Mechanical Power

Engineering Reciprocating
Department Engines course

Chapter 2
summary of Prepared by
Willard reference Andrew Ayman.

Submitted to :- Dr. Mohamed Elsayed

 Advantages of I.C.E. over E.C.E.:

1. More mechanical simplicity and lower weight/power ratio.

2. They do not need auxiliary equipment, such as boiler & condenser.
3. They could be started and stopped in a short time.
4. Their thermal efficiency is higher than other heat engines.
5. Their initial cost is low.
These advantages make I.C.E. more suitable in the transport sector; motor cars,
small ships, submarines, and small aircrafts.

Thus, we will be concerned about internal combustion engines and the

reciprocating type
The piston - Cylinder arrangement
Engine Geometric design
 TERMINOLOGIES USED IN IC ENGINE
(i) Cylinder Bore (B): The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder is called the
cylinder bore and is designated by the letter d and is usually expressed in millimeter (mm).
(ii) Piston Area (A): The area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore is called the
piston area and is designated by the letter A and is usually expressed in square centimeter
(cm2).
(iii) Stroke (S): It is the linear distance traveled by the piston when it moves from one end of
the cylinder to the other end. It is equal to twice the radius of the crank. It is designated by
the letter L and is expressed usually in millimeter (mm)
(iv) Stroke to Bore Ratio (S/B): this ratio is an important parameter in classifying the size of
the engine.

• If B < S, it is called undersquare engine.

• If B= S, it is called square engine.
• If B> S, it is called oversquare engine.
An over-square engine can operate at higher speeds because of larger bore and shorter stroke.
(iv) Dead Centre: In the vertical engines, top most position of the piston is called Top Dead
Centre (TDC). When the piston is at bottom most position, it is called Bottom Dead Centre
(BDC). In horizontal engine, the extreme position of the piston near to cylinder head is called
Inner Dead Centre (IDC.) and the extreme position of the piston near crank is called Outer
Dead Centre (ODC).
(v) Displacement or Swept Volume (Vd): The volume displaced by the piston in one stroke is
known as stroke volume or swept volume. It is expressed in terms of cubic centimeter (cc) and
given by
(vi) Cubic Capacity or Engine Capacity: The displaced volume of a cylinder multiplied by
number of cylinders in an engine will give the cubic capacity or the engine capacity.
For example: if there are n cylinders in an engine, then Cubic capacity = n.Vs
(vii) Clearance Volume (Vc): It is the volume contained between the piston top and cylinder
head when the piston is at top or inner dead center.
 (viii) Compression Ratio (r): The ratio of total cylinder volume to clearance volume is called
the compression ratio (r) of the engine.
• Engines with superchargers or turbochargers usually have lower compression ratios than naturally
aspirated engines. Because of limitations in engine materials, technology, and fuel quality, very early
engines had low compression ratios, on the order of 2 to 3.
Average piston speed for all engines will normally be in the range of 5 to 15 or (20)m/sec.
There are two reasons why engines operate in this range:-
1. the safe limit which can be tolerated by material strength of the engine components.
2. because of the gas flow into and out of the cylinders. Piston speed determines the instantaneous flow rate of air-fuel
into the cylinder during intake and exhaust flow out of the cylinder during the exhaust stroke. Higher piston speeds
would require larger valves to allow for higher flow rates.
Work :- it is the output of any heat engine, it is a result of a force acting through a distance.

• The figure shows the indicator diagram of 4-stroke engine

• Modern indicator diagrams are generated on an oscilloscope using a pressure transducer
mounted in the combustion chamber and an electronic position sensor mounted on the
piston or crankshaft
 Indicator diagram of 4 stroke SI
engine with a widely open throttle
WOT

Indicator diagram of 4 stroke SI

engine with a part throttle
Indicator diagram of 4 stroke SI
engine equipped with a
supercharger or turbocharger
 (1) Indicated Power
The power produced inside the engine cylinder by burning of fuel is known as
Indicated power (IP) of engine. It is calculated by finding the actual mean effective
pressure MEP
(2) Brake power
It is the power available at engine crank shaft for doing useful work. It is also known as
engine output power. It is measured by dynamometer.
(3) friction power
it is the power losses due to friction
(4) Mean effective pressure
it is the average pressure in the cylinder during a cycle. And it is calculated by :-

• Create another cycle as indicated by the red area

• The cycle area is equal to the area of the red cycle

Work = red area = mep x Vd

Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake power (delivered power) to the indicated
power (power provided to the piston). (0.75:0.95)
Because torque is measured off the output crankshaft , we use the brake work and bMEP.
• A major goal in the design of a modern automobile engine is to flatten the torque-
versus-speed curve and to have high torque at both high and low speed

• CI engines generally have greater torque than SI engines. Large engines often have
very high torque values with MBT (maximum brake torque ) at relatively low speed
Because the engine output power comes from the combustion of air- fuel
mixture as air is the source of oxygen. There must be proper relative
amounts of air(oxygen) and fuel
The parameter used to quantify these relative amounts is called Air-Fuel
ratio AF
 the ideal or stoichiometric AF for many gasoline-type hydrocarbon fuels is very close
to 15:1, with combustion possible for values in the range 6 to 19.

• AF less than 6 is too rich to sustain combustion

• AF greater than 19 is too lean.

➢ The fuel input system of an engine, fuel injectors or carburetor, must be able to
regulate the proper amount of fuel for any given air flow
➢ Gasoline-fueled engines usually have AF input in the range of 12 to 18
depending on the operating conditions at the time (e.g., accelerating,
cruising, starting, etc.).
➢ CI engines typically have AF input in the range of 18 to 70, which appears to be outside
the limits where combustion is possible?

✓ Combustion here occurs because the cylinder of a Cl engine, unlike an SI engine, has a
very non-homogeneous air-fuel mixture, with reaction only occurring in those regions
where a combustible mixture exists, other regions being too rich or too lean.

Equivalence ratio ∅ is defined as the actual ratio of fuel-air to ideal or stoichiometric

fuel-air.
(SFC) Specific fuel consumption :- it is the quantity of fuel burned in unit time
required to produce a given engine output

• Brake power gives brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc )

• Indicated power gives indicated specific fuel consumption (isfc )

This results that mechanical efficiency is given by :-

❑ Brake specific fuel consumption decreases as engine speed increases, reaches a minimum,
and then increases at high speeds

➢ Fuel consumption increases at high speed because of greater friction losses.

➢ At low engine speed, the longer time per cycle allows more heat loss and fuel
consumption goes up
 ❑ also bsfc depends on compression ratio and fuel equivalence ratio.
I. It decreases with higher compression ratio due to higher thermal efficiency.

ll. It is lowest when combustion occurs in a mixture with a fuel equivalence ratio
near one, (1)
lll. The further from stoichiometric combustion, either rich or lean, the higher will be
the fuel consumption.
❑ Brake specific fuel consumption generally decreases with engine size, being best
(lowest) for very large engines
 𝜼𝑓
Generally 𝜂 𝑇ℎ = 𝜼𝐜

The specific power of the engine is defined as the power output per unit area.

The fuel conversion efficiency is defined as the ratio between the useful mechanical work
produced by the engine and the theoretical energy content of the fuel mass.
These parameters(specific power, specific weight) are important for engines used in
transportation vehicles such as boats, automobiles, and especially airplanes, where keeping
weight to a minimum is necessary. For large stationary engines, weight is not as important.

Volumetric Efficiency (𝜼v)

Volumetric efficiency indicates the breathing ability of the engine. It is to be noted that the
utilization of the air is that determines the power output of the engine. Intake system must be
designed in such a way that the engine must be able to take in as much air as possible.
Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual volume flow rate of air into the intake
system to the rate at which the volume is displaced by the system.

Indicated Thermal Efficiency (𝜼ith)

Indicated thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the indicated power, IP, to the input fuel
energy in appropriate units.
𝐼𝑃
𝜂𝑖𝑡ℎ =
𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑉

Brake Thermal Efficiency (𝜼bth)

Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of power available at crank shaft, bp, to
the input fuel energy in appropriate units
𝑏𝑃
𝜂𝑏𝑡ℎ =
𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑉𝜂𝑐
combustion efficiency (𝜼𝐜)
It is to account for the fraction of fuel which burns. It has values in the range (0.95 to 0.98)
when an engine is operating properly
 DYNAMOMETERS
•Dynamometers are used to measure torque and power over the engine operating ranges of
speed and load by absorbing the energy output of the engine.

1. Prony brake :- it absorbs the energy using friction but it is not accurate as
other types

2. Fluid or hydraulic dynamometers :- absorb engine energy in

water or oil pumped through orifices or dissipated with viscous
losses in a rotor-stator combination. Large amounts of energy can
be absorbed in this manner, making this an attractive type of
dynamometer for the largest of engines
3. Eddy-current dynamometer :- use a disk, driven by the engine being tested, rotating in a
magnetic field of controlled strength. The rotating disk acts as an electrical conductor cutting
the lines of magnetic flux and producing eddy currents in the disk. With no external circuit,
the energy from the induced currents is absorbed in the disk.

4. Electric dynamometer :- it absorbs energy with electrical output from a connected

generator. In addition to having an accurate way of measuring the energy absorbed, the
load is easily varied by changing the amount of resistance in the circuit connected to the
generator output
 EMISSIONS
The four main engine exhaust emissions which must be controlled are oxides of nitrogen
(NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (He), and solid particulates (part)
Two common methods of measuring the amounts of these pollutants

▪ specific emissions (SE)

▪ emissions index (EI)

 NOISE ABATEMENT

It is done by one of 3 methods

I. Passive :- by correct design and the use of proper materials. The use of ribs and
stiffeners, composite materials.

II. Semi Active :- by using hydraulics, like flywheel which have hydraulic passages through
which fluid flows . At idle and other constant-speed operation, the system is designed to
give the flywheel the proper stiffness to absorb engine vibrations for frequencies at that
condition. When acceleration occurs the flywheel fluid flows to other locations,
changing the overall stiffness of the flywheel and making it more absorbent to the new
vibration frequency.

III. Active noise reduction :- using anti noise to cancel out engine noise this is done by
sensing the noise, analyzing the frequency and generating noise of same frequency but
out of phase by 180 degrees to cancel each other.