Statements of intent (Goals, aims and objectives)

The statements of intent describe the expected outcomes which can be short term or
long term. The syllabus outlines the following

 National goals of education in Kenya

 Aims of teaching a particular cycle, for example, aims of teaching in secondary

schools in Kenya

 General objectives of teaching a particular subject in a given cycle, for example,

general objectives of teaching mathematics in secondary schools in Kenya

 Specific (instructional) objectives of teaching particular topics in a given subject,

 for example, specific objectives of teaching the topic ‘radioactivity’

ii. Subject matter or the content. The content is outlined in form of topics. All
topics to be covered in a given subject are outlined

iii. Suggested teaching/learning resources. The syllabus has attempted to

describe specific instructional materials for some topics

iv. Suggested methods of assessment. Syllabus has outlined some methods of

assessment in some instances

v. Suggested practical activities/project work. This is especially so in science

technical subjects

 In preparing a subject syllabus, the following considerations are made

 The goals of education in Kenya

 Aims of teaching in a given cycle

 Genera objectives of teaching the subject

 Content/subject matter

 Needs and abilities of learners

 Available teaching/earning resources

 The teacher’s role is to ensure that what is prescribed in the syllabus for the
subject has been effectively taught and attained by the learners

 The syllabus has the following importance

 Guides teacher on expected outcomes to be achieved as a result of teaching and

learning

 Prompts teacher to prepare for all content prescribed for the course

 Provokes teacher innovativeness in use of variety of teaching/learning resources

 Guides teacher in considering most appropriate teaching approaches and

methods

 Ensures uniformity in teaching in all schools

(b) The Scheme of Work

  It is a systematic arrangement of topics into teachable units

 The units are presented in the order in which they will be taught

 It is prepared by the subject teacher(s) in constant consultation of the subject

syllabus

 Teacher plans how to cover the topics in the most suitable sequential and logical
order

 The plan is designed to cover a specific period in the academic year, usually a
school term

Importance of a Scheme of Work

i. Arrangement of topics/content in a logical and sequential order enhances

students’ understanding of the subject matter

ii. Teacher is able to plan and source for required teaching/learning resources

iii. Prompts teacher to read widely ahead of the students thereby getting an
overview of areas likely to present difficulties to earners

iv. Prompts teacher to think and reflect on the most appropriate teaching
strategies and methods

v. Guides teacher in preparing the day to day teaching activities (lesson panning)

vi. Facilitates smooth hand-over and take-over of a class to a new subject

teacher

vii. Provides school administrators with a tool for monitoring progress in

teaching and learning

viii. Provides Ministry in charge of Education through Quality Assurance and

Standards (QAS) with a tool to inspect and supervise curriculum
implementation in schools

Factors to Consider in Preparing Quality S/W

i. Syllabus requirements in terms of the objectives, content, practical activities,

resources etc.
 ii. Topic prerequisites – to ensure learning progresses from what the learners know
to the new content to be taught

iii. Learner characteristics – ability level, grade level, age etc.

iv. Time available to cover the topics

v. Allocation of the lessons on the school master timetable

vi. School calendar of activities for example, days for games, tests, parents’ day,
half term etc.

vii. Public holidays for the nation

viii. Reference materials – prescribed course books and other references

ix. Climatic seasons – for example, in agriculture, plan to teach planting during the
wet season

Elements of a S/W

i. Preliminary (administrative) details - these include the name of the teacher,

school, class for which the S/W is being prepared, the subject, the year, for
example, 2021 and the term for example, Term II.

ii. Instructional objectives – these are the specific topic objectives (for the topics
to be covered in the period being planned for). They begin with the phrase, ‘By
the end of the (period), the learner should be able to’. Then list all the objectives
to be covered (without breaking into topics)

iii. References list – is a list of all the reference books used to develop the S/W.

iv. Week – is the week in the term.

v. Major topic area – is the main content area to be covered. Indicated in caps

vi. Lesson number – is the position of the lesson in the week. It therefore repeats
after every week

vii. Lesson topic – is the specific content area to be covered in the lesson. Indicated
in lower case but underlined above the objectives

viii. Objectives – are the expected learning outcomes to be achieved in the lesson.

ix. Methods (teaching and learning activities) - are the teaching and learning
techniques to be employed in the lesson. Teacher must reflect on these carefully
for effective achievement of the objectives
 x. Teaching and learning resources – are the equipment to be used during the
lesson. They include the references and teaching/learning aids.

xi. Remarks – are the comments regarding teacher’s evaluation of the success of
the lesson. Usually indicated in terms of achievement of objectives by the
learners. Filled after the lesson has been taught rendering S/W to be a record.
The column is useful for monitoring teaching and during handover/takeover of a
class by a new subject teacher.

(Ref. Laikipia University S/W Format)

Statement of expected learning outcomes

Expected learning outcomes for the lesson (lesson objectives) are important because

 They guide the teacher on what is expected to be achieved by the end of the
instructional period

 Focus teacher and learner activities thereby reducing digression

 Guide teacher to consider most appropriate teaching techniques and resources

 Help in design of suitable assessment of learning

 Guide teacher in selection and choice of teaching/learning activities and

experiences

A well formulated and stated lesson objective has the ABCD component

A – Audience (the learner)

B – Behavior change. The behavioral term must be SMART (specific, measurable,
achievable, realistic and time bound)
C – Condition, for example, by the end of the lesson
D – Degree of performance, for example, accurately, correctly etc.
Example By the end of the lesson the learner should able to
i. Draw the diagram of and name correctly the parts of an electroscope
ii. Highlight correctly functions of parts of an electroscope
iii. Discuss charging and discharging of an electroscope
iv. Identify sources of error in charging and discharging of an electroscope
Question – Identify the components of each objective
Note
 Phrase ‘by the end’ signifies that learning is a process and does not place at an
instant. Therefore, avoid ‘at the end of ‘

 Objective addresses single learner because learning is an individual and not a

 collective process

 Each lesson should be guided by at least 3 hierarchically formulated objectives

 The hierarchy should consider the taxonomic levels of learning (Bloom’s

Taxonomy)

Action Words in Statement of Objectives (Bloom’s Taxonomy)

Level of Learning Cognitive Objectives Skill Objectives

1. Knowledge - recall of Name, List, Define, State, Draw, Label, Model,
knowledge Duplicate, Memorize
2. Comprehension – Explain why, Explain Locate, Report, Select,
understanding of concepts meaning, Describe, Observe and identify
Discuss, Recognize,
Identify
3. Application – making Explain how, Apply, Solve, Record, Set up,
use of learnt knowledge Demonstrate, Interpret, Construct, Match
4. Analysis – identify parts Differentiate, Compare, Organize, Experiment,
that make whole and Contrast, Distinguish, Test,
connection between them
5.Synthesis – bring Examine, Hypothesize, Construct proof, Develop
together parts to make Prove, Compare and report,
whole contrast,
6.Evaluation – judging Justify, Appraise, Defend, Value, Design, Formulate,
worth by specified criteria Critique, Argue Investigate
 Sample Scheme of Work

UNIVERSITY LOGO
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM AND EDUCATION MANAGEMENT
SCHEME OF WORK
Teacher’s Name ……………………. Reg. No. ……………… School …………………….
Class ………………… Subject ……………………
Year ………………… Term ………………………

Instructional Objectives
By the end of the term the learner should be able to:
i. …………………………….
ii. …………………………….
iii. ……………………………...
iv. ……………………………..
… ………………………………
… ……………………………….
… ……………………………….

(List the specific/syllabus objectives for the topics to be covered in the term)

References Used
S/No Author (Year) Title Publisher
1 Gonyali, A. (2003) Living the Promise CRE Kenya Literature
Students’ Book Two Bureau (KLB)
2 Gonyali, A. & Malesu, J. Living the Promise CRE KLB
(2003) Teacher’s Guide Book
Two
3 Gathumbi, A. et al. New Integrated English Jomo Kenyatta
(2006) Students’ Book One Foundation (JKF)
4 Gathumbi, A. et al. New Integrated English JKF
(2006) Teacher’s Guide Book
One
Wee Major Les Lesson Topic and Method Learning/Teac Remarks
k Topic son Objectives Learning/Teachin hing
Area No. g Activities Resources
… … … … … … …
4 URBANI 2 Early Urban - Question and References Objective
ZATION Centers answer (1) Pg. 14 – 17 s
By the end of the - Class discussion (2) Pg. 6 – 7 satisfact
lesson the learner - Use of (3) Pg. 45 – 48 orily
should be able to: examples/Illustrat T/L Aids achieved.
i. Explain the ions i. Map of
meaning of - Highlighting key Africa
urbanization points ii. Pictures in
ii. Name at least Students’
four early urban book
centers in Africa iii. Local
iii. Identify and environment
explain the factors iv. Real life
that led to experiences
development of
early urban centers
in Africa
... .... … … … … …

Week Major Les Lesson Topic and Method Learning/Teac Remarks

Topic son Objectives Learning/Teachin hing
Area No. g Activities Resources
… … … … … … …
6 THE 1 Alkali Metals - Question and References Objective
PERIOD By the end of the answer (1) Pg. 34 – 41 s
IC TABE lesson the learner - Class discussion (2) Pg. 15 – 17 satisfact
should be able to: - Demonstration (4) Pg. 45 – 48 orily
i. State the period - Use of T/L Aids achieved.
of alkali metals examples/Illustrat i. Periodic Learners
ii. Name at least ions Table were able
four alkali metals - Highlighting key ii. Sodium to
iii. Explain the points iii. Water correctly
properties of alkali iv. Chart answer
metals containing questions
properties of during
alkali metals the
lesson.
... .... … … … … …
(C) The Lesson Plan
 Is the work plan for one instructional period (single of multiple)

 Contains a detailed and systematic description of activities to be carried out in

order to achieve pre-stated expected learning outcomes

 Derived from the S/W

 The activities are planned in three main phases

I. Lesson Introduction

 Teacher uses set induction to tactfully capture and focus learners’ attention

 Aim is to set the minds of the learners ready to learn the new content.

 The key focus is to connect the new earning to what the learners already know
(prior knowledge)

 A common anticipatory set is to review previous knowledge related to the new

content

 It may also involve – asking a thought provoking question, displaying a relevant

T/ aid, stating the expected learning outcomes etc.

II. Lesson Development

 Is the major phase of the lesson presentation

 Teacher uses suitable teaching method and techniques to guide earners to

cover the subject matter

 The content is presented in small steps logically arranged and well linked

 Each step is designed to cover an objective

 Teacher ensures effective and efficient use of resources as instructional input

and not as distractors

 Learners are actively engaged and motivated in the learning experiences and
activities as teacher guides and supervises

 Teacher may also incorporate mastery activities as well as supervised practice

III. Lesson Conclusion

 Teacher guides learners to highlight the key learning points of the lesson
  Teacher may also give assignment

Elements of a L/P

i. Administrative details – school, subject, teacher’s name, lesson number, date

class(es)

ii. Major topic area

iii. Lesson topic

iv. Lesson objectives

v. Step and time

vi. Content (concepts/skills)

vii. Method (teacher and learner activities)

viii. Teaching/learning resources

(See sample lesson pan)

Sample Lesson Plan

UNIVERSITY LOGO
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM AND EDUCATION MANAGEMENT
LESSON PLAN
School ………………………….. Student Teacher’s Name …………………………
Subject: ……………………….. Reg. No. ……………………………………………
Major Topic Area: …………….. Lesson No. Date Class(es)
Lesson Topic: …………………… ……………… ………….. ………….
……………… …………… ………….
Lesson Objectives:
By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to:

i. ………………………………………………

ii. ……………………………………………….

iii. ………………………………………………..
STEP & TIME CONTENT METHODS TEACHING/LEARNING
(CONCEPTS/SKILLS) TEACHER/LEARNER RESOURCES
ACTIVITIES
Lesson - Meaning of By use of question and - Local environment
Introduction Urbanization answer technique - Real life experiences
(5 Min) teacher guides learners
to explain the meaning
of the term
urbanization
Lesson - Early urban centers in Teacher guides References
Development Africa learners to identify and (1) Pg. 14 – 17
(30 Min) - factors that led to locate early urban (2) Pg. 6 – 7
development of early centers in Africa (3) Pg. 45 – 48
urban centers in Africa Through class T/L Aids
discussion, teacher i. Map of Africa
guides learners to ii. Pictures in Students’
identify and explain book
factors that led to
development of early
urban centers in Africa
Lesson Lesson summary and By use of question and - Chalkboard
Conclusion Assignment answer, teacher guides - Learners’ notebooks
(5 Min) learners to highlight the - Ref (1) Pg. 17
key learning points of
the lesson and gives
assignment
 STEP & CONTENT METHODS TEACHING/LEARNING
TIME (CONCEPTS/SKILLS) TEACHER/LEARNER RESOURCES
ACTIVITIES
Lesson Structure of the By use of question and The Periodic Table
Introduction Periodic Table answer technique,
(5 Min) teacher guides learners
to review the structure
of the Periodic Table
Lesson - Meaning of alkali Teacher guides References
Developmen metals learners to discuss the (1) Pg. 34 – 41
t - Period of alkali metals meaning and identify (2) Pg. 15 – 17
(30 Min) - Examples of alkali the period of alkali (4) Pg. 45 – 48
metals metals
- Properties of alkali By referring to the - The Periodic Table
metals Periodic Table, teacher - Sodium
guides learners to - Water
identify examples of - Chart containing
alkali metals properties of alkali metals
Teacher performs
demonstration of
reaction between
sodium and water as
learners observe
Teacher guides
learners to explain the
properties of alkali
metals
Lesson Key highlights of the By use of question and - Chalkboard
Conclusion lesson answer, teacher guides - Learners’ notebooks
(5 Min) Assignment learners to highlight the - Ref (1) Pg. 41
key learning points of
the lesson
Teacher gives
assignment
Importance of Lesson Planning

i. Logical presentation of content enhances students’ understanding of concepts

ii. Plan focuses teacher and learners to the activities suitable for achieving the
expected learning outcomes, thereby minimizing digression away from the set
targets

iii. Being precise and accurate, the plan enhances teacher’s expectancy of success
and cultivates his/her confidence in lesson presentation

iv. Questions planned for each phase facilitates monitoring of learners progress in
learning

v. Being precise and accurate, the plan makes teacher time conscious hence
effective and efficient in lesson delivery (time management)

vi. Being an enlargement of the units in the S/W, the plan enhances visualization of
the content to be learnt

vii. Logical sequencing of the content makes conduct of the lesson psychologically
satisfying

Assignment

Identify a suitable content area from any one of your teaching subjects

(a) Prepare a six lessons scheme of work. Each lesson lasts 40 minutes. Assume
lessons 1,2 and 3 have been taught with lesson objectives satisfactorily achieved.
However, learners had difficulties in lesson 4 and remedial teaching had to be
done (assume remedial teaching has been already done)

(b) Prepare a lesson plan for lesson 5

(c) Prepare a suitable records of work covered

(Documents to be prepared on the Laikipia University Templates)

 TOPIC SEVEN

STRATEGIES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING

(a) Teaching Strategies

Teaching strategy refers to the overall way or the broad approach in which the teaching
process is organized and executed. It is a road map that shows the path to be followed
to achieve pre-stated objectives. There are two broad categories of teaching strategies

i. Expository (Transmission) Teaching

 Teacher’s main role is to transmit synthesized knowledge and skills to passive

learners

 It is also referred to as teacher-centered approach

 It is mainly deductive in nature

 The strategy is useful when providing information or developing step-by-step

skills

 Methods associated with the strategy include lecture, narration, demonstration,

drill and practice etc.

ii. Heuristic (Discovery) Teaching

 Other terms used to describe the strategy include enquiry, problem solving,
induction etc.

 It is commonly referred to as earner-centered teaching

 The main role of the teacher is to guide learners to discover knowledge while
providing support and facilitation

 It is mainly inductive in nature

 The strategy is highly recommended for developing learners’ skills and positive
attitudes

(b) Teaching Methods

These refer to the set procedures or processes for teaching. The methods can be
categorized as follows
  Transmission methods

 Lecture

 Demonstration

 Drill and practice

 Narration/storytelling

 Facilitation methods

 Problem solving

 Reflective discussion

 Concept mapping

 Interactive instructional methods

 Discussion

 Role playing

 Seminars/interviews

 Experiential learning methods

 Experiments

 Field trips

 Games and puzzles

 Independent study methods

 Homework/assignment

 Computer assisted instruction

 Project work

Commonly used methods of instruction

Method Description When Key Teacher Advantages Limitations Improvemen

Useful Roles ts

Lecture Active When -Prepare -wide content -restricts -teacher to

teacher audience notes can be students to include many
 communicat is too -engage covered passive examples
es large. learners -teacher has learners based on
synthesized May cognitively complete -likely class students’
information make use control over control experiences
to passive of public content challenges -use of
learners. address -requires -limited sketches
Learners system limited transfer of and other
listen and resources skills visual
make notes -large -limited in representati
audience can development ons
be reached of positive -breaking
attitudes using
question
interludes
-varying
stimulus
appropriately

Demon Showing -when -assemble all -Cheap -limited in -integrate

stration class how to showing materials compared to acquisition of aspects of
perform a how a -prepare the practical skills by learner
particular particular demo site activity learners participation
task special -try out the -saves time -may lead to -guide
Teacher equipme demo before and poor class replication of
performs nt works class time resources control task by
task -showing -arrange -suitable -limited learners
accompanie a learners to when safety development -ensure
d by oral complex be able to of learners is of positive active
explanation procedur see at stake attitude engagement
Learners e -plan for -preserves of all
may -when a learner delicate learners
replicate task has participation equipment
performance inherent in the demo
of the task dangerou
s aspects
-when
apparatu
s are not
sufficient
to allow a
practical
activity
with all
learners
Group Interactive -when the -constitute -develops -learners in -teacher
Discuss and topic/iss mixed ability communicati some cases guidance to
ion experiential ue of groups on skills digress away focus
method discussio -assign among the from the focal learners
where n is discussion learners point of the discussion
learners in familiar topic(s) -encourages discussion -strict
groups to -guide and learners to be - teacher
share ideas students supervise he more tolerant disagreement supervision
and opinions -during discussion and broad s may arise and control
on a topical revision -assess minded that may -assigning
issue in individual -develops deteriorate specific
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 (c) Teaching Techniques

These are the specific skills that a teacher employs during teaching. A teaching
technique is designed to accomplish an objective during lesson presentation. The
following are the commonly used teaching techniques

1) Set Induction
These are the techniques of introducing the lesson. Teacher draws learners’ attention to
the new lesson/content. Lesson introduction is important because

 It provides linkage between what the learners know to the new content

 It enhances motivation and interest for the lesson

 Enables teacher to highlight the expected learning outcomes of the lesson

 Enables teacher to create the conducive environment for learning

 Sets pace for the lesson

Common introductory sets are listed hereunder. Teacher uses one or more to tactfully
introduce the lesson

 Reviewing previous knowledge and linking it to the new content of the lesson.
The prior knowledge may be what was covered during the last lesson, previous
year, in the previous cycle etc. There must be a relationship between what is
reviewed and the new concepts to be covered

 Narrating a related incident, either true or hypothetical, but one with important
parallels to be derived to link the lesson. This serves to arouse learners’ attention
and interest

 Displaying a relevant teaching/learning aid for example, a model, picture etc.

Teacher asks thought provoking questions related to the aid that will be
answered in the course of the lesson development

 Asking a thought provoking question or presenting learners with a problem to

solve. The steps in its solution provide the learning process. The question is
meant to draw learners’ attention

 Highlighting the expected learning outcomes of the lesson. Teacher gives a gist
of what the learners will have learnt by the end of the lesson, the skills they
should be able to display and the kind of attitude they should have developed
 with regards to the new learning

2) Oral Questioning Technique

Question is a statement that calls for a response from the audience. In use of the
questioning technique, teacher uses low, medium and high level cognitive questions to
engage learners in the learning process. Reasons for asking questions include

 To test previous learning

 To stimulate and direct learners’ thinking

 To enhance learners’ participation in the learning

 To provoke learners’ creativity

 To arouse interest and focus learners’ attention

 To diagnose areas that may be presenting difficulties to learners

 To evaluate learning

 To reinforce key learning points of the lesson

Characteristics of good oral questions include

 They should be clear, brief and direct

 They should be thought provoking

 They should be suited to the learner characteristics like age, ability level etc.

The sequencing of events in oral questioning is as follows

 Pose the question in clear and precise terms

 Provide some time for learners to think and reflect

 Identify a respondent from those with hands up

 Take time to analyze the learner’s response

 React appropriately to the response by giving appropriate feedback for

reinforcement

Common mistakes in oral questioning include

  Asking vague questions

 Asking questions that invite yes or no answers

 Asking rhetoric questions, like, isn’t it, is it clear, have you understood

 Repeating the question in different ways before the learners respond

 Identifying the respondent before asking the questions

 Entertaining chorus responses from learners

3) Use of Examples/Illustrations
Examples are illustrations that help to clarify an explanation. They help learners to
comprehend new concepts and see relationships. They are used in reasoning
structuring response. They therefore play an important role in logic development. There
are two approaches in use of examples

 Deductive Approach

 Also known as the ‘rule – example’ approach

 Teacher starts by giving the general rule (generalization) and then asks learners
to generate specific examples and non-examples.

 For example, ‘all mammals give birth to young ones, identify two animals that are
mammals and those that are not

 Inductive Approach

 Also called the ‘example – rule’ approach

 Teacher guides learners to learn specific cases until a rule begins to emerge

 Several cases are reviewed and checked for consistency

 Teacher finally guides learners to make the general rule

For example, teacher guides learners to count the edges, vertices and faces of different
polyhedral solids and generalizes the Euler’s formula (V + F = E + 2)

 In effective use of examples, teacher

 Incorporates/embeds examples with other techniques

 Uses examples that are within the range of understanding of the learners
  Avoids overloading lesson with examples

 Asks learners to provide more examples

4) Stimulus Variation
This is teacher liveliness in teaching. Enthusiastic teachers are regarded to be effective
in stimulating learners’ imaginative behavior. Stimulus variation basically consists of
changing the patterns of stimulation of the learners so that their attention is gained and
sustained. Examples of stimulus variation techniques include

 Teacher movement

 Teacher moves methodically and systematically along the rows of learners’

seating arrangement

 This compels visual and audial sensory adjustments from the learners

 Teacher gesture

 These are movements of parts of the body by the teacher to provide emphasis

 Teacher moves head, body, hands, face etc. to convey meaning

 Gestural focusing may also include smiling, nodding, showing approval etc.

 Deliberate focusing attention

 Teacher may combine both gestural and verbal focusing

 Teacher makes a statement as he/she moves to show something, for example,

look up here learners

 Voice variation

 Teacher varies the quality, tone and rate of speaking

 This renews learners’ attention

 Changing interaction patterns

 Teacher may vary the patterns of interaction from teacher to earners to other
modes like learner to other learners

 Careful patterning of these interaction styles varies the context within the
content being presented thereby increasing attention
  Switching sensory channels

 Teacher shifts from one communication mode to another

 For example, from audio to visual material

 This compels change of primary receptors from ears to eyes

 This is the rationale behind use of audio, visual and audio-visual aids in teaching

 Use of multi-senses in learning increases retention of learnt knowledge

The purpose of use of stimulus variation is to

 Arouse and sustain learners’ interest in the lesson

 Break monotony of using one stimulus in learning

 High retention of learnt knowledge

 Increase attainment of expected learning outcomes

 Cater for specific needs of learners

5) Lesson Closure
Lesson closure means directing learners’ attention to completion of the lesson or
specific tasks within the lesson. Effective closure reinforces what has been learnt in the
lesson. There are two forms of lesson closure

 Cognitive closure

 Directed at consolidating what is learnt during the lesson

 Involves highlighting the key learning points of the lesson in summary

 Teacher uses questioning technique to guide learners to highlight the key

learning points

 Social closure

 Is concerned with giving learners a sense of achievement upon successful

completion of the lesson/task

 It builds the self-efficacy of the learners thereby building their intrinsic motivation

 Teacher encourages the learners to continue striving

Importance of lesson closure includes
 Learners’ achievement is maximum with summary of key points

 Focuses attention of what has been learnt

 Draws earners’ attention to completion of the lesson

 Creates a sense of achievement (self-efficacy) among the learners

Dimensions of Competence in Presenting Lesson

1. Preparation

(a) Adherence to Scheme of Work

 Lesson plan tallying with the lesson number in S/W

 Harmony between references and T/L Aids cited in S/W and in L/P

 Consistency between the expected learning outcomes highlighted in S/W

with those in L/P

(b) Clearly Stated Lesson Objectives

 Correct opening phrase of the expected learning outcomes (both in S/W

and L/P)

 Specifically derived objectives (at least 3)

 Measurable behavioral term in the learning outcomes

 Objectives consistent with the content to be covered

(c) Written Lesson Plan Correctly

 Major topic area, lesson topic, Lesson number, date and class correctly
indicated

 Well written lesson objectives

 Correctly written steps and time for each step

 Well written concepts/skills for each step

 Expounded and learner-centred teaching/learning activities

 Correctly highlighted references and T/L Aids for each step in lesson
presentation
 (d) Appropriate Format/Layout of Work

 S/W written on LU template

 L/P written on LU template

2. Lesson Presentation
(a). Introduction
i. Effectiveness

 Tact in capturing and focusing learners’ attention to the content to be

taught

 Engagement of learners in building up the foundation of the lesson

ii. Relevance

 Lesson built up by linking the known to unknowns

 Relatedness of the known concept to the new content to be learnt

(b). Development
i. Steps Clearly Followed
 Lesson presented in small steps (systematic and methodical)

 Logical flow of ideas within steps

 Steps consistent with the objectives of the lesson

ii. Connection between Steps Clearly Emphasized

 Clearly focusing learners attention from one step to the next

 Linking the steps smoothly from one to the next

 Building up/constructing knowledge systematically

 Emphasis of key learning points in each step

 Appropriateness of Style of Teaching

 Consistency of the method of teaching with the objectives (content) to be

covered, learner characteristics and resources available

 Appropriate pace of lesson presentation

 Appropriateness of the language of presentation

  Development of key learning points on the chalkboard/whiteboard as
lesson develops (No dictation of notes). Maintenance of the key points on
the chalkboard/whiteboard until lesson conclusion (Ref Appendix)

iii. Intensity of Learners’ Involvement

 Assigning clear roles to learners in lesson development

 Engaging learners in discussion and through question and answer

 Relevant learning activities that engage learners

 Having interludes of learners’ discussion within the lesson

 (Any other relevant ways of engaging learners in the lesson – weigh the
intensity)

iv. Learners Continually Motivated

 Providing regular feedback about tasks assigned

 Encouraging learners in answering questions/performing tasks

 Reinforcing learners’ effort through rewarding (verbal)

 Integrating interesting learning activities in the lesson

 Building self-efficacy in the learners as lesson develops

 Generating curiosity among the learners in the lesson

 Maintaining eye contact with learners

 Calling learners by their names

v. Questioning Technique Effectively Used

 Posing clear and unambiguous questions

 Avoiding questions that attract chorus answers

 Reacting to and appropriately reinforcing learners’ responses

(c). Conclusion
i. Appropriateness

 Focusing learners attention to the end of the lesson

 Giving learners a sense of achievement upon successful completion of the

 lesson

 Reinforcing achievement through highlighting the key learning points of

the lesson

ii. Evidence of Achievement of Objective(s)

 Learners’ ability to answer questions in all content areas covered

 Ease with which learners navigate through the lesson

 No doubts or uncertainty on the face of the learners

3. Subject Matter

(a) Mastery of Content

 Demonstrated knowledge of content during lesson development

 Not reading or referring directly from text books unless where necessary

 Responding to learners’ questions easily and correctly

 Demonstrating understanding of prerequisite knowledge and linking it to

the lesson concept(s)

 Demonstrating understanding of relationships among related concepts

 Being able to pick out easily the key learning points of the lesson

(b) Depth of Coverage Appropriate for the Level of Class

 Coverage of all content as stipulated in the subject syllabus (objectives)

 Adequate but appropriate depth of coverage of the content

 Adequate mastery activities given

 Demonstrated abilities acquired by learners like answering questions and

solving problems

 Use of relevant examples appropriate for learners’ level

 Extent to which the content focused in the lesson was explored and
amplified

(c) Usefulness/Applications/Relevance

 Suitability of the content covered with regard to the syllabus requirements

  Applicability of the knowledge covered in solving daily life problems

 Extent to which the knowledge covered would be useful in answering

related KCSE questions

 Integrating real life examples and illustrations in the content coverage

 Content useful in helping learners to see patterns and identify meaningful

relationships

4. Teaching/Learning Resources

(a) Relevance/Suitability

 Relevant choice/selection of teaching aids

 Consistency with content/objectives of the lesson

 Convenience for teaching/learning

(b) Creativity/Use of Environment/Real Object

 Creativity in development/choice of T/L Aid(s)

 Reference to local environment to develop concepts

 Use of real objects (Realia) and/or models

(c) Clarity, Attractiveness, Readability

 Clarity of the T/L Aid(s)

 Attractiveness/ choice of color contrast of charts

 Legibility of charts

 Readability of charts/Proper display

(Note Substitute appropriately for other T/L Aid(s), including those not self-prepared)

(d) Timeliness of Use

 Hiding/concealing of content until appropriate time for use (for charts)

 Display of the content at the appropriate time

 Removal of T/L Aid at the appropriate time

(e) Proper Use of Chalkboard, Legibility of Letters, Straight Lines and Clean
 Chalkboard after Use

 Neat chalkboard/whiteboard layout

 Use of straight edge to draw lines on chalkboard/whiteboard

 Clarity/legibility of chalkboard/whiteboard writing

 Cleaning chalkboard/whiteboard after the lesson

5. Teaching Personality

(a) Punctuality and Time Management

 Teacher starts lesson in time

 Proper time management within the lesson ending at the right time

(b) Interaction – Friendly, encouraging and approachable

 Friendly and respectable towards students

 Empathizing and patient with the learners

(c) Disposition/Confidence

 Teacher confidence

 Authority figure in the classroom

(d) Voice Projection

 Clear communication

 Well projected voice

(e) Decency – Dressing and Language

 Teacher neatly/decently dressed

 Respectable language used to communicate with students

6. Class Organization and Management

(a) Discipline

 Encouraging behavior among learners favorable for learning

 Building good rapport with learners

 (b) Sensitivity to Class Needs and Class Environment

 Developing conducive environment in the classroom for learning

 Addressing the learning and non-learning needs of learners appropriately

 Enforcing classroom rules and procedures

(c) Class Control and Supervision

 Effective class control

 Effective supervision of learners in task performance

 Firmness in dealing with indiscipline cases

7. Assignment and Evaluation

(a) Past and Current Assignments given and Marked

 Learners’ books marked, signed and dated at regular intervals

 Evidence of assignments given and marked

(b) Students’ Records Maintained – Progress Records/Records of Work

 Records of work covered and learners’ progress records developed

appropriately (Ref Appendices)

 Remarks in records of work covered and schemes of work updated

 Frequency of assessments assigned, marked and marks posted in students’

progress records

TOPIC 8

MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

After careful planning for instruction and its implementation, it is time to take stock of
the gains achieved. This is through evaluation of the achievement in learning. The
following are the meanings of the related terms

(a) Measurement

 It is the process of assigning a quantitative or numerical value to an attribute

 Any measurement process involves use of a tool of measure

 Educational measurement is the process of assigning numerical value to a
learner’s output/performance according to specified criteria

 The numerical value is referred to as score

 The tools of measure include tests, direct observation, oral questioning etc.

 The process is usually objective and precise

(b) Assessment

 It is the process of determining the level of performance in a particular skill or

area

 It involves estimation of the nature, quality or value of somebody in terms of an

attribute

 Educational assessment therefore is the process of determining the level of

performance of a learner in a particular area

 It can be done either continuously or cumulatively

 The purpose of assessment may include

 Recognition of achievement

 To improve instruction

 To promote growth

 To modify program of study

 The process of assessment includes aspects of both measurement and

evaluation

 Decision of what is to be assessed

 Identification of tool of assessment

 Interpretation of the evidence

 Using the results to make the decision(s)

(c) Evaluation
  It is the systematic process of collecting qualitative and quantitative information
and presenting it in a form that facilitates decision making among alternatives

 Educational evaluation is therefore the process of collecting information with the

intention of making value judgment on learners’ achievement

 The process involves use of agreed internal and external criteria

 The process is usually subjective (personal) and difficult to define with high
degree of precision

 However, it should be fair, consistent and reliable

 There are two types of educational evaluation/assessment

I. Formative (Continuous) Assessment

 This is continuous assessment of students’ learning

 It is used in provision of feedback for both the teacher and the learner

 Purpose to the learner

 Provides motivation to study

 Encourages learners to develop good study habits

 Enables learners to gauge their own learning

 Purpose to the teacher

 Provides feedback on learners’ strengths and weaknesses

 Grouping learners according to ability levels

 Provides feedback on the effectiveness of the methods of instruction

 Helps to identify difficult areas in the subject matter

II. Summative Evaluation

 Is the evaluation of students’ achievement at the end of a major unit of work or

course

 Usually done at the end of the year or cycle

  Purpose to the learner

 Motivation to learn academic subject

 Career choice and further study

 Purpose to the teacher/school

 Promote learners to higher level

 Provide basis for remedial work

 Inform parents/guardians of learners’ achievement

 Assess effectiveness of the program of study

 Purpose to the government

 Recruitment to future professions

 Career guidance and choice

 Certification

Approaches to Assessment
There are three main approaches to educational assessment

(a) Criterion Referenced Assessment

 Assessment of learners’ achievement against a pre-determined criteria

 The criteria may be a minimum standard that a learner should achieve

 For example, to score a grade ‘A’ in university examinations, learner should score
minimum of 70 marks

(b) Norm Referenced Assessment

 Learners’ achievement is compared with that of other students of the same

grade/level

 The achievement is also compared with that of a perceived average learner

which is accepted as the norm

 Therefore, learner’s achievement is described as above average, average or

below average

 In the assessment, learners’ scores are expected to follow the normal

 distribution curve

(c) Ipsative Referenced Assessment

 Learners’ achievement is compared with his/her previous achievement with the

intention of recording improvement

 Assessment is individual learner-centered

 Development of individual learner is encouraged without reference to other

learners for comparison

 It is especially suitable for specialized skills training and for learners with
special needs

Techniques/Modes of Assessment
There are various techniques of assessment

(a) Oral questioning technique

 Teacher poses oral questions as learners respond

 Teacher can award score to learner’s participation and responses

(b) Written tests/examinations

 Teacher presents written questions (items) to learners who respond in writing

 Teacher marks and awards score to the responses against a clear marking guide

(c) Portfolios

 It’s a collection of samples of student’s best performances

 The performances are used as evidence of achievement

 Suitable in recruitment into professions

(d) Direct observation

 Suitable in carrying out a task or activity

 Involves creation of a checklist on which behavior of learner is observed and

itemized

(e) Interviews

 Is an encounter, dialogue or exchange of verbal information between interviewer

 and interviewee

 Interviewer rates the interviewee based on the responses he/she gives on

questions on different topical issues

(f) Questionnaire

 It’s a list of written questions/items designed to collect information on an issue

 The information gathered is used as the basis for decision making

(g) Rating scales

 These are instruments used to measure how good, popular or important a

performance is in relation to other performances

 Assessor scores each response on a rating scale

 The total score is a measure of the quality of the issue being measured

Tests and Testing

 A test is a tool or measuring device containing a series of questions (called items)
each of which has a correct answer

 The answer is weighted and assigned a score

 Testing is the process of administering a test

 Tests are used to determine learner’s competence on a range of abilities

(knowledge, skills, competencies etc.)

 The total score is used to evaluate the learner’s performance

 Importance of testing include

 Diagnosing learning difficulties

 Motivating learners to study

 Reinforcing learning

 Providing feedback on achievement to learner, teacher and parent/guardian

 Assess effectiveness of methods of instruction

 Decision on professional aptitudes

 Classification and promotion of learners

  Problems associated with testing include

 Anxiety among learners

 Narrow view among learners where testing forms basis of unhealthy

competition

 Time constraints

 Demanding in terms of planning and preparation on the part of the teacher

 Expensive in terms of resources requirements

 Qualities of a good examiner

 Thorough knowledge and mastery of subject matter

 Capacity to prepare original items

 Good language mastery

 Good understanding of his/her learner characteristics

 Clear understanding of the philosophy of the subject

 Accurate interpretation of the goals, aims and objectives as outlined in the

subject syllabus

Types of Tests
 Tests are usually classified according to the nature/type of questions (items)

 There are two broad categories

 Objective items tests are those with definite answers

 Non-objective items tests give the learner the free-will to provide his/her own
response

 Examples of objectives items tests

(a) Free response items tests

How far in kilometers is Laikipia University from Nakuru city?

(b) Fixed/controlled response/multiple choice items tests

Which of the following is NOT a mammal?

A. Rabbit
 B. Whale

C. Shark

D. Bat

 the question part is called the stem

 the answers provided are called choices/alternatives

 the correct answer is called the key

 the incorrect answers are called distractors

(c) Matching items tests

Match each planet with its position from the sun in the solar system

Earth 5

Jupiter 2

Neptune 7

Mercury 3

(d) Alternate response items tests (Yes/No; True/False)

Lagos is the capital city of Nigeria T/F?

(e) Filling blank/completion items tests

The largest land mammal is called …………….

(f) Attitude measuring items tests

Compared to men, women are irresponsible drivers SA A N D SD

 Examples of non-objective items tests

(a) Structured items tests

i. Define the term population

ii. Describe the population distribution in Kenya

iii. Discuss five reasons for rural-urban migration in Kenya

 (b) Non-structured items (essay) tests

Discuss why food insecurity can bring about political instability

(c) Practical/activity items tests

You are provided with a source of heat and different liquids. Design and set-up an
experiment to show that different liquids expand at different rates when heated.

Qualities of a Good Test

(a) Validity

 Is a measure of how well a test measures what it was designed to measure

 If not valid, test scores obtained are of no value

 It is guided by the objectives of instruction

 Factors that affect validity include

 Focus of items against the objectives of instruction

 Content covered

 Tools and resources used to teach

 Types of test validity include

 Face validity – face appearance of the test

 Content validity – test samples out behaviors described in the objectives

 Construct validity – test taps hypothetical variables that underlie properties being
tested

 Predictive validity – test can accurately predict performance

(b) Reliability

 Is the extent to which a test is consistent in measuring what it measures

 It is a measure of how reliable test scores are in forming the basis for decision
making

 Can be determined by the consistency of test scores when the test is

 administered at two different times with the same respondents

 Reliability is affected by a number of factors

 Clarity of instructions

 Suitability of language level used

 Ambiguity of the test items

 Length of the test

 Arrangement of test items

 Difficult level of the test items

 Objectivity in scoring

(c) Objectivity

 Is the degree of agreement/independent judgment and competence of

examiners in deciding what constitutes the correct answer

 Objective tests have greater objectivity compared to non-objective items tests

 Objectivity is determined by the accuracy and consistence in use of a marking

guide

(d) Items difficulty level

 Is a measure of how easy or difficult test items are

 Measured by the percentage of candidates who get the item right against those
get it wrong

 A good test should neither be too easy or too difficult

ID = R x 100

ID = percentage items difficulty level

R = Number of candidates who get item right

T = Total number of candidates who attempt the item

(e) Items discrimination index

  Is the degree to which an item discriminates between learners with different
abilities

 A good test should be able to discriminate between learners with high and low
achievement

DP = RU – RL

½T

DP = Discrimination power

RU = Number of candidates in the upper quartile who get the item right

RL = Number of candidates in the lower quartile who get the item right

T = Total number of candidates

 DP is in the range from -1 to +1. A well discriminating item has a positive DP

Procedure in Constructing and Administering a Test

 Prepare the Table of Specification (test blueprint). Subject objectives are drawn
against the knowledge level (according to Bloom’s Taxonomy)

Content Soil Animals Plants Environment Pollution Total

Level
Knowledge 2 3 2 2 1 10
Comprehension 1 2 3 2 0 8
Application 2 2 1 0 2 7
Analysis 0 2 2 2 3 9
Synthesis 3 0 2 1 3 9
Evaluation 1 2 0 2 2 7
Total 9 11 10 9 11 50
 Decide on the topics to test

 Decide on the total number of items

 Distribute scores over the items

 Decide on the time for the test

 Design and include clear instructions

 Ensure the test rubrics are well displayed and clear

 Prepare a detailed marking guide

 The guide should show clear criteria for awarding marks

 Total marks expected for each section should be shown

 Prepare the test room adequately

 Ensure adequacy of seating

 Room should be devoid of any compromise to cheating

 Ensure adequacy of the test materials

 Administer the test effectively

 Distribute the question papers and/or answer booklets

 Announce and indicate start and end time conspicuously on the board

 Announce remaining time for the test at suitable intervals

 Collect all scripts at the end of the test

 Mark the test

 Follow the marking guide strictly

 Indicate score for each part of the question

 Accurately total up the scores and indicate as appropriate

 Enter marks into the students’ progress records

 Give back the marked scripts to the students

 Revise as appropriate
 APPENDIX I

Chalkboard/Whiteboard Layout

F I WEST 12/11/2021
HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT

URBANIZATION

Urban Meaning of Urbanization Map of Africa

……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… (Map showing location
Rural of early urban centers
Early Urban Centers in Africa in Africa)
Nairobi i. …………………
ii…………………...
Nakuru iii…………………..
iv…………………..
Trade
Factors that Led to Development of Early
Urban Centers in Africa
i. …………….
………………………………………….
ii……………..
…………………………………………..
iii ……………………..
………………………………………….
…………………………………………..
iv ……………….
…………………………………………..
…………………………………………..
 APPENDIX II

Sample Record of Work Covered

UNIVERSITY LOGO
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM AND EDUCATION MANAGEMENT
RECORD OF WORK

Teacher’s Name ……………………. Reg. No. ……………… School …………………….

Subject: Chemistry Class: Form II South
Term: Two Year: 2021

WEEK/LESSON NO. WORK COVERED REMARKS/COMMENTS

…. …. ….
Week 4 Lesson 2 Meaning of Urbanization, Lesson objectives satisfactorily
Early urban centers in achieved
Africa, Factors that led to
development of early
urban centers in Africa
…. ….. ….
Week 6 Lesson 1 Alkali metals: Period of Objectives satisfactorily
alkali metals; Examples of achieved. Learners were able
alkali metals; Properties to answer questions in the
of alkali metals lesson
… … …
 APPENDIX III

Sample Students’ Progress Record

UNIVERSITY LOGO
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM AND EDUCATION MANAGEMENT
RECORD OF WORK COVERED

Teacher’s Name ……………………. Reg. No. ……………… School …………………….

Subject: Chemistry Class: Form II South
Term: Two Year: 2021

S/N Name Adm. Assign. 1 Assign. 2 CAT 1 Work … Averag

o. No. 20/1/20 28/1/20 05/2/20 Arrangement e
21 21 21 10/2/2021 X/40
X/20 X/10 X/50 X/10
… … … … … … … … …

… … … … … … … … …
Mean … … …. … …. …