ROCK MECHANICS

I. Discussion

Objectives:

 Define of Rock Mechanics

 Identify the Branches of Rock Mechanics
 Know-how significant in studying Rock Mechanics
 Determine the theoretical considerations of Rock Mechanics
 Find out the Rock Mechanics in the field

I. Introduction

Rock mechanics, a subfield of geomechanics, focuses on studying the

mechanical behavior of earth materials, including rocks. Established in the 1950s
and 1960s, it is crucial for engineering applications in civil, mining, petroleum, and
environmental sectors. Engineers must assess rock properties and strengths for
structural foundations. Civil engineers, in particular, often work with uncertain natural
conditions, relying on observations, experience, and lab tests, unlike the more
definitive results often seen in mechanics and structural engineering.

Rock Mechanics

 a discipline that uses the principles of mechanics to describe the behavior of

rock of engineering scale. It is that branch of mechanics concerned with the
response of rock to the force fields of its physical environment.

 It is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behavior of rock

 Determines how a particular rock reacts when it is put to the use required by
mankind for buildings, roads, bridges, dams, tunnels, and other civil
engineering uses.

 An important field in civil engineering as it applies in the majority of

infrastructure projects including dams, roads, tunnels, bridges, buildings, and
protection of slopes.
Branches of Rock Mechanics

Rock Mechanics is a field that studies how rocks respond to forces from their
physical environment. It integrates principles from continuum mechanics and fracture
mechanics to quantify rock behavior under various stress conditions. Rock
mechanics is divided into two main subcategories:

1. Engineering Rock Mechanics

Focuses on practical applications where rocks are used in human

activities. This includes civil engineering, mining, petroleum extraction, and
environmental engineering. Key concerns are: Structural Rock Mechanics:
Deals with the stability of structures predominantly made of rock, aiming to
avoid excessive deformation or fracture. Comminution: Involves breaking rock
into smaller fragments through processes like drilling, blasting, cutting, and
grinding, while minimizing energy input.

2. Geological Rock Mechanics

Concerned with how rocks respond to natural geological processes,

such as tectonic forces causing faults, folds, and fractures. It studies how
these natural processes impact rock stability and behavior.

There is an important distinction between ‘rock mechanics’ and ‘rock

engineering’. When ‘rock mechanics’ is studied in isolation, there is no specific
engineering objective. The potential collapse of a rock mass is neither good nor bad:
it is just a mechanical fact. However, if the collapsing rock mass is in the roof of a
civil engineering cavern, there is an adverse engineering connotation. Conversely, if
the collapsing rock mass is part of a block caving system in mining (where the rock
mass is intended to fail), there is a beneficial engineering connotation. In the civil
engineering case, the integrity of the cavern is maintained if the rock mass in the roof
does not collapse.

The

difference between ‘rock mechanics’ and ‘rock engineering’ is shown in the figure
below. Rock mechanics involves characterizing the intact rock strength and the
geometry and mechanical properties of the natural fractures of the rock mass.

Significance of Studying Rock Mechanics

Civil engineers usually deal with geotechnical matters where natural

conditions remain unknown and inferences have to be made based on observations
and experience, with some assistance from laboratory testing. By contrast, the
applied science of mechanics and structural engineering is based on deduction that
gives definite results. These two aspects have to be considered when you try to
understand what rock mechanics is and where an engineer has to assess the
properties and strengths of the rock that he can use for foundations for structures.

Different Types of Rock Mechanics

Rocks mechanics are classified into two major types:

 CHILE — Continuous, Homogeneous, Isotropic and Linearly Elastic;

 DIANE — Discontinuous, Inhomogeneous, Anisotropic and Not Elastic.

Chile - In the CHILE case, it is assuming an ideal type of material which is not
fractured, or if it is fractured the fracturing can be incorporated in the elastic
continuum properties.

Diane - In the DIANE case, the nature of the real rock mass is recognized and we
model accordingly, still often making gross approximations.

The following are the significance of rock mechanics:

• Determines how a particular rock reacts when it is put to the use required by
mankind for buildings, roads, bridges, dams, tunnels, and other civil engineering
uses.

• Assess the bearing capacity of the rock on the surface and how the force applied
on the rock by the structures being built on it will affect the rock at various depths.

• Determine the shear strength of the rock, which in turn will allow the rock to
resist the forces applied to it. Determine the response of rock when it is
subjected to dynamic loading that may be a result of manmade applications or
natural occurrences like earthquakes. Study the effect that defects in the rock
 from cavities, fissures, joints and bedding planes can have on structures founded
on them.

Applications of Rock Mechanics:

SURFACE STRUCTURES SHALLOW EXCAVATIONS

• Low rise Housing • Open pits, strip mines

• High Rise (Tower Blocks) • Trenches, cuttings

• High Loads (Dams, Power • Quarries

Plant, Bridges)

TRANSPORTATION ROUTES

• Highways, railways

• Canals

• Pipelines

Theoretical Consideration of Rock Mechanics

Rock mechanics relies on theoretical models and principles to analyze and

predict rock behavior. These models consider the mechanical properties of rocks,
their geological structure, and the applied loads.

a. Elasticity

This theory describes the reversible deformation of rocks under stress,

where the rock returns to its original shape after the stress is removed.

b. Plasticity

This theory describes the permanent deformation of rocks under

stress, where the rock does not fully return to its original shape after the
stress is removed.

c. Fracture Mechanics

This theory studies the initiation and propagation of cracks in rocks,

considering factors like stress concentration, material properties, and crack
geometry.
Rock Fracture: Griffith Theory

Griffith's theory explains the initiation of fractures in brittle materials, including

rocks. It postulates that cracks propagate when the stress intensity at the crack tip
exceeds the material's fracture toughness.

a. Stress Concentration

Stress concentrates at the tip of a crack, leading to a higher stress level

than the surrounding material.

b. Fracture Toughness

This property represents the resistance of the material to crack

propagation. Rocks have varying fracture toughness depending on their
mineralogy and texture.

c. Crack Propagation

When the stress intensity at the crack tip surpasses the fracture
toughness, the crack begins to propagate, causing material failure.

Factors Governing Fractures

Temperature

• Normal Variations: Have minimal effect on rock strength.

• Extreme Depths: High temperatures near melting points can significantly

weaken rock strength.

Humidity:

• High Humidity: Can substantially weaken rock strength, contrary to the

assumption of minimal impact.

• Assessment: Important for evaluating stability under wet conditions.

Fluid Pressure:

• Water Pressure: Reduces compressive stress across fractures, decreases

frictional resistance, and can lead to instability.

• Effect on Strength: Well-understood and critical for strength calculations.

Specimen Size:

• Strength Variation: The strength of brittle materials can vary with the size of
the specimen, with larger specimens often showing different strength
characteristics compared to smaller ones.

• Data Availability: Reliable quantitative data on how size affects strength is

still limited and often case-specific.

Rock Structure Stability:

• Overall Stability: Essential for the integrity of rock structures like foundations,
tunnels, and other underground excavations.

• Local Failures: Can trigger chain reactions that lead to significant structural
collapses, highlighting the importance of assessing and mitigating local failure
risks.

Stability of Rock Structure

The stability of rock structures is determined by the balance of forces acting

on the rock mass. Understanding these forces and their interactions is crucial for
predicting and preventing rock failures.

 Stress

Forces acting on a rock mass can cause stresses that can lead to deformation
and failure. These stresses can be caused by gravity, tectonic activity, or human
activities.

 Compression

Compression is a type of stress that pushes on a rock mass, potentially

causing it to deform or fail by crushing.

 Tension

Tension is a type of stress that pulls on a rock mass, potentially causing

fractures to open or propagate.

 Shear

Shear is a type of stress that causes a rock mass to slide past itself,
potentially leading to slip along faults or joints.
Control of Fracture in a Rock

Managing fractures in rocks is essential for various applications, such as

mining, tunneling, and civil engineering projects. Various methods can be employed
to control fracture development and mitigate potential risks.

 Rock Bolting

This method involves installing steel bolts into the rock mass to reinforce
weak zones and prevent rock falls or collapses.

 Rock Support System

These systems use a combination of techniques, including shotcrete, mesh,

and steel beams, to provide support and prevent rock failure in excavations.

 Controlled Blasting

This method uses carefully designed explosives and blasting techniques to

break up rock masses while minimizing damage to surrounding structures and
minimizing the formation of new fractures.

Rock Mechanics in the Field

Rock mechanics principles are applied in the field to solve real-world

problems and guide engineering decisions. This involves conducting field
investigations, collecting data, and analyzing rock formations.

1. Field Investigation

Geologists and engineers conduct site visits to assess the geological

conditions, collect rock samples, and map rock structures and fractures.

2. Data Collection

Various methods are used to collect data on rock properties, such as rock
strength, permeability, and weathering. This data is crucial for understanding the
behavior of the rock mass.

3. Analysis and Modeling

Collected data is analyzed using theoretical models and computer simulations

to predict the behavior of the rock mass under various conditions and guide
engineering decisions.
Analysis of Field Records

Analysis of the site records will often reveal the presence of the factors which
warrant further investigation. The statistical analysis of records depth below surface,
type of evacuation, proximity to geological discontinuities and among others. The
analysis of mine records has revealed factors which may be important in controlling
the collapse of coal pillars in board and pillar workings.

Geological observations:

In the problem involving the behavior of a large rock mass, the strength and
deformation characteristics of the rock material may be of secondary importance
compared to the presence of geological discontinuities such as faults or dykes.
Hence, rocks slope, in which the material may have tremendous mechanical
properties, maybe unstable due to the presence of a single or critically oriented fault.
Consequently, come any rock mechanics investigation in the field should include a
geological examination of the site.

Stress, Strain and Deformation Measurements:

Stresses, strain and displacements play an important role in practically all

rock behavior theories, the measurement of these quantities is an important task in
field rock mechanics.

a. Precise Leveling
o Technique: Involves precise leveling of survey benchmarks using high-
quality instruments.
o Application: Installed on surfaces or in underground excavations to detect
small displacements.
o Advantage: Effective for monitoring large rock structures with high
resolution.

b. Extensometer Measurements in Boreholes

• Technique: Utilizes spring-loaded clamps and tensioned measuring wires

to detect displacements.

• Function: Clamps apply force against borehole walls, with measurable

movement detected along the wire.

• Application: Measures differential movements within rock masses.

c. Strain Gauge

• Measurements Technique: Uses electrical resistance strain gauges to

measure local strains in rock structures.

• Advantages: Simple, cost-effective, and effective at depths greater than 160

feet rock masses.

d. Miscellaneous Measuring

• Techniques Disc Thickness Method: Uses disc thickness as an indirect

indicator of rock stresses.

• Detection of Discontinuities: Important for assessing structural stability.

Methods include:

1. Visual Mapping: Systematic mapping of visible discontinuities on excavation

surfaces.

2. Borehole Cameras: Utilizes photographic and television techniques to

examine borehole interiors.

3. Limitations: Visual methods can miss discontinuities close to the excavation

and can be time-consuming.

4. Sonic and Seismic Techniques

• Technique: Measures travel time of pressure waves through rock to assess

discontinuities.

• Device: Involves probes in boreholes, with elastic waves generated and timed
to measure material characteristics.

• Function: More discontinuities result in longer travel times for the waves.
References:

(n.d.). Engineering Rock Mechanics. ScienceDirect.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/engineering-rock-mechanic

(n.d.). Rock Engineering. GeoEngineer.

https://www.geoengineer.org/education/rock-mechanics

Khanlari, G. R. (n.d.). Principles of Rock Mechanics (For geology, civil and mining
engineering). ResearchGate. https://www.geoengineer.org/education/rock-
mechanics

(2017, January 26). Rock Mechanics. Slideshare.

https://www.slideshare.net/1971995/rock-mechanics-71413424

Hoek, E., Ph.D., M.Sc. (Eng.), B.Sc. (Eng.) (n.d.). Rock Mechanics - an introduction
for the practical engineer. Rocscience.
https://www.rocscience.com/assets/resources/learning/hoek/Rock-Mechanics-
Introduction-1966.pdf