XJCO2321 Formal Languages and

Finite Automata

04: Non-Deterministic Finite

Automata
 Non-deterministic Finite Automaton (NFA)

Alphabet = {a}

q1 a q2
a
q0
a
q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 1

 Alphabet = {a}

Two choices a
q1 q2 No transition
a
q0
a
q3 No transition

Based on slides by Costas Busch 2

 First Choice

a a

q1 a q2
a
q0
a
q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 3

 First Choice

a a

q1 a q2
a
q0
a
q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 4

 First Choice
All input is consumed
a a

q1 a q2 “accept”
a
q0
a
q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 5

 Second Choice

a a

q1 a q2
a
q0
a
q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 6

 Second Choice
Input cannot be consumed
a a

q1 a q2
a
q0 Automaton Halts
a
q3 “reject”

Based on slides by Costas Busch 7

A NFA accepts a string:
if there is a computation path of the NFA
that accepts the string

all the symbols of input string are processed

and
the last is an accepting state

Based on slides by Costas Busch 8

 aa is accepted by the NFA:

“accept”
q1 a q2 q1 a q2
a a
q0 q0
a a
q3 q3 “reject”
because this
this computation
computation
is ignored
accepts aa
Based on slides by Costas Busch 9
 Rejection example

q1 a q2
a
q0
a
q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 10

 First Choice

a
“reject”
q1 a q2
a
q0
a
q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 11

 Second Choice

q1 a q2
a
q0
a
q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 12

 Second Choice

q1 a q2
a
q0
a
q3 “reject”

Based on slides by Costas Busch 13

 Another Rejection example

a a a

q1 a q2
a
q0
a
q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 14

 First Choice

a a a

q1 a q2
a
q0
a
q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 15

 First Choice
Input cannot be consumed
a a a

q1 a q2 “reject”
a
q0
a
Automaton halts
q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 16

 Second Choice

a a a

q1 a q2
a
q0
a
q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 17

 Second Choice
Input cannot be consumed
a a a

q1 a q2
a
q0 Automaton halts
a
q3 “reject”

Based on slides by Costas Busch 18

A NFA rejects a string:
if there is no computation of the NFA
that accepts the string.

For each possible computation path:

• All the input is consumed and the
automaton is in a non accepting state

OR
• The input cannot be consumed
Based on slides by Costas Busch 19
 a is rejected by the NFA:

“reject”
q1 a q2 q1 a q2
a a
q0 q0
a a
q3 “reject” q3

All possible computations lead to rejection

Based on slides by Costas Busch 20
 aaa is rejected by the NFA:

“reject”
q1 a q2 q1 a q2
a a
q0 q0
a a
q3 q3 “reject”

All possible computations lead to rejection

Based on slides by Costas Busch 21
 Language accepted: L = {aa}

q1 a q2
a
q0
a
q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 22

 Epsilon Transitions

q0 a q1  q2 a q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 23

 a a

q0 a q1  q2 a q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 24

 a a

q0 a q1  q2 a q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 25

 input tape head does not move

a a

q0 a q1  q2 a q3

Automaton changes state

Based on slides by Costas Busch 26

 all input is consumed

a a

“accept”

q0 a q1  q2 a q3

String aa is accepted
Based on slides by Costas Busch 27
 Rejection Example

a a a

q0 a q1  q2 a q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 28

 a a a

q0 a q1  q2 a q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 29

 (read head doesn’t move)

a a a

q0 a q1  q2 a q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 30

 Input cannot be consumed

a a a

Automaton halts
“reject”

q0 a q1  q2 a q3

String aaa is rejected

Based on slides by Costas Busch 31
 Language accepted: L = {aa}

q0 a q1  q2 a q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 32

 Another NFA Example

q0 a q1 b q2  q3


Based on slides by Costas Busch 33
 a b

q0 a q1 b q2  q3


Based on slides by Costas Busch 34
 a b

q0 a q1 b q2  q3


Based on slides by Costas Busch 35
 a b

“accept”

q0 a q1 b q2  q3


Based on slides by Costas Busch 36
 Another String

a b a b

q0 a q1 b q2  q3


Based on slides by Costas Busch 37
 a b a b

q0 a q1 b q2  q3


Based on slides by Costas Busch 38
 a b a b

q0 a q1 b q2  q3


Based on slides by Costas Busch 39
 a b a b

q0 a q1 b q2  q3


Based on slides by Costas Busch 40
 a b a b

q0 a q1 b q2  q3


Based on slides by Costas Busch 41
 a b a b

q0 a q1 b q2  q3


Based on slides by Costas Busch 42
 a b a b

“accept”

q0 a q1 b q2  q3


Based on slides by Costas Busch 43
 Language accepted

L = ab, abab, ababab, ...

= abab
*

q0 a q1 b q2  q3


Based on slides by Costas Busch 44
 Another NFA Example

0
q0 q1 0, 1 q2
1

Based on slides by Costas Busch 45
 Language accepted

L =  , 10, 1010, 101010, ...

= 10
*

0
q0 q1 0, 1 q2
1 (redundant
state)

Based on slides by Costas Busch 46
 Simple Automata

M1 M2
q0 q0

L( M 1 ) = {} L( M 2 ) = { }

Based on slides by Costas Busch 47

 NFAs are interesting because we can
express languages easier than DFAs

NFA M1 DFA M2 a
q2
q0 a q1
a
q0 a q1

L( M1 ) = {a} L( M 2 ) = {a}
Based on slides by Costas Busch 48
 Formal Definition of NFAs

M = (Q, ,  , q0 , F )

Q: Set of states, i.e. q0 , q1, q2 

: Input aplhabet, i.e. a, b  
: Transition function

q0 : Initial state

F: Accepting states
Based on slides by Costas Busch 49
 Transition Function 

 (q, x ) = q1 , q2 ,, qk 

q1
x resulting states reached
q x
q2 by following one transition
x
with input symbol x

qk

Based on slides by Costas Busch 50

 States reachable from q0 scanning 1

 (q0 , 1) = q1

0
q0 q1 0, 1 q
2
1

Based on slides by Costas Busch 51
 States reachable from q1 scanning 0

 (q1,0) = {q0 , q2 }

0
q0 q1 0, 1 q
2
1

Based on slides by Costas Busch 52
States reachable from q0 with one transition
scanning no input symbol

 (q0 ,  ) = {q2 }

0
q0 q1 0, 1 q
2
1

Based on slides by Costas Busch 53
 States reachable from q2 scanning 1

 (q2 ,1) = 

0
q0 q1 0, 1 q
2
1

Based on slides by Costas Busch 54
 *
Extended Transition Function 
Similar with  but applied on strings

 (q0 , a ) = q1
*

q4 q5
a a
q0 a q1 b q2  q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 55
 States reachable from q0 scanning aa

 (q0 , aa ) = q4 , q5 
*

q4 q5
a a
q0 a q1 b q2  q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 56
 States reachable from q0 scanning ab

 (q0 , ab ) = q2 , q3 , q0 
*

q4 q5
a a
q0 a q1 b q2  q3

Based on slides by Costas Busch 57
 Special case:

for any state q

q   (q,  )
*

Based on slides by Costas Busch 58

 In general
q j   (qi ,w ) : there is a walk from qi to q j
*

with label w

qi w qj

w =  1 2  k
1 2 k
qi qj

Based on slides by Costas Busch 59

 The Language of an NFA M
The language accepted by M is:
L(M ) = w1 , w2 ,..., wn 

Where for each wm

 (q0 ,w m ) = {qi ,..., qk , , q j }
*

and there is some qk  F (accepting state)

Based on slides by Costas Busch 60
w m  L (M )
 (q0 ,w m )
*

qi
wm

q0 w
qk qk  F
m

wm qj

Based on slides by Costas Busch 61

F = q0 ,q5 
q4 q5
a a
q0 a q1 b q2  q3


 (q0 , aa ) = q4 , q5 
*
aa  L(M )
F
Based on slides by Costas Busch 62
F = q0 ,q5 
q4 q5
a a
q0 a q1 b q2  q3


 (q0 , ab ) = q2 , q3 , q0 
*
ab  L(M )
F
Based on slides by Costas Busch 63
F = q0 ,q5 
q4 q5
a a
q0 a q1 b q2  q3


 (q0 , abaa ) = q4 , q5 

*
abaa  L(M )
F
Based on slides by Costas Busch 64
F = q0 ,q5 
q4 q5
a a
q0 a q1 b q2  q3


 * (q0 , aba ) = q1 aba  L(M )

F
Based on slides by Costas Busch 65
 q4 q5
a a
q0 a q1 b q2  q3


L(M ) = ab  ab {aa}

* *

Based on slides by Costas Busch 66

NFAs accept the Regular
Languages
 Equivalence of Machines

Definition:

Machine M1 is equivalent to machine M2

if L( M1 ) = L( M 2 )

Based on slides by Costas Busch 68

 Example of equivalent machines

NFA M1
L(M1 ) = {10} * 0
q0 q1
1

DFA M2 0,1
L(M 2 ) = {10} * 0
q0 q1 1 q2
1
0
Based on slides by Costas Busch 69
 Theorem:

=
Languages
Regular
accepted
Languages
by NFAs
Languages
accepted
by DFAs

NFAs and DFAs have the same computation power,

namely, they accept the same set of languages
Based on slides by Costas Busch 70
 Proof: we need to show

Languages
accepted  Regular
Languages
by NFAs
AND
Languages
accepted  Regular
Languages
by NFAs

Based on slides by Costas Busch 71

 Proof-Step 1

Languages
accepted  Regular
Languages
by NFAs

Every DFA is trivially a NFA

Any language L accepted by a DFA

is also accepted by a NFA
Based on slides by Costas Busch 72
 Proof-Step 2

Languages
accepted  Regular
Languages
by NFAs
Any NFA can be converted to an
equivalent DFA

Any language L accepted by a NFA

is also accepted by a DFA
Based on slides by Costas Busch 73
 Conversion of NFA to DFA
NFA M
a
q0 a q1  q2
b

DFA M
q0 

Based on slides by Costas Busch 74

  * (q0 , a ) = {q1 , q2 }
NFA M a
q0 a q1  q2
b

DFA M
q0  a
q1, q2 

Based on slides by Costas Busch 75

  * (q0 , b ) =  empty set

NFA M a
q0 a q1  q2
b

DFA M
q0  a
q1, q2 
b

 trap state
Based on slides by Costas Busch 76
  (q1 , a ) = {q1 , q2 }
*

NFA M a  * (q2 , a ) = 
q0 a q1  q2 union

b q1, q2 

a
DFA M
q0  a
q1, q2 
b


Based on slides by Costas Busch 77
  (q1 , b ) = {q0 }
*

NFA M a  * (q2 , b ) = {q0 }

q0 a q1  q2
union

b q0 

a
DFA M b

q0  a
q1, q2 
b


Based on slides by Costas Busch 78
 NFA M a
q0 a q1  q2
b

a
DFA M b

q0  a
q1, q2 
b

 a, b trap state
Based on slides by Costas Busch 79
 END OF CONSTRUCTION

NFA M a
q0 a q1  q2 q1  F
b
a
DFA M b

q0  a
q1, q2 
q1, q2  F 
b

 a, b
Based on slides by Costas Busch 80
 General Conversion Procedure

Input: an NFA M

Output: an equivalent DFA M 

with L(M ) = L(M )

Based on slides by Costas Busch 81

The NFA has states q0 , q1, q2 ,...

The DFA has states from the power set

, q0 , q1 , q0 , q1 , q1 , q2 , q3 , ....

Based on slides by Costas Busch 82

 Conversion Procedure Steps

step

1. Initial state of NFA: 0

q
 (q0 ,  ) = q0 ,
*

Initial state of DFA: q0 , 

Based on slides by Costas Busch 83

Example
a
 (q0 ,  ) = q0 
*

NFA M
q0 a q1  q2
b

DFA M
q0 

Based on slides by Costas Busch 84

 step
2. For every DFA’s state {qi , q j ,..., qm }

compute in the NFA

 * (qi , a )
Union
  * (q j , a )
= {qk , ql,..., qn }
...
  * (qm , a )

add transition to DFA

 ({qi , q j ,..., qm }, a ) = {qk , ql,..., qn }
Based on slides by Costas Busch 85
Example  * (q0 , a) = {q1, q2 }
NFA M a
q0 a q1  q2
b

DFA M
q0  a
q1, q2 
 (q0 , a ) = q1, q2 
Based on slides by Costas Busch 86
step
3. Repeat Step 2 for every state in DFA and
symbols in alphabet until no more states
can be added in the DFA

Based on slides by Costas Busch 87

Example
NFA M a
q0 a q1  q2
b

a
DFA M b

q0  a
q1, q2 
b

 a, b
Based on slides by Costas Busch 88
 step

4. For any DFA state {qi , q j ,..., qm }

if some qj is accepting state in NFA

Then, {qi , q j ,..., qm }

is accepting state in DFA

Based on slides by Costas Busch 89

Example
NFA M a
q0 a q1  q2 q1  F
b
a
DFA M b

q0  a
q1, q2 
q1, q2  F 
b

 a, b
Based on slides by Costas Busch 90
Lemma:
If we convert NFA M to DFA M 
then the two automata are equivalent:
L( M ) = L( M  )

Proof:
We need to show: L( M )  L( M  )
AND
L( M )  L( M  )
Based on slides by Costas Busch 91
First we show: L( M )  L( M  )

We only need to prove:

w L(M ) w  L(M )

Based on slides by Costas Busch 92

 NFA
Consider w L(M )

q0 w qf

symbols
w = a1a2  ak
a1 a2 ak q
q0 f

Based on slides by Costas Busch 93

 symbol
ai
qi qj

denotes a possible sub-path like

symbol

qi
  ……  ai  ……  q
j

Based on slides by Costas Busch 94

 We will show that if w L(M )

w = a1a2  ar
a1 a2 ar q
NFA M: q0 f

then

a1 a2 ar
DFA M:
{q0 , } {q f ,}
state
w  L(M ) state
label label
Based on slides by Costas Busch 95
 More generally, we will show that if in M:
(arbitrary prefix) v = a1a2  an nr
a1 a2 an
NFA M: q0 qi qj ql qm

then

M:
a1 a2 an
DFA
{q0 , } {qi ,} {q j ,} {ql ,} {qm ,}

Based on slides by Costas Busch 96

 Proof by induction on |v|

Induction Basis: |v |= 1 v = a1

a1
NFA M: q0 qi

M:
a1
DFA
{q0 , } {qi ,}

is true by construction of M 

Based on slides by Costas Busch 97

 Induction hypothesis: 1 | v | k
v = a1a2  ak

Suppose that the following hold

a1 a2 ak
NFA M: q0 qi qj qc qd

M:
a1 a2 ak
DFA
{q0 , } {qi ,} {q j ,} {qc ,} {qd ,}

Based on slides by Costas Busch 98

 Induction Step: | v |= k + 1
v = a1a2  ak ak +1 = vak +1
 
v
Then this is true by construction of M 
a1 a2 ak ak +1
NFA M: q0 qi qj qc qd qe

v
M:
a1 a2 ak ak +1
DFA
{q0 , } {qi ,} {q j ,} {qc ,} {qd ,} {qe ,}

Based on slides by Costas Busch

v 99
 Therefore if w L(M )
w = a1a2  ar
a1 a2 ar
q0 qf
NFA M:
then

a1 a2
M:
ar
DFA
{q0 , } {q f ,}
w  L(M )
Based on slides by Costas Busch 100
 We have shown: L( M )  L( M  )

With a similar proof

we can show: L( M )  L( M  )

Therefore: L(M ) = L(M )

END OF PROOF
Based on slides by Costas Busch 101
 Follow-Up / Further Reading
• Read Chapter 1.2 of Sipser
• Read Chapter 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, and 2.5 of
Wilson

Based on slides by Costas Busch 102