Content

Page
1 Parts of speech 2
2 Nouns 6
3 Verbs 8
4 Adjectives 13
5 Adverbs 14
6 Pronouns 15
7 Conjunctions 17
8 Prepositions 21
9 Roots and affixes 23
9 Punctuation 26
10 Tenses 31
11 Spelling 34
12 Subject, verb, object 36
13 (Concord)Subject/verb agreement 37
14 Syntax 40
15 Direct and Indirect Speech (Reported Speech) 42
16 Active and Passive 44
17 Dictionary work 46
18 Figurative Language 47
19 Advertising 52
20 Linguistic Devices 55
21 Paper 1 59
22 Tone 70
23 Attitude 75

1
PARTS OF SPEECH

part of speech function or "job" example words example sentences

Verb action or state (to) be, have, do, EnglishClub is a web site. I like EnglishClub.
like, work, sing, can,
must

Noun thing or person pen, dog, work, This is my dog. He lives in my house. We
music, town, London, live in London.
teacher, John

Adjective describes a noun good, big, red, well, My dogs are big. I like big dogs.
interesting

Determiner limits or "determines" a a/an, the, 2, some, I have two dogs and some rabbits.
noun many

Adverb describes a verb, quickly, silently, well, My dog eats quickly. When he
adjective or adverb badly, very, really is very hungry, he eats really quickly.

Pronoun replaces a noun I, you, he, she, some Tara is Indian. She is beautiful.

Preposition links a noun to another to, at, after, on, but We went to school on Monday.
word

Conjunction joins clauses or and, but, when I like dogs and I like cats. I like
sentences or words cats and dogs. I like dogs but I don't like
cats.

Interjection short exclamation, oh!, ouch!, hi!, well Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How are you? Well, I
sometimes inserted into don't know.
a sentence

Verb Noun Adjective Adverb

construct construction constructive constructively

harmonise harmony harmonious harmoniously

sense sense sensitive, sensible sensitively, sensibly

possess possessions possessive possessively

reflect reflection reflective reflectively

2
astonish astonishment astonishing astonishingly

symbolise symbol symbolic, symbolical symbolically

marvel marvel marvellous marvellously

manage management manageable manageably

restrict restriction restrictive, restricted restrictively

direct direction direct directly

excite excitement excited excitedly

form formation formative formatively

exceed excess excessive excessively

confuse confusion confusing confusingly

attract attraction attractive attractively

endanger danger dangerous dangerously

vary variation, variety various variedly

stress stress stressful stressfully

relate relation, relativity relative relatively

initiate initiation initiative initiatively

include inclusion inclusive inclusively

reduce reduction

face face facial facially

function function functioning functionally

taste taste, tastefulness tasty, tasteful tastefully

revere reverence reverential reverentially

obey obedience obedient obediently

force force forcible forcibly

depend dependence dependent dependently

secure security secured securely

3
devote devotion devotional devotionally

suffice sufficiency sufficient sufficiently

authorise authority authoritative authoritatively

define definition definite definitely

compare comparison comparative comparatively

enrich riches rich, richer richly

inform information informative informatively

amaze amazement amazing amazingly

delight delight delightful delightfully

wonder wonder wonderful wonderfully

expect expectation expectant expectantly

need need needy

amuse amusement amusing amusingly

believe belief, believer believable believably

sense sense sensible sensibly

respond response responsive responsively

brief brevity brief briefly

relate relevance relevant relevantly

complete completion complete completely

practise practice practical practically

mean meaning meaningful meaningfully

express expression expressive expressively

commercialise commerce commercial commercially

conclude conclusion conclusive conclusively

necessitate necessity necessary necessarily

focus focus focal focally

4
create creation, creator creative creatively

visualise vision, visionary visual visually

warm warmth warm warmly

specify specification specific, specifiable specifically

sympathise sympathy sympathetic sympathetically

compose composer composed composedly

relate relationship relative relatively

entertain entertainment entertaining entertainingly

clear clarity clear clearly

love love lovable lovingly

think thought thoughtful thoughtfully

decide decision decisive decisively

appreciate appreciation appreciative appreciatively

fear fear fearful fearfully

5
Nouns
If you can use any of your five senses on something, that thing is a NOUN.
There are, however, nouns that one cannot physically touch. They are:
Emotions – panic, excitement, anger, love, curiosity.
Acts – inquiry, agreement, refusal.
Ideas – freedom, justice, power, forgiveness.
Qualities – colour, beauty, bravery, flexibility.
In other words, NOUNS name things.

To make it easier to refer to all the thousands of nouns, we categorise them:

The ordinary kind of noun, like pen, is called a common noun.
The name we give to a particular thing, place or person, like Bic pen or Mpho is a proper noun.
Collections of things, like flock of sheep, crowd of people, pride of lions, are collective nouns.
The nouns that we cannot touch or see, are abstract nouns. These nouns can be felt in the
heart, like love or hate, or experiences, like freedom or humour.

6
7
Verbs
VERBS provide the action; they tell what’s happening.

She fetches water.

The pen writes.

Verbs also describe a “state of being”. They are called linking verbs.

She is happy.
They are naughty.
The pen is black.

Verbs do not only tell us about the actions or the being of nouns, they also tell us about the time
that these actions are performed.

What is the difference between the following:

She is happy.
and
She was happy.
or
She eats an apple.
and
She ate an apple?

The first sentences are in the present tense and the second sentences are in the past tense.
Can you see that the VERB shows us this difference in time? Every single verb in the English
language has different shapes so that we can use them to show different times. You will learn
these different shapes later.

Another thing that verbs tell us about is whether the subject, the person or thing that does the
verb, is singular (one) or plural (more than one). You will learn more about this when you study
concord or subject-verb agreement.

Gerunds
A Gerund is a verb form which functions as a noun. Every gerund ends in – ing. (e.g. running;
drinking). However, all present participles also end in – ing. Gerunds are formed when verbs
have -ing added to them and are used as nouns. For example: Walking is great exercise.
Gerunds are subjects or objects.
Use of the gerund
As the subject of a sentence: Buying the car was a great joy.

8
As the object of a sentence: Most people enjoy celebrating.
After certain verbs and prepositions: I look forward to finishing exams today.
After certain adjectives and prepositions: She is not very good at tolerating bad behaviour.
After verbs of perception: I saw him escaping from the court.

Exercise:
Underline the gerunds and circle the verbs:
a) You have to practice running the distance.
b) I recall doing the work.
c) She keeps asking the same questions.
d) I can’t help loving him.

Infinitives
An infinitive is not a real verb – it does not do the job of the verb in a sentence. It looks like a
verb but it has to in front, so the real verb is something else.

She decided to go to town.

In this sentence, she does not go to town, she decides to go.

Mary wanted to bake a cake.

Here, Mary does not bake, she wants to bake.

Mother likes to walk in the mornings.

Participles
Consider this list of irregular verbs in English:

Infinitive Simple Past Past Participle Present Participle

Awake awoke, awaked awoken, awaked Awaking

Be (is are am) was, were Been Being

Become Became Become Becoming

Begin Began Begun Beginning

Bend Bent Bent Bending

Bet bet, betted bet, betted Betting

9
Bite Bit Bitten Biting

Bleed Bled Bled Bleeding

Blow Blew Blown Blowing

Break Broke Broken Breaking

Bring Brought Brought Bringing

Buy Bought Bought Buying

Can Could Auxiliary verb – no

past participle

Cast Cast Cast Casting

Catch Caught Caught Catching

Choose Chose Chosen Choosing

Come Came Come Coming

Cost Cost Cost Costing

Cut Cut Cut Cutting

Dig Dug Dug Digging

Do Did Done Doing

Dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed Dreaming

Drink Drank Drunk Drinking

Drive Drove Driven Driving

Eat Ate Eaten Eating

Fall Fell Fallen Falling

Fight Fought Fought Fighting

Flee Fled Fled Fleeing

Fly Flew Flown Flying

10
Forget Forgot Forgotten Forgetting

flow flowed Flowed Flowing

Get Got got, gotten Getting

Give Gave Given Giving

Hang Hung Hung Hanging

Have Had Had

Hit Hit Hit Hitting

Hurt Hurt Hurt Hurting

Lay Laid Laid Laying

Lend Lent Lent Lending

Lie (down) Lay Lain Lying

Lie (tell) Lied Lied Lying

Make Made Made Making

May Might Auxiliary verb – no

past participle

Meet Met Met Meeting

Read Read Read Reading

Ring Rang Rung Ringing

Rise Rose Risen Rising

Run Ran Run Running

Shine Shone Shone Shining

Show Showed shown, showed Showing

Sit Sat Sat Sitting

Sleep Slept Slept Sleeping

11
Swim Swam Swum Swimming

Swing Swung Swung Swinging

Take Took Taken Taking

Wear Wore Worn Wearing

Write Wrote Written writing

12
Adjectives
ADJECTIVES tell us more about NOUNS. Remember that nouns are everything that we can
see, touch, hear, smell, taste and “feel”. Nouns on their own, do not say much. When we hear
the sentence, “The boy runs fast.”, we do not know anything about the boy. We do not know
whether the boy is short or tall, thin or fat or young or old.

Look at the following sentences,

A The boy runs.

B The excited boy runs fast.

Sentence B is not only more interesting, it also gives us more information. The adjective,
“excited” tells us more about the boy and the adverb, “fast”, tells us more about how the boy
runs.

Remember that these words only become adjectives when they are describing nouns in a
sentence.

13
Esther went to the shop yesterday. She walked fast, because her mother needed eggs for the
cake she wanted to bake.

1 Where did Esther go?

2 When did she go there?
3 How did she walk?

“The shop”, “yesterday” and “fast” are all adverbs, because they tell us more about the verbs,
“go” and “walk”.

Adverbs also tell you more about adjectives as in:

1 The healthy tall boy runs fast. (both healthy and tall are adjectives)
2 The very tall boy runs fast. (very is an adverb because it tells you more about tall and
not about boy)

14
Pronouns
Lerato thinks that Lerato has left Lerato’s umbrella at Lerato’s friend’s house.

We do not talk or write like this! It sounds ridiculous. How would you change the sentence to
make it sound normal? Yes, you would substitute three of the proper nouns with PRONOUNS.

Lerato thinks that she has left her umbrella at her friend’s house.

The words that we use in the place of nouns are called PRONOUNS. The following are the
different types of pronouns,

TYPE EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

Personal Shows the person. He did it.
We cannot come.
You have to go.
Interrogative Asks questions, like a detective Who is going to town?
interrogates a criminal. What is his name?
Remember that these pronouns
can be relative pronouns as well.
Demonstrative Demonstrates where something is That is mine.
– shows it. I saw them there.
Remember: if these pronouns
stand in front of a noun they
become demonstrative
ADJECTIVES
Possessive It shows possession. The book is mine.
That house is theirs.
Remember: if these pronouns
stand in front of a noun they
become possessive ADJECTIVES

Relative The pronoun is a relative of the Tom is the boy who lives
person, animal or thing mentioned there.
earlier in the sentence. The house that we saw,
has been sold.
Reflexive It reflects the subject, like a mirror I wash myself.
She shot herself.

15
Indefinite These do not give us exact Some, anyone,
information – definite information. everything, someone,
something.

Reciprocal Similar to reflexive pronouns, but Each other (for groups of

they involve groups of two or two.)
more that perform the same One another (for larger
action with one another. There are groups.)
only two reciprocal pronouns.
Distributive Refers to one person, animal, or each, neither, and either
thing at a time. Each of the dogs had a
bath today.
Neither of the packages
arrived on time.

Remember to keep the pronouns in a sentence the ‘same’: They express themselves. One
expresses oneself. Not: One expresses themselves.

Do not use he/she anymore. It is now acceptable to say: Every person is exposed to the media,
whether they are rich or poor.

Our books, my house – not pronouns, but possessive adjectives.

That door, these apples – demonstrative adjectives.

Concerning relative pronouns:

Use who, whom and whose to refer to people.

Use whose to show possessive form: The woman whose car is in the garage is here.
The girl whose dog ran away is coming this afternoon.
(These clauses are called relative clauses.)

Use whom to refer to the object, that is, the person to whom the action is being done:
That is the boy whom I like.
She is meeting the man whom we saw yesterday.

Use who to refer to the subject of the sentence, that is, the person who is doing the action:
The girl who scores the highest mark on the test will win a prize.
This is the girl who came looking for you last night.
Use that and which to refer to things:
This is the car that is rusty.
This is the train which arrived late yesterday afternoon.

I went to town.
My family and I went to town.
She kicked me.
She kicked my dog and me.

16
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

There are seven coordinating conjunctions. and, but, for, nor, or, so and yet.
To remember all of the coordinating conjunctions, we can learn following acronym:
FANBOYS –> F – for, A – And, N – Nor, B – But, O – Or, Y – Yet, S – So.

And
One of the most used words in English is ‘and‘. It means in addition to. And
is used to connect words, phrases, or clauses that have the same grammatical function in
a construction.
Examples:
▪ I’m a husband and father.
▪ He came into the house and the phone began to ring.
17
▪ I have one dog and three love birds.

But
The meaning of But is however. It is used to show a disagreement between clauses, or to
connect ideas that contrast.
Also But means “except” when it is used after words such as all, everything/nothing,
everyone/no one, everybody/nobody.
Examples:
▪ I have got a home, but I haven’t got a car.
▪ I go to work on Mondays, but I don’t go to work on Saturday.
▪ He is very good at playing football but not at riding a bike.

For
The meaning of For is because or since. For as a conjunction is used to explain reason or
purpose. (like “because” or ”since”)
Examples:
▪ He doesn’t want to buy any electrical devices, for they are very expensive these days.
▪ My teacher loves me very much, for I am a successful student.
▪ I have to find a new job, for I am unemployed.

Nor
It means and not. Nor is used before the second or last of a set of negative possibilities, usually
after “neither”.
Examples:
▪ She didn’t talk to her friends nor did she call her family.
▪ He can’t attend the meeting nor can Ally.

Or
It means either. Or is used to connect different possibilities.
Examples:
▪ Do you spend more time with your friends or with your family?
▪ We can cook soup for dinner, or we can just eat leftovers.
▪ I will go to the party or stay at home.

Yet
It means but. Yet is used to introduce a contrasting idea that follows the preceding idea logically.
Examples:
▪ Tony plays basketball well, yet his favourite sport is football.
▪ Supporters of both teams complained about extreme heat, yet they continued to watch the
match.
▪ She lost the race, yet she was happy to take part in such a contest.

So
It means therefore , for that reason. So means with the result or consequence of something.
Examples:
▪ She was sick, so she couldn’t attend the meeting.
▪ I studied hard, so I will be successful in the exam.
▪ My daughter is very smart, so everybody likes her.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
▪ Than
He is cleverer than I am.
▪ Rather than
18
I chose to learn German rather than French.
▪ Whether
She was uncertain whether to stay or leave.
▪ As much as
He doesn’t earn as much as me.
▪ Whereas
Elliot is tall and blond, whereas his brother is short and has dark hair.

▪ That
She went to the school that my father went to.
▪ Whatever
I copied in my notebook whatever he wrote on the blackboard.
▪ Which
He developed the films which he had taken.
▪ Whichever
Mary will eat chocolate cake or donut, whichever is delicious.

▪ After
Mary closed his diary after writing about that day’s events.
▪ As soon as
A baby deer can stand as soon as it is born.
▪ As long as
You can use my car as long as you drive carefully.
▪ Before
He always feeds the dogs before he goes to school.
▪ By the time
By the time ambulance arrived, he was unconscious.
▪ Now that
You can go and play now that you have finished your homework.
▪ Once
Once you learn it, you never forget.
▪ Since
Mary has danced since she was five.
▪ Until
James lived with his parents till he was twenty – five.
▪ Until
You can stay on the bus until you reach London.
▪ When
Tom’s parents cheered for him when he crossed the finished line.
▪ Whenever
Whenever we go abroad, we take as many pictures as possible.
▪ While
While I was walking to the market, I met Jenny.

▪ Though
Though it was raining, she went out.
▪ Although
Although the kitchen is small, it is well designed.
▪ Even though
Even though he’s a millionaire, he lives in a very small flat.

▪ Who
The person who made the mess needs to clean it.
▪ Whoever
19
Whoever leaves last should turn off the light.
▪ Whom
He’s the man whom I met in Greece.
▪ Whomever
He was free to marry whomever he chose.
▪ Whose
She’s the student whose handwriting is the best in my class.

▪ Where
This is the park where we played.
▪ Wherever
Wherever you go in the world, you’ll always find someone who speaks English.

▪ If
If you leave, I will be lonely.
▪ Only if
Only if a teacher has given permission is a student allowed to leave the room.
▪ Unless
You won’t succeed unless you work hard.
▪ Provided that
I was allowed to go off by myself provided that I promised to be careful.
▪ Assuming that
I hope to go to college next year, assuming that I pass my exams.
▪ Even if
Even if you have already bought your ticket, you will still need to wait in line.
▪ In case
I have my umbrella with me in case it rains.

▪ How
She taught him how to play the piano.
▪ As though
They look as though they’re heading for divorce.
▪ As if
At sunset, the sun looks as if it is going down.

▪ Because
I love Matisse’s work because he uses colour so brilliantly.
▪ Since
Since we’ve got a few minutes to wait for the train, let’s have a cup of coffee.
▪ So that
I’ll go by car so that I can take more luggage.
▪ That
We eat that we may live.

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Preposition Type Example Sentence

above position The coconut was high above our heads, so nobody could reach it.

across direction We walked across the street.

after time After dinner, we ate dessert.

against position The broom was leaning against the fence.

along direction The path led along the river.

among position The deer hid among the trees.

around position There was a white fence around the house.

at location We don't have a coffee maker at work.

at time Class begins at 7 AM.

away from direction The fireman led the people away from the burning building.

before time Before work, I go to the fitness center.

behind position We parked in the parking lot behind the building.

below position We entered the huge basement below the house.

beneath position We sat beneath the tree and enjoyed the shade.

beside position The dog sat beside him obediently.

between position There was a fence between the two houses.

by position There is a pharmacy by the grocery store.

by time By the time we started dinner, the food was cold.

down direction The ball rolled down the hill.

21
during time Somebody's phone rang during the movie.

for time We were in Hawaii for two weeks.

from direction He comes from France.

from time The lecture lasts from 1:30 PM to 3 PM.

in position The laptop is in my backpack.

in location I learned Japanese in college.

in time The movie starts in ten minutes.

in front of position The car was parked in front of the store.

inside position A gift was inside the box.

into direction Naomi walked into the house.

next to position The pizza parlor was next to the movie theater.

off (of) direction The cat fell off (of) the couch.

on position The pencil is on the table.

on location My house is on Main Street.

on time My vacation begins on Thursday.

onto direction The cat jumped onto my lap.

out of direction When we walked out of the hotel, the taxi was waiting for us.

outside location He was outside the house when the fire began.

over position There was a rainbow over us.

through position There was a tunnel through the mountain.

through direction We walked through the tunnel.

till time We waited till Tom arrived to start dinner.

to direction Nancy walked to the mall.

toward(s) direction The boat sailed towards the horizon.

under position The cat is under my chair.

underneath position The child was underneath the blanket.

until time I can't wait until summer, so we can go to the beach again.

22
Roots, prefixes and suffixes

Reader’s Digest published a very interesting book, How to Increase your Word Power, in 1971.
The first chapter starts with the following:
The quickest, most useful and easiest way to increase your word power
is to analyse and understand how words are put together....For example
most people use the word salary and its plural form, salaries. They also
recognise the word salaried, meaning “paying a salary” – He has a
salaried job at the orphanage.
Now here is something interesting. The word salary is based on the Latin
root sal- meaning “salt” (Roman soldiers were given a special allowance
to buy their own salt)....Other words with this Latin root are salad (add salt) , salami
(salted meat) and saline (a solution containing salt).

The following is just to show you where the meaning of pre- and suffixes come from.

Latin Meaning Meaning Example

root

VIT- or Life Revive, vitamin, vital, vivid.

VIV-

ACU-, Sharp Quality of being Acrid, acrimony, acumen, acute.

ACR-

AG-, to do or A person who Agenda, agent, actor, agile, actual, enact,

ACT- drive active, react.

AM- to love amateur, amatory, amiable, amicable,

amorous, enamoured.

ANIM- life, mind, Characterised by animal, animate, animosity, equanimity,

soul, spirit magnanimity, unanimous.

ANNU- Year one hundred annals, annual, perennial, centennial, annuity.

,
ENNI-

CAD-, to fall; Down or away accident, casual, decadent (decay), incident,

CID-, befall; occasion
CAS- happen by
chance

CLUD- to shut; not Disclose, conclude, exclude, include,

CLUS- close thoroughly preclude
CLOS-

HER- to stick to Adhere, adherence, adhesion, adhesive,

HES- together cohere, coherence, cohesion

TEN- to hold back Contain, container, content, continent, detain,

TIN- tending to retain, retention, tenacious
TENT-
TAIN-

23
An English word can consist of three parts: the root, a prefix, and a suffix. The root is the part of
the word that contains the basic meaning, or definition of the word. The prefix is a word element
placed in front of the root, which changes the word's meaning or makes a new word. A suffix is
a word element placed after the root, which changes the word's meaning as well as its function.

Common Prefixes

Prefi Meani
Example
x ng
pre- before They will show a sneak preview of the movie.
un- not The cafeteria will be unavailable tomorrow morning.
dis- not Mark disagreed with John's philosophy.
re- again Are you going to renew your subscription?
mis- not He has mismanaged the company.
im- not With hard work and determination, nothing is impossible.
bi- two Henry recently received his first pair of bifocals.
Many ecologists are concerned about the deforestation
de- not
of our world's rainforests.

Common Suffixes

Suffixes Meaning Example

-er doer I work as a computer programmer.
-able able These glass bottles are recyclable.
-ous full of Driving on the freeway can be dangerous.
-ness state of being At night, the earth is covered in darkness.
-ful full of The witness gave an honest and truthful testimony.
-ly or -y like James whistled happily on his way home from school.
-ment state of Mary sighed with contentment.

Characterised
Character - root
-ised - suffix

Reference
Refer - root
-ence - suffix

Unpleasant
Please - root
Un - prefix
-ant - suffix

Now do the same with the following words:

24
Make sure to look up words that you do not understand!!!

1 Research
2 Incomplete
3 Unnatural
4 Insufficient
5 Uncountable
6 Inconsiderate
7 Parking
8 Miserable
9 Uncommon
10 Faster

Look at the examples

She is happy.
Happy is an adjective.
If I add the suffix ‘-ness’ I change the adjective into an abstract noun.
Her happiness depends on her work.

They are hungry.

Hungry is an adjective.
If I take away the suffix -y, I change the adjective into an abstract noun.
Their hunger forces them to steal food.

You are late.

Late is an adjective.
If I add the suffix -ly, I change the adjective into an adverb.
I have not seen you lately.

This work is important.

If I add the prefix un it becomes the antonym of important.
This work is unimportant.

25
Capital letters
Sentences always start with capital letters. We bought popcorn during intermission.
Proper Nouns and Proper Adjectives need We visited Mexico.
capital letters. We took part in the Mexican wave.
The main words in titles of books, films or plays Lord of the Flies is written by Golding.
start with capital letters. Written: The Girl from the Mountain
Also: If you write a title you should underline it. Typed: The Story of an African Farm
If you type a title it should be in italics.
The first word in direct speech is capitalised. The teacher asked, “Is anyone absent today?”

Full stop
A full stop indicates the end of a sentence.
Full stops are found after certain abbreviations.
Note carefully the use of full stops in abbreviations. British usage favours omitting (NO full
stop) the full stop in abbreviations which include the first and last letters of a single word, such
as Mr, Mrs, Ms, Dr and St;

26
A person's initials are a kind of abbreviation, and these are usually followed by full stops: John
D. Rockefeller, C. Aubrey Smith, O. J. Simpson. Increasingly, however, there is a tendency to
write such initials without full stops: John D Rockefeller, C Aubrey Smith, O J Simpson. And
note the rare special case illustrated by Harry S Truman: the S in this name never takes a full
stop, because it's not an abbreviation for anything; President Truman's parents actually gave
him the middle name S.
Two other common abbreviations are a.m. (`before noon') and p.m. (`after noon'): 10.00 a.m.,
six p.m. These are always acceptable. Note that these are not capitalized in British usage
(though American usage prefers (A) 10.00 AM and six PM, with small capitals and no full stops).
Also usual are the abbreviations B.C. and A.D., usually written in small capitals, for marking dates
as before or after the birth of Christ:
According to tradition, Rome was founded in 753 B.C.
The emperor Vespasian died in A.D. 79. or
The emperor Vespasian died in 79 A.D.
It is traditional, and recommended, to write A.D. before the date, but nowadays it is often written
after.
Non-Christians who do not use the Christian calendar may prefer to use B.C.E. (‘before the
common era') and C.E. (‘of the common era') instead. This is always acceptable:
According to tradition, Rome was founded in 753 B.C.E.
The emperor Vespasian died in 79 C.E.
All four of these abbreviations are commonly written in small capitals, and you should follow this
practice if you can; if you can't produce small capitals, use full-sized capitals instead. All four of
them are also now very frequently written without full stops: 753 BC, AD 79, 753 BCE, 79 CE. This
reflects the increasing tendency to omit the full stops in abbreviations, and I myself prefer to
write 753 BC, and so on.
Note also that, when an abbreviation comes at the end of a sentence, only one full stop is
written. You should never write two full stops in a row.

Apostrophe
Contractions
I + have = I’ve
I + am = I’m
I + had = I’d
I + shall = I’ll
You + are = you’re
They + are = they’re
Does + not = doesn’t
Did + not = didn’t
It + is = it’s
Cannot = can’t

27
Possession
Possession is shown with an apostrophe (‘) + an s.
The girl’s book.
The school’s choir.
The children’s books.
The dog’s tail.
Mrs Pincus’s students.
All the bus’s wheels.
She is the boss’s wife.

Exception (Only when a plural word ends in an s.)

The three girls’ books.
The dogs’ tails.
The bosses’ wives.
The two James’ two cars

The following DO NOT take apostrophes

These are ours.
The book is yours.
Its tail is long.
All the CEOs were there.
The Grade 9s had to stay after school.
In the 1600s.
The 1990s.

Question marks:

These are used at the end of questions.

Example: Do you want to join us?

Exclamation mark:
These indicate emotion
Example: What a surprise!
Come here at once!

The colon
Use a colon [ : ] before a list or an explanation that is preceded by a clause that can stand by
itself. Think of the colon as a gate, inviting one to go on:
There is only one thing left to do now: confess while you still have time.
The charter review committee now includes the following people: the mayor, the chief of police,
the fire chief, the chair of the town council.

You nearly always have a sense of what is going to follow or be on the other side of the colon.

We will often use a colon to separate an independent clause from a quotation (often of a rather
formal nature) that the clause introduces:
The acting director often used her favourite quotation from Shakespeare's Tempest: "We are
such stuff as dreams are made on; and our little life is rounded with a sleep."

28
When NOT to use a colon:
Remember that the clause that precedes the mark (where you're considering a colon) ought to
be able to stand on its own as an independent clause. In other words, we would not use a colon
in situations like the following:
● Her recipe for gunpowder included saltpetre, dry oatmeal and ground-up charcoal
briquettes. (no colon after "included")
● His favourite breakfast cereals were Rice Krispies, Cheerios and Wheaties. (no
colon after "were")
● Her usual advice, I remember, was "Keep your head up as you push the ball up the
court." (no colon after "was")

DO NOT USE A COLON IN DIRECT SPEECH.

The Hyphen
Hyphens are used in the following situations:

Creating compound words, particularly adjectives and adverbs before nouns (the well-known
actor, my six-year-old daughter, the out-of-date curriculum) writing numbers (twenty-one to
ninety-nine) and fractions (five-eighths, one-fourth)

Creating compounds on-the-fly for fly-by-night organizations

Adding certain prefixes to words: When a prefix comes before a capitalized word or the prefix
is capitalized, use a hyphen (non-English, A-frame, I-formation). The prefixes self-,
all- and ex- nearly always require a hyphen (ex-husband, all-inclusive, self-control) and when
the prefix ends with the same letter that begins the word, you will often use a hyphen
(anti-intellectual, de-emphasize), but not always (unnatural, coordinate, cooperate). By all
means, use a good dictionary when in doubt!

There is no space between a hyphen and the character on either side of it.

Suspended Compounds
With a series of nearly identical compounds, we sometimes delay the final term of the final term
until the last instance, allowing the hyphen to act as a kind of place holder, as in
The third- and fourth-grade teachers met with the parents.
Both full- and part-time employees will get raises this year.
We don't see many 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old children around here.

The Dash
Use a dash [ — ] or dashes as a super-comma or set of super-commas to set off parenthetical
elements, especially when those elements contain internal forms of punctuation:
All four of them — Bob, Jeffrey, Jason and Brett — did well in college.
Do not use dashes to set apart material when commas would do the work for you.
"How many times have I asked you not to —" Jason suddenly stopped talking and looked out
the window.
"Not to do what?" I prompted.
"Not to — Oh heck, I forget!"

29
A dash is sometimes used to set off concluding lists and explanations in a more informal and
abrupt manner than the colon. We seldom see the dash used this way in formal, academic
prose.
The research has been done in the USA, SA and England – all these countries didn’t want to
take part.

The Comma
● Use a comma to separate the elements in a series (three or more things) "He hit the ball,
dropped the bat and ran to first base."
● Use a comma + a little conjunction (and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so) to connect
two independent clauses, as in "He hit the ball well, but he ran toward third base."
● One of the most frequent errors in comma usage is the placement of a comma after a
coordinating conjunction.
● Use a comma to set off introductory elements, as in "Running toward third base, he
suddenly realised how stupid he looked."
● An adverbial clause that begins a sentence is set off with a comma:
o Although Queasy Breath had spent several years in Antarctica, he still bundled up
warmly in the brisk autumns of Ohio.
o Because Tashonda had learned to study by herself, she was able to pass the
entrance exam.
● When both a city's name and that city's state or country's name are mentioned together,
the state or country's name is treated as a parenthetical element.
o We visited Hartford, Connecticut, last summer.
o Paris, France, is sometimes called "The City of Lights."

Semicolon [ ; ]
Use a semicolon to help sort out a monster list:
There were citizens from Bangor, Maine; Hartford, Connecticut; Boston, Massachusetts and
Newport, Rhode Island.
OR
We had four professors on our committee: Peter Wursthorn, Professor of Mathematics; Ronald
Pepin, Professor of English; Cynthia Greenblatt, Professor of Education and Nada Light,
Professor of Nursing.

Quotation marks / inverted commas:

Inverted commas have several uses:
● They indicate direct speech:
“Please come here”, said my mother.
● Inverted commas are used to quote someone else’s words.
In his speech to parliament Thabo Mbeki said, “I am African.”
● Inverted commas are used to show that you know you are using a word that is not proper
English but a foreign or slang word.
I told him to “voetsek”

30
TENSES
1 Joe Sanders was walking through the forest when two men stopped him.
2 Joe Sanders had walked through the forest when two men stopped him.

In sentence 1 Joe Sanders was still in the forest when the men stopped him. In sentence 2 he
has left the forest when they stopped him. The verb, was walking, in sentence 1 is in the past
continuous tense and the second verb, stopped, is in the simple past tense. The verb, had
walked, in sentence 2 is in the past perfect tense and the verb, stopped, is in the simple past
tense. It is really important that learners understand how the meaning of a sentence changes
when you use a different tense. Here is another example:
1 I will be swimming when you bring the books tomorrow.
2 I will have swum when you will bring the books tomorrow.

In sentence 1 I am telling my friend that she has to look for me in the swimming pool the next
day when she brings back my books. In sentence 2 I am saying that she does not have to worry
about my swimming practice – it will be over when she comes. The verb, will be swimming, is in
the future continuous tense and the verb, will have swum, is in the future perfect tense. The
verb, bring, in both sentences is in the simple future tense. One could also say, “...when you
bring the books back.”

The first part of a verb is also the base form to which ‘s’ is added for singular. The second part
of the verb is the past tense and the third part is the past participle which is used with the
perfect tenses and in the passive voice. For example:

First part / base form Second part / past tense Third part / past participle

Go Went Gone

Do Did Done

Warn Warned Warned

be (is, are and am) was / were been

have (has) Had Had

Tense How When Example

Present Simple First part of the When something happens Lerato eats apples quite
verb all the time, regularly, often, often.
seldom, frequently or when It is better to plant
something is stated as a indigenous trees.
fact.

Present Is, are or am + When something is busy She is eating an apple

Continuous base form of verb + happening. at the moment.
-ing

31
 He is planting an
indigenous tree now.

Present Perfect Has/have + 3rd When the time is not She has eaten apples
part of the verb important. before.
When something is true up They have planted
to this point in time. indigenous trees in their
garden.
They have had alien
trees as well but not
anymore.

Past Simple Second part of When something happened She ate an apple this
verb in the past. morning.
They planted a tree
yesterday.

Past Continuous Was / were + base When something was busy She was busy eating an
form + -ing. happening while something apple when the phone
else happened. rang.
They were planting a
tree when their
neighbour’s dog bit the
child.

Past Had + third part of Two things happened in the After she had eaten the
Perfect the verb past – the one before the apple she washed her
other one. hands.
Before they planted the
tree they had dug a
hole.

Future Simple Will + base form of Anything that will happen in She will eat the apple
verb. the future. tomorrow.
Shall is not really They will plant
used anymore. The indigenous trees when
rule; however is: they have taken out the
we take shall and alien trees.
everything else will
except if the
speaker wants to
emphasise
something, then
he/she would say I
will and the boy
shall.

Future Will + be + base When something will be She will be eating the
Continuous form + -ing happening in the future apple when her mother
when something else asks her about her diet.
happens. They will be planting the
trees when the minister
arrives there tomorrow.

32
Future Perfect Will + have + third Something will be She will have eaten the
part completed in the future apple when she has to
when something else go.
happens. They will have planted
the trees when the
camera team arrives.
(Note the difference in
meaning between when
the minister arrives and
when the camera team
arrives.)

33
Gonna – going to

Kinda – I am kind of happy

Beginning NOT beginning

Happened NOT happend

Cause – BECAUSE

They’re (they are) happy because their parents bought them a dog.

I am living in Bloemfontein but I am leaving it at the end of the month.

Rather say MANY instead of A LOT OF

They are ( not their) facing a challenge.

Lose and loose. You can never say loosing.

One life but many lives. My life but their lives. I live my life.

I was writing a letter.

I have written a letter.

I am better than you.

You can do the work then.

I advise you to take my advice.

I went to the practice to practise.

I am in love – NOT inlove.

We decided to do the work too, because she has two books.

34
You’re (you are) responsible for your work.

35
36
Concord

A singular subject gets a singular verb (base form + s)

Lerato catcheS the ball.
Lerato and Julia catch the ball.
Petros throwS the ball.
The boys throw the ball.
Kalipha runS very fast.
The girls run very fast.

There are two pronouns that are treated as plural even though I is singular and you can be
singular:
Thandeka eats an apple.
The women eat apples.
I eat an apple.
You eat an apple.

Singular
Everybody, someone, no-one, everything, something, nothing, everybody, somebody, nobody,
each and everyone.
Everybody IS here now.
Either of them / Neither of them GOES to the park.
One of the girls PLAYS with a new stick.
Many a man IS enchanted with her beauty.
Who IS there?
Athletics, mathematics, jewelry, fruit, a pair of (glasses, scissors, pliers, trousers), bacon and
eggs, macaroni and cheese, curry and rice, much, little, this, that

Plural

Glasses, people, the odds, minutes, scissors, a number of people, thanks, many, few, these,
those
37
Peter and David are friends.

With, as well as, like, including – look at first noun, e.g.

The mother, with her children, WAS kept hostage.

Or, either …or, neither … nor, not only, but, also – look at the second noun, e.g. Either the
mother or her children ARE guilty.
Either the mother or her children is / are expected to attend.
Neither the children nor their mother is / are happy in Bloem.
The girl or her friends is / are guilty.
The mother, with her children, is/are at home.
The children, with their mother, has/have many problems.
The headmaster, as well as the staff members, has / have arrived.
The learners, as well as their teacher, do / does a great job every day.

1. When the subject of the sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected
by and, use a plural verb.

Example: The doctoral student and the committee members write every day.
Example: The percentage of employees who called in sick and the number of
employees who left their jobs within 2 years are reflective of the level of job satisfaction.

2. When there is one subject and more than one verb, the verbs throughout the sentence must
agree with the subject.

Example: Interviews are one way to collect data and allow researchers to gain an in-depth
understanding of participants.
Example: An assumption is something that is generally accepted as true and is an
important consideration when conducting a doctoral study.

3. When a phrase comes between the subject and the verb, remember that the verb still agrees
with the subject, not the noun or pronoun in the phrase following the subject of the sentence.

Example: The student, as well as the committee members, is excited.

Example: The student with all the master’s degrees is very motivated.
Example: Strategies that the teacher uses to encourage classroom
participation include using small groups and clarifying expectations.
Example: The focus of the interviews was nine purposively selected participants.

4. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by "or" or "nor," use a singular
verb.

Example: The chairperson or the CEO approves the proposal before proceeding.

5. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by
"or" or "nor," the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is closest to the verb. This
is also called the rule of proximity.

Example: The student or the committee members write every day.

Example: The committee members or the student writes every day.

38
6. The words and phrases "each," "each one," "either," "neither," "everyone," "everybody,"
"anyone," "anybody," "nobody," "somebody," "someone," and "no one" are singular and
require a singular verb.

Example: Each of the participants was willing to be recorded.

Example: Neither alternative hypothesis was accepted.
Example: I will offer a $5 gift card to everybody who participates in the study.
Example: No one was available to meet with me at the preferred times.

7. Noncount nouns take a singular verb.

Example: Education is the key to success.

Example: Diabetes affects many people around the world.
Example: The information obtained from the business owners was relevant to include in the
study.
Example: The research I found on the topic was limited.

8. Some countable nouns in English such as earnings, goods, odds, surroundings, proceeds,
contents, and valuables only have a plural form and take a plural verb.

Example: The earnings for this quarter exceed expectations.

Example: The proceeds from the sale go to support the homeless population in the city.
Example: Locally produced goods have the advantage of shorter supply chains.

9. In sentences beginning with "there is" or "there are," the subject follows the verb. Since
"there" is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows the verb.

Example: There is little administrative support.

Example: There are many factors affecting teacher retention.

10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but are considered singular and
take a singular verb. Some examples are "group," "team," "committee," "family," and "class."

Example: The group meets every week.

However, the plural verb is used if the focus is on the individuals in the group. This is much
less common.
Example: The committee participate in various volunteer activities in their private lives.

39
Sentence types:
A sentence is the basic unit in language for communicating spoken and written thoughts and
ideas. Written sentences usually have to have a subject and a finite verb.
Example: Aaliya told the truth.
This is a sentence. ‘Aaliya’ is the subject; ‘told’ is the finite verb.

A phrase is a group of words which make sense but is not complete.

Example: Running around the block.
This is a phrase. It does not have a finite verb or a subject.
Running (gerund/noun/subject) around the block takes about five minutes.
The boy kicks the ball.

A clause has a finite verb. It is part of a sentence, almost like a sentence in a sentence.

Relative clauses:
The woman whose car is in the garage is here. (subordinate clause)
The girl whose dog ran away is coming this afternoon. (subordinate clause)
The city, where the attacks happened, was shaken.

Noun clauses:
Many years ago people believed that America was untouchable.
They didn’t know where the attack would come from next.

Adverbial clause:
While the UN convened, the president made his decision.
When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.
The teacher returned the homework, after she had noticed the error.

Clauses and phrases

The excited boy runs fast. (adjective)
The boy, who is very excited, runs fast. (Adjectival clause)
The boy, with the dark hair, runs fast. (Adjectival phrase)
I left school yesterday when it was already dark. (adverbial clause)

SIMPLE SENTENCE:

A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it
expresses a complete thought. Simple sentences contain no conjunction (i.e., and, but, or, etc.).

40
 A. Some students like to study in the mornings.
B. Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon.
C. The mother wanted her child to be the best in class.

COMPOUND SENTENCE:

A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The

coordinators are as follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (Helpful hint: The first letter of each of
the coordinators spells FANBOYS.) Except for very short sentences, coordinators are always
preceded by a comma. Compound sentences contain two statements that are connected by a
conjunction (i.e., and, but, or, etc.).

A. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.

B. Alejandro played football, so Maria went shopping.
C. Alejandro played football, for Maria went shopping.

COMPLEX SENTENCE:

A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A
complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or a
relative pronoun such as when, that, who, or which. Complex sentences contain a dependent
clause and at least one independent clause. The two clauses are connected by a subordinator
(i.e, which, who, although, despite, if, since, etc.).

A. When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.
B. The teacher returned the homework after she had noticed the error.
C. The students are studying because they have a test tomorrow
D. After they had finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies.
E. Juan and Maria went to the movies after they had finished studying.

41
 Direct and indirect speech
(Reported Speech)
What is the difference between direct speech and indirect or reported speech:
“I have done my homework.”
She said that she had done her homework.

There are changes because:

o She spoke – not I.
o She said her sentence in the present and when you report it, it is in the past.
o Therefore the verb has to change.

Another example: “I went to the movies last night.”

She said that she had gone to the movies the previous night.

● I – she
● Went – had gone
● Last night – the previous night

● Make sure that you understand why you have to make these changes. It all depends
on when the sentence was said and when you report it. Focus on the MEANING.

● Use a checklist when you have to change Direct Speech into Reported Speech:
o Insert THAT;
o Pronouns;
o Verbs go back one: present to past and past to past perfect;
o Definite time words (yesterday) change to indefinite time words (the day before).

Direct Speech Indirect/Reported Speech

This That
Today That day
Tomorrow The next/following day
Yesterday The previous day/The day before
Last year/week The previous year/week//The week/year before
Ago Before
Here There
Now Then
These Those
Must Had to

42
43
44
Why do writers use the passive voice sometimes, if it is more natural to use the active voice:
● When it is not necessary to mention the subject (doer) for example, “Refreshments will
be served.”
● When we are not sure who did the action, for example, “The diamonds were stolen.”
● When demands are made anonymously, for example, “Smoking is not permitted in the
cinema.”
● When a nameless accusation is made, for example, “This shirt has been ruined in the
wash.”
In the passive voice we use the third part of the verb or the past participle and the verb changes
in the following way:

Tense Active Passive

Present simple Lerato shows the tourists The tourists are shown around.
around.
Present Lerato is showing the The tourists are being shown around.
continuous tourists around.
Present perfect Lerato has shown the The tourists have been shown around.
tourists around.
Past simple Lerato showed the tourists The tourists were shown around.
around.
Past continuous Lerato was showing the The tourists were being shown around.
tourists around.
Past perfect Lerato had shown the The tourists had been shown around.
tourists around.
Future simple Lerato will show the tourists The tourists will be shown around.
around.
Future Lerato will be showing the The tourists will be being shown
continuous tourists around. around.
Future perfect Lerato will have shown the The tourists will have been shown
tourists around. around.

45
46
 Figures of speech
We create images of mind-pictures with Figures of Speech:
♦ We express ourselves visually, imaginatively and powerfully
♦ We use words as symbols with associations

Literal (denotative) language: factual – something which actually happens, e.g. Mary’s
boyfriend broke his leg.

Figurative (connotative) language: makes use of comparisons and suggestive ideas, e.g.
Mary’s boyfriend broke her heart.

Comparisons

Simile
A simile is a comparison that always contains the words as, like or than. (Just like ...)
He is as wealthy as Bill Gates.
(Just like Bill Gates is very rich, he is also affluent.)

Metaphor
A metaphor is a comparison without the words as or like.
● It compares two things:
He is a Bill Gates. (They are both rich.)
She is a bubble in a bottle of champagne. (She has personality.)
● The comparison is implied rather than stated directly:
The lieutenant roared his command. (He is aggressive)
● Extended Metaphors: The comparison or analogy is extended over a passage or throughout
a poem.
In The Gambles, fishing is compared to gambling.

She was the bud blooming into womanhood. She was the petal, colourful and fragile. A flower
in the making.
Personification
Human characteristics are given to non-human things (inanimate objects).
My armchair is waiting patiently.
The tree held its arms and twisted fingers up towards the sky.
Apostrophe
A direct address to an absent person or to an abstract
quality or an inanimate object.
In the poem ‘Recollections of Love’ the poet speaks about his beloved and then he
says:
“O Greta, dear domestic stream!” and we realise he’s talking to the River
Greta.

“Oh Shakespeare, if you could see the modern version of ‘Romeo and Juliet’.

Sound devices
They are used to achieve particular sound effect in poetry.

47
Alliteration
* The repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.
In a soft summer season.

* It often expresses movement.

Cathy the kitten catches the cotton reel.
Assonance
* Repetition of vowel sounds.
The eccentric Esther enthused her listeners.

* Short vowel sounds create a mood of speed, vitality, joy or suspense.

Clap your hands and stamp your feet. (Short a-sound)

* Long vowel sounds slow down the pace and temper the mood.
He slowly mowed the overgrown lawn. (long o-sound)

Onomatopoeia
Imitate/echo the natural sound of things.
The frogs croak.
The clanging of chains.
Rhyme
Rhyme depends on sound rather than on the written word.
It is used for effect.
You will not laugh
If you only get half!

Contradictions
They contain contrasts or differences
Antithesis
Opposing ideas appear in a sentence. It emphasises contrast.
They speak like saints and act like devils.
Don’t underestimate him; he’s a mouse in stature, a lion in strength.
The Internet is a master of technology and a thief of time.
Oxymoron
It places two contradictory words next to each other in order to evoke a powerful image. The
contradiction serves to intensify the point to be made.
Bitter sweet memories
an open secret
The accused felt angry relief when she was proved innocent.
Paradox
A statement which seems at first sight to be contradictory, but when studied it makes sense.
He’s telling the truth when he says he’s a liar.
She is only happy when she has something to worry about. (She’s a
happy worrier.)
Irony
* Saying the opposite of what you mean, indicating that you are joking.
“I can’t wait for my detention on Friday afternoon.”
48
* In an ironic situation the opposite of what was expected happens.
Rat poison is made of pure natural ingredients.
(Rat poison is described as good for one’s health, but the outcome of taking rat poison
is deadly (the opposite of what one expects.)
Isn’t it ironic that the people who complain most loudly are the ones who do least to
help.

* Dramatic irony: the audience know something that the actors are unaware of.
In Othello the audience is aware that Iago is evil and plans to destroy Othello and
Cassio. The characters, however, are blissfully unaware of this.

Sarcasm
One thing is said but something else is intended, like irony. The difference is that sarcasm
intends to hurt, insult or humiliate.
“You must have worked very hard to be bottom of the class!”
“Oh, you think you’re God’s gift to mankind, don’t you?”
Satire
In an amusing way, social or political weaknesses or stupidities are highlighted. The satirist uses
sharp wit, irony or sarcasm to expose these follies.
(Caricatures in cartoons are often examples of satire.)
Epigrams
A lot is said in a few words and there is a sting in the tail.
‘If you think education is expensive, try illiteracy!’
Every man desires to live long, but no man wants to grow old.

Exaggeration and understatement

Hyperbole
It is an exaggeration. It is not meant to be taken literally. It creates humour or emphasises a
point.
I have been waiting for a hundred years.
The teacher bit my head off when I interrupted her.
She prepared enough food to feed an army.
Litotes
A negative is used to emphasise a positive statement.
He is no fool. (He is intelligent.)
The gruesome sight was far from pretty. (It was ugly.)
It is no laughing matter. (It is serious.)
Euphemism
It softens the truth. Use of a more pleasant word in the place of a harsh or offensive one.

His father passed away. (He died.)

The camp forbids any form of chemical stimulants. (drugs and alcohol)
He neutralized the enemy. (killed)
Innuendo
A disapproving remark which hints at something without stating it directly, e.g.
A policeman questioning a suspect for murder might say, “I suppose you were at home
last night?” He is implying that the suspect was not at home and will lie about it.
49
Climax
It creates tension by building up to the main point.
He stole a few cents, then a rand, then he robbed a bank.
‘I saw, I stared, I screamed!’
He stood on the chair, looked around, stuck his hand into the cookie
jar and was caught red-handed!

Anti-climax (bathos)
Also a build-up of ideas, but the final statement is often flat and unexpected. Humour is created.
They lost everything in the fire: their home, their possessions and their lunch.
I intend to be a great writer, to write short stories and letters to the press.

Others

Pun
A clever (humorous) play on words
* One expression with its figurative and literal meanings.
● Ask for me tomorrow and I’ll be a grave man.
(Figurative: serious;
Literal: dead.)

● He is the bread winner

(Figurative: one who has an income
Literal: one who won a bread as a prize.)

* Two different words that have the same pronunciation

(homophones) but different spelling.

● Labourers should not be paid weakly for hard work.

(weakly = poorly
weekly = once in seven days – a week)

● D & J Meat market: where friends meat

(meat – buy meat
meet – get together, treated like friends)

● Name of a band: Jam Pact

(Jam – improvise music together
to fill up (e.g. the fans jammed the streets to see their heroes.)
Pact – an agreement to do something together
Packed: filled with supporters (the fans packed the stadium)

Rhetorical questions
No answer is expected.
The speaker uses it to make his point and to strengthen his argument.

Rhetorical questions are essentially a means to control society's thoughts. Because there is
only one answer, the audience is forced to answer in this way and thereby the people fall into
line with the way in which the speaker is thinking.

50
 ● Isn’t life a tedious business?
● If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?
Synecdoche
A part is used for a whole, or a whole is used for a part.
● Give us this day our daily bread. (our daily food requirements.)
● South Africa won the World Cup. (The team, not the country, won.)
● My heart grieved when my puppy died. (All of me was sad, not just my heart.)
Metonymy
One name is used with the intention that another name closely associated with it be understood.
● The Crown (instead of: The King)
● The turf (instead of horse-racing)
● The hotel has an excellent table. (The food is very good.)

Malapropism
The unintentional use of incorrect, similar sounding words. The speaker often uses language
above his understanding in order to impress.
● Willie said Hilda reported him to Child Welfed (instead of Welfare)
● His heart found refuse in her arms. (instead of refuge)
● He made a good oppression on me. (instead of impression)
● I beg the West for financial persistence (assistance)
● He is a new edition to the team (addition).
Spoonerism
The accidental mixing up of the first sounds (letters) spoken words.
He hissed the mystery lesson. (He missed the History lesson.)
I went for a ride on my well-boiled icycle (well-oiled bicycle)
The boxer’s opponent dealt him a blushing crow (instead of a crushing
blow.)
Transferred epithet
When an adjective or adverb is transferred from the word which it normally qualifies to another
word. The figure of speech is called a transferred epithet.
● He drank a cheerful glass. (The man is cheerful, not the glass.)

51
 Advertising
When a company uses the media to promote a product or service with the general public.
Important concepts :
catch line
logo
slogan
small print
target audience

AIDA PRINCIPLE
A = ATTENTION
Eye-catching image or picture (describe in detail!)
Clever use of language, for example in catchline (Look out for Figures of Speech –
explain!)
Colour (not in black-and-white exam papers!)
Lettering: font, capital letters, bold, reverse print
Attractive layout

I = INTEREST
Visual techniques
Cartoons, diagrams, photographs, graphs
Linguistic techniques
Punchy headlines and captions
Puns
Repetition
Clichés
Opinions stated as facts
Distorted language
Jingles and catchy songs
Rhetorical questions
Slogans
Unusual trade names
Emotive language
Exaggeration
Incomplete sentences
Jargon
Technical language
Direct Speech

D = DESIRE

Conformity To be like many others

Exclusivity To be different
Greed To get things cheaply
Gluttony To eat too much or to want to eat too well
Sex appeal To be attractive to the opposite sex
52
Security To be safe
Envy To want what others have
Success To earn a high salary, live in a big house, drive a fancy car…
Mother love To want the best for your children.
Health To be fit, youthful, energetic, healthy…
Modernity To have the latest and newest objects
Hero worship To be like a famous person
Easy living To have comfort in everyday life
Beauty To be good looking and youthful

A = ACTION
‘Buy one, get one free’ offers
Limited term offers
Easy payment plan
Toll-free numbers to call
Free gifts
‘Bargain of the century’ offers
Clearance offers
Phone now
Limited stocks
Money-back guarantees
Mystery discounts
Guarantees
Reduced interest rates
Sales
Reduced prices
Order immediately

Persuasive language:
There is a way of using language to make someone believe in something, or to convince
them to see something in a certain way or to agree with a certain opinion. These are
mainly about persuading people to buy a product (adverts), winning votes in an election
(speeches), and putting across our views on a particular subject with the aim of showing
that they are more valid than those of an opposing side (debate). There are three main
forms of persuasive language: logical appeal, ethical appeal and emotional appeal. The
word ‘appeal’ means ‘request’ or ‘plea’.

Logical appeal refers to the part of an argument that is the evidence and the logic or
reasoning that follows on from the evidence. Logic is not necessarily true – the speaker
persuades the audience by supporting a statement with evidence. The speaker uses the
word ‘because’ and phrases such as ‘as a result’, ‘it follows that’ and ‘we can therefore
conclude’.

Ethical appeal is the part of an argument that shows the speaker’s beliefs, values and
morals towards the subject that is being discussed. This convinces the audience that the
speaker is a good person who is aware of right and wrong, and that her or his argument
is valid and correct. The speaker also acknowledges that there are differing viewpoints
on the subject. This makes the speaker more persuasive – the audience sees the speaker
as someone who is ready to acknowledge other viewpoints.

Emotional appeal is the part of an argument that appeals to the emotions of the
audience. The speaker refers to real-life stories or personal experiences which can be
sad and unfair to a particular person or group of people.
53
Persuasive language makes use of the following elements:

Intensifiers are words such as ‘extremely’, ‘very’, ‘really’, ‘remarkably’, ‘definitely’ and
‘strongly’. Using intensifiers implies that the extent to which we believe in something is
great. We use these words to suggest what the reader or the listener should feel about
the topic under discussion.

Power words are words like ‘proven’, ‘guaranteed’, ‘real’, ‘right’ and ‘truth’. These words
make statements seem scientific and therefore valid. For example: “It has been proven
that corporal punishment in schools results in more negative behaviour”, “It is
guaranteed that this product will make your skin look younger.”

Persuasive phrases and clauses are phrases such as “It is clear” and “I believe”. They
persuade the audience that what the speakers are saying is correct and believable. For
example: “Judging from the evidence I have just presented to you, it is clear that the
death penalty is not effective.”

Rhetorical questions are used to create dramatic effect. The word ‘rhetorical’ comes from
the word ‘rhetoric’, which refers to the art of using words to impress.

54
 Linguistic devices
Acronym:
An abbreviation that is used as a word, e.g.
ANC (African National Congress), UNISA (University of South Africa),
ESCOM (Electricity supply commission),
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
Laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation)
NOTE: Acronyms, and abbreviations that are pronounced as words, do not have full stops
between the letters. (e.g. S.P.C.A. each letter is separately pronounced.)

Allusion:
An indirect or passing reference to something that the writer/ speaker assumes is common
knowledge shared by those who are educated.
A writer/speaker may allude to myths, the Bible, works of literature, historical facts, movies or
well-known speeches.
e.g. Allusion: The Mushroom killed millions.
Source: The mushroom-shaped cloud which hung over Hiroshima after
the Americans had dropped a nuclear bomb on 6 August, 1945.
Allusion: It takes two to toyi-toyi.
Source: It takes two to tango.

Ambiguity
The unintentional use of double meaning which has a humorous effect. One meaning is
intended but, because of the misplacing of a phrase, the sentence has another meaning.
e.g. Ladies are requested not to have babies in the bar.
(Intended meaning): Ladies are requested not to bring their babies
into the bar.
(Unintended meaning): Ladies are requested not to give birth in the
bar.
Ambivalence:
The intentional use of double meaning. (Conflicting ideas or uncertainty)

Anachronism
Chronological mistake: something from a different period of time, e.g. a modern idea or
invention wrongly placed in a historical setting in fiction or drama,
e.g. Shakespeare wearing a modern Rolex watch
something from different historical period: a person, thing, idea, or custom that seems to
belong to a different time in history,
e.g. Seven single or His Master’s Voice (record player)
making of chronological mistake: the representation of somebody or something out of
chronological order or in the wrong historical setting

Anagram
A word or phrase formed by transporting (changing order of) the letters of another word.
E.g. Palesa – pasela
live - evil
integral – triangle
55
 astronomers – no more stars

Analogy
If you make an analogy between two things, you show that they are alike in some way.
Analogies are used to persuade the other person that your claim of a situation is correct.
(Popular in debates)
e.g. A politician is like a footballer: he always tries to make the opposition unsure of what the
next move will be.

Archaism
Words that existed in the language during an earlier period, but have dropped out of common
use.
e.g. He spake in a strange voice. (spoke)
Brethren, beware of the devil in our world. (brothers)
Thy (your)

Emotive language
Bias = “leaning to one side”, as well as emotive language, indicates if a person approves or
disapproves of something. They also help identify tone.
e.g. He is confident. (this is a neutral word as it doesn’t reveal approval or
disapproval.
He is reckless. (this is a bias word as it reveals disapproval.)

Caricature
Grotesque (misshapen) and usually comic representation of characteristic features in a picture,
writing or mime.
Newspapers often publish caricatures of politicians.

Cartoons:
Political and social trends are often reflected in cartoons. Cartoons help people to come to
terms with serious issues by treating them in a light-hearted manner. Often the message is more
effective and hard-biting than a serious, academic article on the same topic.

Circumlocution / verbosity:
Both these words mean the use of many words where a few would do / evasive talk, e.g. The
child was attacked near his place of residence (home) by a savage member of the canine
species (dog).

Clichés:
Well-known expressions which have been used so much that they have lost their impact. As
soon as someone starts to say it, you know how it will end.
e.g. Education is the key to success.
She was spending money like it was going out of fashion.

Dialect:
A form of speech peculiar to a particular region/area. This may include different use of
pronunciation or grammar.
e.g. Yeah haf to shee that ol’ man. (You have to see that old man.) – different
56
 pronunciation.
They sure is very naughty. (They are surely very naughty.) – different grammar
NOTE:
Dialect is used and understood by all people of a certain region. It stays the same from
generation to generation.
Slang is not widely understood and changes from generation to generation.
Colloquial language is widely understood and familiar for hundreds of years.

Denotation and connotation:

Denotation is the dictionary meaning of a word.
e.g. dog = quadruped of many breeds, wild and domesticated
Connotation is the private meaning that a word has for an individual.
e.g. dog = a friendly animal / fierce, fear-inspiring animal
He’s an utter dog = He’s an utterly contemptible person.

Ellipsis:
Omission of words needed to complete a sentence. (…)

Elision:
It means “to leave out”.
A few letters are omitted to obtain rhythmic effect (in poetry). E.g. Shakespeare uses “Ne’er”,
“o’er” and “restor’d” for “never”, “over” and “restored”
Letters are omitted in everyday use
e.g. ”I’ll” instead of “I shall”; he’s – he is.

Eulogy:
A speech or writing in praise of a person, often delivered at funerals.

Neologism / modernism:
Neologism: A new word that is introduced into the language and comes into widespread use.
It is formed from another old language.
e.g. Apartheid belongs to the old dispensation.
Modernism: A world reflecting the modern world,
e.g. a cellular phone; fax (facsimile) machine
The following word-formation processes are typical of English (and many other languages).
Coinage is a word-formation process which yields new words, especially in the field of trade
names, and in recent years, the field of technology has yielded several, for example, mouse,
hard-drive, floppy, stiffy, bytes, and the like. Older examples include words such as teflon, xerox
and kleenex. Borrowing refers to the process where words from other languages have been
taken over by English, and are now accepted as English words, for example, alcohol (Arabic),
piano (Italian), trek (Afrikaans), tycoon (Japanese), and many others. Compounding refers to
the process where two separate words become one to form a new concept, for example,
blackbird, fingerprint, sunburn, and the like. Clipping occurs when a word of several syllables is
reduced to a a shorter form, for example, in words such as fax (facsimile), flu (influenza), phone
(telephone), plane (aeroplane), and many others. Backformation is also a form of reduction,
which involves a process where a word of a particular type (say a noun) is reduced to form a
word of a different grammatical function (in most cases a verb). Examples include the following:
televise (television = noun); edit (editor = agent noun); opt (option = noun), and the like.
Conversion does not involve reduction, but a word is taken and changed from one part of
speech into another (i.e. a category change is made). The following are examples: paper
57
(noun) = papered (verb); butter (noun) = buttered (verb); must (modal auxiliary) = a must (noun);
dirty (adjective) = dirtied (verb), and so forth. The main difference between backformation and
conversion is that the former involves a reduction in form, while the second does not.
Acronyms are often encountered in modern English. These are formed when the initial letters
of a phrase are taken and combined to form a word. The acronym is used as a word, and after
some time few people remember the actual phrase, for example AIDS (acquired immune
deficiency syndrome), laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation), NATO
(North Atlantic Treaty Organisation), and the like.
Derivation is the most productive word-formation process. We have already referred to
inflectional and derivational morphemes. The suffixes and affixes which may be added to stems
are used in derivational processes. Use your dictionary as source of information on affixes and
their meanings.

Palindrome
A word reading the same backwards as forwards.
e.g. Anna, nun, madam, ewe, dad, rotator

Parody:
A humorous exaggerated imitation of an existing poem/prose/ a play. Its purpose is to create a
satirical messageor comical imitation, e.g.
Little Miss Muffet Little Miss Muffet
Sat on a tuffet, Crouched on a tuffet,
Eating her curds and whey; Collecting her shell-shocked wits.
There came a big spider, There dropped (from a glider)
Who sat down beside her An H-bomb beside her
And frightened Miss Muffet away. Which frightened Miss Muffet to bits.
Anonymous

Stereotype:
A fixed, generalised image of a character or person.
NOTE: Advertisers often create stereotypical images in order to appeal to a specific target
audience,
e.g. the macho man, the perfect mother, the jet setter, the popular
teenager.

Tautology / redundancy:
Repeating the same idea/thing in different words.
He reversed backwards.
I repeat the story again.
There was a variety of different games to play.
The poison was lethal and deadly.
I am very exasperated.
She made friends with wrong people in life.
She couldn’t live without drugs and alcohol in her life.
She started working in a brothel being a prostitute.
This event in life…

58
 Paper 1
Time allocation:
Mar 2 hours (120 + 10 min
ks reading time)
Comprehension 30 40 min + 10 min reading
time
Summary 10 30 min
Advertisement 10 15 min
Cartoon 10 15 min
Language 10 10 min

Comprehension
● Read once carefully, read questions, read again, start answering.
● Read Text B before reading Text A for the second time.

Q Key word in Generic answers Mark allocation

question
1.1 + Explain/stat Give meaning/Rewrite in your own words to show One fact = 2
1.2 e in your the meaning. marks.
own Short answer. If there are more
words/expl DO NOT LIFT. than one obvious
ain the Do not spend too much time. fact – write two.
significance
Account for
Significanc Importance. Why does the writer use this word in One fact = 2
e this context or make this claim at this specific point. marks
Account for Make sure that you read the whole par. Sometimes
the writer’s the writer expresses different feelings.
feelings in Name feeling and explain why the writer feels this.
par 1/the
following…
1.3 + Convey What does the writer express? What is she trying to
1.4/5 say?
Discuss the Watch out for specific a word and don’t lift it.
point the Example “void”.
writer is
making….
Effect of… Writer brings topic/main idea into focus. 1 Generic
Single line It highlights/emphasises the main idea/an idea answer
par Single line indicates a change in thought. 2 Reference to
topic/main
idea/change.
Rhetorical (Do not explain what a rhetorical question is.)
question Makes reader think/reflect/consider, engages
reader.
Quote Quote only the word, phrase or short sentence…
59
 Implication What does this imply? What is the underlying
meaning of the word, phrase, punctuation mark,
exclamation, etc.
Inverted Word from another language.
commas Slang
Sarcasm or irony – in other words the writer wants
to show that this is not really true.
Intention Intention
To inform, educate, entertain, promote, advertise,
ridicule, criticise
To stir romantic feelings and to entertain.
To praise the work of the Creator.
To capture attention and inform.
To give general information about a specific topic.
Educate.
To socialize and to communicate informally
To invite and attract
To protest
To persuade prospective travelers, buyers,
participants, etc. (inform about a product or service)
To promote/advertise
To amuse
To entertain young readers, to teach a moral lesson.
To report on economic matters, the weather,
politics, etc.

Statistics Statistics allow writers to support their arguments

with convincing evidence. They also
enable writers to draw conclusions and argue
specific sides of issues without sounding
speculative or vague. Effect on
reader. Statistics refer to factual, numerical
evidence within a Language Analysis piece and are
generally convincing for two reasons. Firstly, they
highlight the logical importance of the issue and
provide evidence for the writer's
contention.Statistics provide a type of evidence
that is difficult to refute ...

1.5 – Comment Effect is what the word or phrase or punctuation 1 Example of

1.8/9 on the mark achieves – does it shock the reader? Make diction – quote
effects of the reader pay attention? Emphasise? word or phrase
the diction Take note if question refers to diction at a specific 2 Effect that the
point in the text: Comment on the use of the word word or phrase or
here. punctuation mark
Write down the word/phrase achieves.
3 How do YOU
feel about this
effect?

60
What does Implication.
writer
suggest?
...in the NOT your own opinion but actually compared to/in
context of the light of what the writer says.
the
paragraph/
passage.
Writer’s The writer’s attitude towards his listener and subject 1 What is the
tone/attitud writer’s
e tone/attitude?
2 Why is this so?
Proof of this.
3 Your feeling
about this
tone/attitude (with
reference to rest
of text.)
Character’s Difference in attitude: Make very sure to mention
attitude both attitudes and show that they are different.
Then give evidence of why you say that.
Critically Fear, anxiety, excitement, anticipation, tension,
discuss the sorrow, admiration
atmospher
e in
paragraph
Critically Compare two ideas: meaning of first, meaning of Yes/No (No mark,
discuss second. but very
whether Do they correspond with each other or contradict important.
paragraph/ each other? 1 Main idea of
sentence Give a very brief personal observation – based on two aspects that
supports…. text – about the extent/significance of the have to be
support/contradiction. compared.
2Proof/examples/
diction/phrases
from second
aspect.
3 Critical
observation
Is final A final paragraph gives the main ideas of an Yes/No (No mark,
paragraph argument and refers to the thesis statement again. but very
suitable? It could refer to the opposite side of the argument. important.
It could contain advice. 1 Generic
It is a summary. reference to
Repeats phrases/terminology from the rest of the structure/ reason
passage. for a final par.
The reader is drawn into the argument through the 2 Brief summary
use of first person pronoun. of content of this
The writer generalises/globalises. final par.
61
 3 How is it
suitable or not?
Suitability Implication of DIFFERENT parts of title.
of title Main idea/message of text.
Subjective/ Objective: Usually formal, no bias, no prejudice,
Objective? tone would be informative/explanatory/serious,
carefully selected vocabulary, formal grammar,
clear, logical, academic explanation, sophisticated
diction, formal register and
economic/legal/technical/medical/etc jargon.

Subjective: Biased, prejudice, emotive language,

the use of colloquialisms, slang and direct speech,
use of clichéd, melodramatic and sentimental
language, outraged, superior, ironical, despairing,
pessimistic, critical, disgusted, disapproving
tone/attitude, rhetorical questions.
Contradicti Refer to BOTH sentences/paragraphs/ 1 + 2 or 2 + 1.
ons and phrases/clauses...
comparison
s.
1.12 Text A & B Will never only be contextual.
Does Text B support
paragraph/title/argument/message/etc. in Text A?
Which text would have a bigger impact on the
reader? Why?
Compare a description of something in Text A and
something in Text B.
Which text is more effective in doing something.

November 2018 actually asked: To what extent

does Text B support the title and par 1 of Text A?
Here learners HAD to discuss content.

Language Carefully selected vocabulary

style Varied sentence structure
Formal grammar
Sophisticated diction, formal register and economic/
legal/ technical/ medical/etc jargon.
Objective, unbiased
Simple but imaginative word choice, simple
sentences and frequent use of onomatopoeia.
The use of colloquialisms, slang and direct speech.
Word play combined with question-answer format
Clear, logical, academic explanation
The use of emotive and negatively charged words
to describe a tragic incident
Poetic rhythm, rhyme and abundant use of
figurative language, assonance and alliteration.
62
 Use of vivid imagery and emotive adjectives to
describe geographical/ historical/architectural/etc.
features.
Combination of simple rhyme, based on a shocking
image, with words that have strong connotations.
Enumeration (list) of
culinary/décor/teaching/sport/etc specialities, using
descriptive and figurative language
Use of clichéd, melodramatic and sentimental
language
Informal
Colloquial – contractions (e.g. can’t), colloquialism
(kids, job)
Slang – (e.g. wanna, gonna)
Conversational style/use of personal pronouns
crates a bond of confidence between the writer and
the reader/ involves the reader in the passage.
Emotive language
Biased / prejudiced
Sensational
Connotation
Figures of speech
The writer uses metaphorical
expressions/hyperbole such as….to highlight the….
Exclamations
Ellipses

SUMMARY
Read the instructions carefully. You will seldom have to summarise the complete text.
You cannot write a summary without writing a rough draft. This is where you count your
words and delete or add. You cannot work with something that is not in front of your
eyes.

Advertisement
Note the difference between text and image. Questions may focus only on the
text/dialogue or on the image/visuals. They may also refer to both.
Questions often focus on a single phrase or clause – refer to this specifically in your
answer, but in context.
Make sure about the product being advertised. Sometimes an investment company uses
a photo of a boy doing karate – this does not mean the advertisement advertises karate
classes!
Referring to the advertisement as a whole, Effectiveness: Does it work well? When you
discuss the effectiveness of the claim... claim something you assert that it is the
Motivate your answer by making close case. An effective claim makes the
reference to the visual images.
63
 reader/target audience believe that
something is really the case.
Reference to visual image: A big smile, an
upright, confident posture, an affluent
environment – anything in the picture that
supports the ‘claim’.

Comment critically on the use of colloquial Colloquial expressions in a piece of

language in the advertisement. literature may give us deep insights into the
writer’s society. They tell us about how
people really talk in their real lives.
Therefore, they help a writer to form strong
connections with readers. Colloquial
expressions impart a sense of realism to a
piece of literature, which again attracts
readers as they identify it with their real life.
Authors often use colloquialisms to
make dialogue sound more authentic. A few
examples:

● Bamboozle – to deceive
● Bo bananas, or go nuts – go insane or
be very angry
● Wanna – want to
● Gonna – going to
● Y’all – you all
● Be blue – to be sad
● Buzz off – go away

‘Sure I will, George. I won’t say a word.’

‘Don’t let him pull you in—but—if the
son-of-a-bitch socks you—let ‘im have it.’
The above colloquial expressions are
realistic enough as they are uttered by
middle-aged men of a working class who
are not well educated or refined.
“I didn’t want to go back no more.”
The use of double negatives is evident in
the above passage, and was used as a
typical characteristic of black-American
vernacular.
Comment critically on the use of hyperbole The author can use hyperbole to add extra
in the advertisement. drama or comedy to a situation or even for
the purpose of propaganda. Hyperbole, like
other figures of speech, is used to
communicate ideas, emotions and images in

64
 a more efficient way than through plain
language.
The fields of advertising and propaganda
use hyperbole almost exclusively, which has
led to it having a somewhat negative
connotation. Typically advertisers or those
writing propaganda use hyperbole to
exaggerate the benefits or claims of their
products in order to boost sales, increase
the image of, or increase the popularity of
whatever they are advertising. The modern
term “hype” is a shortened derivation of the
term.
Comment critically on the use of allusion in An allusion is a literary device that
the advertisement. stimulates ideas, associations, and extra
information in the reader's mind with only a
word or two. Allusion means 'reference'. It
relies on the reader being able to
understand the allusion and being familiar
with all of the meaning hidden behind the
words.
"As the cave's roof collapsed, he was
swallowed up in the dust like Jonah, and
only his frantic scrabbling behind a wall of
rock indicated that there was anyone still
alive".

The allusion in the sentence above is to

Jonah. The reader is expected to recognize
the reference to Jonah and the whale,
which should evoke an image of being
'swallowed alive' ... in this case, behind a
wall of dust and rock.
Allusions in writing help the reader to
visualize what's happening by evoking a
mental picture. But the reader must be
aware of the allusion and must be familiar to
what it alludes.
Critically comment on how the Your description should focus on the main
boy/girl/person in the image is presented. idea of the advertisement/cartoon: If the
product is a company promoting
determination then focus on this in the
image. If the aspect being ridiculed is female
abuse, focus on aspects of this in the image.
You may focus on clothes, facial expression,
gestures, stance or language.
1 Description of presentation.
65
 2 Why the cartoonist/advertiser uses it
specifically – how does it add to the
effectiveness of the message.
3 General comment about aspect.

Cartoons
Why do the speech bubbles in Frames … An ellipsis can show that a thought is
end with ellipses? extended and that the reader should
consider what has been said.
It can show hesitation in the speaker.
It can create suspension.
Discuss the contrast between frames …., Action: In frame 2, the speaker is
focusing on the action, font and diction. contemplative and passive. In Frame 4, the
scene is in stark contrast to Frame 2. The
girl shouts, as indicated by her wide open
mouth, and it results in the boy's tumbling
on the bed. The action lines clearly
demonstrate the difference between Frames
2 and 4.
Font: The font in Frame 4 is bold as
opposed to the smaller font in Frame 2.
This highlights how the girl shouts out her
statement.
Text: The diction in Frame 2 denotes her
sincere (or apparently sincere) 'caring'
concern at waking her brother, whereas, in
Frame 4, she is bullying and this is shown
by the domineering tone.
How does the speaker's body language His fury is indicated by his clenched fists;
reinforce what he says? he gnashes his teeth; he is sweating, as
shown by the droplets. The action lines
around his arms and legs reinforce the
sense of his anger.
This is indicated by his half-closed eyes
and his out-stretched arm.

Comment on the part played by the layout of The layout highlights the underlying
the cartoon in conveying the overall message of the cartoon. The cartoonist
message of the cartoonist. stresses the value of and need for .... This is
indicated by the ... and the repetitive speech
bubbles. The reality is that the ... problem
could be solved if ...
Explain how the setting contributes to the
message of the cartoon.
Discuss what the cartoonist conveys about Refer to body language, facial expression
... attitude in frame 2. Focus on both his and words (in your own words).
body language and his speech. What characteristic/feeling is shown by
OR these expressions?
66
What do facial expression and words reveal The boy displays ... for .... He has an
about the character. indignant expression on his face; his raised
finger signals his incredulity/rudeness at....
His disrespectful questions highlight his
disbelief.

Comment on the use of stereotyping in both A fixed, generalised image of a character or

cartoons. person.
NOTE: Advertisers often create
stereotypical images in order to appeal to a
specific target audience,
e.g. the macho man, the perfect mother, the
jet setter, the popular teenager.
Name the stereotyping and then say how it
contributes to the effectiveness of the
cartoon.

Account for the change in attitude./ Attitude/body position before change,

Give a reason for the varying body attitude/body position after change, why the
positions. change?
Comment on any TWO/ONE/THREE visual
elements in a frame/the cartoon/etc.
Critically discuss the effectiveness of any one technique used by the cartoonist.
OR
Comment on how humour is created.

A cartoon is effective if it is funny. If you want to say that it is not effective (not
funny), you need to motivate your answer very well.
These are the techniques used by cartoonists:

Size
Size is an important element in cartoons and one that is often quite obvious. Investigate:

● Is anything disproportioned?
● Exaggerated? Under-exaggerated?
● What is large and what is small?

3. Labelling/stereotyping

● What is labelled?
● What do the labels say?
● Do the labels tell us the situation? Person? Time change?

4. Speech bubbles

● Who is speaking?
● What are they saying?

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 ● Is it a conversation?

5. Symbols
A symbol is something that represents or stands for something else, usually an idea. What
symbols are incorporated?

● Why are particular symbols used?

● Is it a well-known symbol?
● Is the symbol’s meaning clear and identifiable? Or is it vague and can have multiple
interpretations?

6. Focus
The focus of a cartoon can indicate the main issue or situation.

● What is in focus?
● What is in the foreground and background?

7. Angle
Angles often provide readers an indication of the status of particular people or things. If the
angle is sloping down, then it creates an image of a smaller person or item. This indicates
weakness, inferiority and powerlessness. An angle sloping up towards a person or item
provides it with power, superiority and authority. A straight-on angle can represent equality.

● Is the angle sloping up?

● Is the angle sloping down?
● Is it straight on?
● From behind? Front on?
● On top or below?

8. Tone
The tone of a cartoon can indicate the illustrator’s attitude and stance towards the issue.

9. Facial Expression
Facial expressions are key to the character’s thoughts, feelings and emotions.

● What facial expressions are used?

● Do they change (sequential cartoons)?
● How do expressions compare to another’s expression?
● Is it an expression we expect?

10. Context
The context of a cartoon is important. Most of the time, cartoons are attached to articles
and usually draw upon a point contended by the writer of the article.

● Does the cartoon support or oppose the article?

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 ● Is it relevant or irrelevant?
● Does it focus on the past, present or future?
● Which aspect of the article does it relate to?
● Does it add further information?

However, there are times when you will have to analyse a cartoon alone, where it is not
accompanying an article. In this case you will have to understand the background, the
situation and the issue that is represented.

Critically evaluate the cartoonist’s use of In Text E, the mother is stereotyped as

satire. someone who needs to fulfil domestic
demands and perform tedious chores. Her
desire to further her studies is frowned upon
by a young male character. The mother's
sarcasm in frame 4 further highlights the
sensitive nature of gender stereotypes.

Caricature
Grotesque (misshapen) and usually comic representation of characteristic features in a
picture, writing or mime.
Newspapers often publish caricatures of politicians.

Cartoons:
Political and social trends are often reflected in cartoons. Cartoons help people to come
to terms with serious issues by treating them in a light-hearted manner. Often the
message is more effective and hard-biting than a serious, academic article on the same
topic.

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TONE
Accusatory: suggesting someone has done something wrong, complaining
Acerbic sharp; forthright; biting; hurtful; abrasive; severe
Admiring approving; think highly of; respectful; praising
Aggressive hostile; determined; forceful; argumentative
Aggrieved indignant; annoyed; offended; disgruntled
Ambivalent having mixed feelings; uncertain; in a dilemma; undecided
Amused entertained; diverted; pleased
Angry incensed or enraged; threatening or menacing
Animated full of life or excitement; lively; spirited; impassioned; vibrant
Apathetic showing little interest; lacking concern; indifferent; unemotional
Apologetic full of regret; repentant; remorseful; acknowledging failure
Appreciative grateful; thankful; showing pleasure; enthusiastic
Ardent enthusiastic; passionate
Arrogant pompous; disdainful; overbearing; condescending; vain; scoffing
Assertive self-confident; strong-willed; authoritative; insistent
Awestruck amazed, filled with wonder/awe; reverential
Belligerent hostile; aggressive; combatant
Benevolent sympathetic; tolerant; generous; caring; well meaning
Bitter angry; acrimonious; antagonistic; spiteful; nasty
Callous cruel disregard; unfeeling; uncaring; indifferent; ruthless
Candid truthful, straightforward; honest; unreserved
Caustic making biting, corrosive comments; critical
Cautionary gives warning; raises awareness; reminding
Celebratory praising; pay tribute to; glorify; honour
Chatty informal; lively; conversational; familiar
Colloquial familiar; everyday language; informal; colloquial; casual
Comic humorous; witty; entertaining; diverting
Compassionate sympathetic; empathetic; warm-hearted; tolerant; kind
Complex having many varying characteristics; complicated
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Compliant agree or obey rules; acquiescent; flexible; submissive
Concerned worried; anxious; apprehensive
Conciliatory intended to placate or pacify; appeasing
Condescending stooping to the level of one’s inferiors; patronising
Confused unable to think clearly; bewildered; vague
Contemptuous showing contempt; scornful; insolent; mocking
Critical finding fault; disapproving; scathing; criticising
Cruel causing pain and suffering; unkind; spiteful; severe
Curious wanting to find out more; inquisitive; questioning
Cynical scornful of motives/virtues of others; mocking; sneering
Defensive defending a position; shielding; guarding; watchful
Defiant obstinate; argumentative; defiant; contentious
Demeaning disrespectful; undignified
Depressing sad, melancholic; discouraging; pessimistic
Derisive snide; sarcastic; mocking; dismissive; scornful
Detached aloof; objective; unfeeling; distant
Dignified serious; respectful; formal; proper
Diplomatic tactful; subtle; sensitive; thoughtful
Disapproving displeased; critical; condemnatory
Disheartening discouraging; demoralising; undermining; depressing
Disparaging dismissive; critical; scornful
Direct straightforward; honest
Disappointed discouraged; unhappy because something has gone wrong
Dispassionate impartial; indifferent; unsentimental; cold; unsympathetic
Distressing heart-breaking; sad; troubling
Docile compliant; submissive; deferential; accommodating
Earnest showing deep sincerity or feeling; serious
Egotistical self-absorbed; selfish; conceited; boastful
Empathetic understanding; kind; sensitive
Encouraging optimistic; supportive
Enthusiastic excited; energetic

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Excited emotionally aroused; stirred
Facetious inappropriate; flippant
Farcical ludicrous; absurd; mocking; humorous and highly improbable
Flippant superficial; glib; shallow; thoughtless; frivolous
Forceful powerful; energetic; confident; assertive
Formal respectful; stilted; factual; following accepted styles/rules
Frank honest; direct; plain; matter-of-fact
Frustrated annoyed; discouraged
Gentle kind; considerate; mild; soft
Ghoulish delighting in the revolting or the loathsome
Grim serious; gloomy; depressing; lacking humour; macabre
Gullible naïve; innocent; ignorant
Hard unfeeling; hard-hearted; unyielding
Humble deferential; modest
Humorous amusing; entertaining; playful
Hypercritical unreasonably critical; hair splitting; nitpicking
Impartial unbiased; neutral; objective
Impassioned filled with emotion; ardent
Imploring pleading; begging
Impressionable trusting; child-like
Inane silly; foolish; stupid; nonsensical
Incensed enraged
Incredulous disbelieving; unconvinced; questioning; suspicious
Indignant annoyed; angry; dissatisfied
Informative instructive; factual; educational
Inspirational encouraging; reassuring
Intense earnest; passionate; concentrated; deeply felt
Intimate familiar; informal; confidential; confessional
Ironic the opposite of what is meant
Irreverent lacking respect for things that are generally taken seriously
Jaded bored; having had too much of the same thing; lack enthusiasm

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Joyful positive; optimistic; cheerful; elated
Judgmental critical; finding fault; disparaging
Laudatory praising; recommending
Light-Hearted carefree; relaxed; chatty; humorous
Lovingaffectionate; showing intense, deep concern
Macabre gruesome; horrifying; frightening
Malicious desiring to harm others or to see others suffer; ill-willed; spiteful
Mean-Spirited inconsiderate; unsympathetic
Mocking scornful; ridiculing; making fun of someone
Mourning grieving; lamenting; woeful
Naïve innocent; unsophisticated; immature
Narcissistic self-admiring; selfish; boastful; self-pitying
Nasty unpleasant; unkind; disagreeable; abusive
Negative unhappy, pessimistic
Nostalgic thinking about the past; wishing for something from the past
Objective without prejudice; without discrimination; fair; based on fact
Obsequious overly obedient and/or submissive; fawning; grovelling
Optimistic hopeful; cheerful
Outraged angered and resentful; furious; extremely angered
Outspoken frank; candid; spoken without reserve
Pathetic expressing pity, sympathy, tenderness
Patronising condescending; scornful; pompous
Pensive reflective; introspective; philosophical; contemplative
Persuasive convincing; eloquent; influential; plausible
Theoretical; analytical; rational; logical
Playful full of fun and good spirits; humorous; jesting
Pragmatic realistic; sensible
Pretentious affected; artificial; grandiose; rhetorical; flashy
Regretful apologetic; remorseful
Resentful aggrieved; offended; displeased; bitter
Resigned accepting; unhappy

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Restrained controlled; quiet; unemotional
Reverent showing deep respect and esteem
Righteous morally right and just; guiltless; pious; god-fearing
Satirical making fun to show a weakness; ridiculing; derisive
Sarcastic scornful; mocking; ridiculing
Scathing critical; stinging; unsparing; harsh
Scornful expressing contempt or derision; scathing; dismissive
Sensationalistic provocative; inaccurate; distasteful
Sentimental thinking about feelings, especially when remembering the past
Sincere honest; truthful; earnest
Sceptical disbelieving; unconvinced; doubting
Solemn not funny; in earnest; serious
Subjective prejudiced; biased
Submissive compliant; passive; accommodating; obedient
Sulking bad-tempered; grumpy; resentful; sullen
Sympathetic compassionate; understanding of how someone feels
Thoughtful reflective; serious; absorbed
Tolerant open-minded; charitable; patient; sympathetic; lenient
Tragic disastrous; calamitous
Unassuming modest; self-effacing; restrained
Uneasy worried; uncomfortable; edgy; nervous
Urgent insistent; saying something must be done soon
Vindictive vengeful; spiteful; bitter; unforgiving
Virtuous lawful; righteous; moral; upstanding
Whimsical quaint; playful; mischievous; offbeat
Witty clever; quick-witted; entertaining
Wonder awe-struck; admiring; fascinating
World-Weary bored; cynical; tired
Worried anxious; stressed; fearful
Wretched miserable; despairing; sorrowful; distressed

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Attitude

The writer…
● is sincere
● is trusting
● cares a lot about the issue
● feels responsible to make a difference
● is enthusiastic
● is friendly
● deals with the matter in a mature way.
● is generous in his description
● shows interest/curiosity
● is thoughtful
● is cooperative
● is affectionate
● is tolerant towards..
● is empathetic
● is sceptical about the amount of time they spend…
● is indifferent; she does not really care..
● is assertive
● is cynical
● is very ambitious when she assumes the they will change their ways…
● is angry and aggressive
● is critical
● shows her aversion when she ….
● shows her disgust
● is biased
● is callous
● is candid
● shows that she is impartial..
● is objective/subjective..
● is hostile towards..

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