g-s - 79?

©ff
OTASTEM/ OTEENQE MMOTMS

for
COASTAL DEFENCE & MANAGEMENT

NEAR-FIELD and FAR-FJOSLD FACTORS

in
OVERALL (Geometrical) & STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Ryszard B. ZEIDLER (Editor)

Maria TARNOWSKA, Zbigniew PRUSZAK
Tadeusz BASI&SKI
IBW PAN, Gdansk
Polish Academy of Sciences' Insütute of Hydro-Engineering

Krystian W. PILARCZYK
Directorate-General of Public Works and Water Management
(Rijkswaterstaat)
Road and Hydraulic Engineering Division, Delft

- ISBN 90 36 90 16 26 -

A document prepared for

RMSWAm^Atf^tidJmmiMYDRAUIICS-
Gdansk 1992
The views in this report are the authors' own.
The findings in this report are not to be construed as
an official Rijkswaterstaat position unless so designated
by other authorized documents.
Anyone wishing to use the information in it wiïl be deerhed to do so
at bis or her own risk.
The Rijkswaterstaat declines - also on behalf of all persons associated
with this publication - any Hability whatsoever in respect of loss or damage
that may arise in consequence of such use.

This study has been sponsored by

the Road and Hydraulic Engineering Division
of the Rijkswaterstaat (The Netherlands)
der the prograrrane tiüed:
UXi.<

'Dimensioning of Coastal Structures'

Project leader:
ir. K.W. Püarczyk

All correspondence and applications should be addressed to:

Rijkswaterstaat
Road and Hydraulic Engineering Division
Van der Burghweg 1
RO. Box 5044
2600 GA Delft
The Netherlands

Reproduction of this publication, wholy or in part, is allowed provided

that the source is duly acknowledged.

ISBN 90 36 90 16 26

cover photograph: Hondsbossche Zeewering (Petten, The Netherlands)

courtesy of Rijkswaterstaat, Survey Dept,
Section Graphic-technics
 LIST of C O N T E N T S

Preface IX
Chapter One
COASTAL D E F E N C E & D E S I G N B A C K G R O U N D ;
B o u n d a r y Conditions 1

1.1. G E N E R A L : O b j e c t i v e s , Options, M e t h o d s 1
1.2. More On F U N C T I O N A L R E Q U I R E M E N T S 18
1.3. S O M E B O U N D A R Y C O N D I T I O N S 21
1.3.1. General; Coastal Hydrodynamics 21
1.3.2. Wave Run-up and Overtopping 25
1.3.3.Coastal Morphology 38
1.4. More About S T R U C T U R E S and T H E I R
FUNCTIONAL DESIGN 44
1.4.1. Longshore Structures 44
1.4.2. Cross-Shore Structures 48
1.4.3. Other Systems .50
1.5. D E S I G N A P P R O A C H ; Deterministic versus Probabilistic 51
1.5.1. General 51
1.5.2. Design Approach 55

ChapterTwo
F A R - F I E L D (Morphological) E F F E C T S 65

2.1. G E N E R A L 65
2.2. C R O S S - S H O R E S T R U C T U R E S (Groynes) 65
2.3. O F F S H O R E B R E A K W A T E R S 74
2.3.1 General 74
2.3.2. Morphological Interaction of Coast and Breakwaters 75
2.3.3. Some Details; Studies and Predictions 82
2.4. S E A WALLS (Bulkheads) & R E V E T M E N T S 90

III
IV Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

2.5. O t h e r D E F E N C E & M A N A G E M E N T M E A S U R E S 102

2.5.1. Perched Beach 102
2.5.2. Sea Dykes 103
2.5.3. Artificial Beach Nourishment 104
2.6. More on S T R U C T U R E S & COASTAL S E D I M E N T A T I O N 106
2.6.1. General 106
2.6.2. Example of Reef Type Breakwaters vs. Other Measures
and their Coastal Effects 109
2.7. M A T H E M A T I C A L M O D E L L I N G of S H O R E
T R A N S F O R M A T I O N at S T R U C T U R E S 118
2.7.1. Cross-Shore Structures 118
2.7.2. Shore-Parallel Structures 128
2.7.3. Dune Erosion 136

Chapter Three
N E A R - F I E L D E F F E C T S : S C O U R and
other F A I L U R E M O D E S 143
3.1. S C O U R 143
3.1.1. General 143
3.1.2. Scour at Sea Walls and Offshore Breakwaters 144
3.1.3. Prediction of Scour 161
3.1.4. Scour at Groynes and Cross-Shore Structures 164
3.1.5. Local Erosion at Single Piles and Cylinders 167
3.1.6. Local Erosion due to Ship Motion and Screw Race 170
3.1.7. Erosion at Underwater Pipelines 173
3.2. FAILURE MODES OF COASTAL S T R U C T U R E S 178
3.2.1. General 178
3.2.2. Outline of Failure Modes 180
3.2.3. Failure Factors versus Failure Modes 185
3.2.4. Examples of Failure Modes 189
3.2.5. Some Other Failure Mechanisms 202

Chapter Four
GEOMETRICAL and STRUCTURAL DESIGN 205
4.1. GEOMETRICAL DESIGN (Morphological Dimensioning)
of COASTAL S T R U C T U R E S 225
4.1.1. General 205
4.1.2. Cross-Shore Structures (Groynes) 206

v
 List of Contents V

4.1.3. Offshore Breakwaters 214

4.1.4. Dykes, Sea Walls and Revetments 220
4.1.5. Headland Control 229
4.1.6. Artificial Beach Nourishment 230
4.1.7. Unconventional Design 234
4.2. STRUCTURAL DESIGN (Dimensioning)
of COASTAL STRUCTURES 234
4.2.1. GENERAL 234
4.2.2. More on PROBABILISTIC DESIGN 236
4.2.3. Some STRUCTURAL DESIGN Guidelines 244
4.3. FORCES on and STABILITY of STRUCTURES 270
4.3.1. General 270
4.3.2. Forces on Coastal Structures 270
4.3.3. Overall Stability of Structures 284
4.3.4. Stability of Units 286

Chapter Five
EXAMPLES OF DESIGN 311
5.1. GENERAL 311
5.2. CROSS-SHORE STRUCTURES 312
5.3. OFFSHORE BREAKWATERS 328
5.4. SEA WALLS 340
5.5. FLEXIBLE REVETMENTS 357
5.6. ARTIFICIAL BEACH NOURISHMENT 366
5.7. ORIENTATION SUMMARY OF PROTECTION M E T H O D S . . . 375

Chapter Six
COASTAL DEFENCE SYSTEMS
and Unconventional Design 379
6.1. COASTAL DEFENCE & MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 379
6.1.1. General Layout 379
6.1.2. Sea Wall and Spur Groynes 379
6.1.3. Artificial Beach Nourishment and Additional Structures 384
6.1.4. Systems of Groynes, Offshore Breakwaters and Beach Nourishment ... 386
6.1.5. Beach Nourishment and Diffraction Cones 388
6.1.6. Other Systems 388
VI Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

6.2. Unconventional Defence... LOW-COST,

ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY, T E M P O R A R Y
& EMERGENCY SHORE PROTECTION 395
6.2.1. General 395
6.2.2. Düïïe Sfabilization 396
6.2.3. Artificial Seaweed and Grass 402
6.2.4. Low-Cost and Temporary Sea Walls 404
6.2.5. Engineered and Non-Engineered Revetments 411
6.2.6. Low-Cost Groynes 414
6.2.7. Breakwaters 416
6.2.8. Sand Sausages 422
6.2.9. Geotextiles 426

Chapter Seven
NATIONAL STRATEGIES & POLICIES
of COASTAL DEFENCE 431
7.1. GENERAL 431
7.2. NATIONAL EXPERIENCE and State-of-the-Art 432
7.2.1. Bulgaria 432
7.2.2. Germany 433
7.2.3. India 444
7.2.4. Italy 447
7.2.5. Japan 447
7.2.6. Lithuania 449
7.2.7. New Zealand 453
7.2.8. Poland 454
7.2.9. Romania 456
7.2.10. Soviet Union 459
7.2.11. Sweden 461
7.2.12. United Kingdom 463
7.3. Dutch Coastal Defence Strategy 464

REFERENCES L JDOX
 List of Contents VII

APPENDICES
App.2-1. Recommendations on Groyne Parameters in Different Countries
(11 Tables)
App.2-2. Bruun's Description of the Performance of Coastal Structures
App.4-1. Loads and Effects due to Waves, Ice and Ship on Hydraulic Engineering
Structures; Soviet Standards SNiP 2.06.04-82*, Moscow 1986 (TITLE PAGE of En-
glish Translation by S.Massel)
App.5-1. Internal Loading in Revetments
App.6-1. Natural and Man-Made Coastal Protection
VIII Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

List of NOTATION
The following major symbols have been used throughout this document:
'b' = breaking subscript
'B' = structure (berm, breakwater, etc.) subscript
D = pile diameter; screw (propeller) diameter
d = grain diameter
g = acceleration due to gravity
H = wave height
Hs = significant wave height
h = depth of water
L = wave iength
Lp = peak (spectral) wave Iength
'o' = initial or deep-water subscript
Q = flow rate
q = unit flow rate (per unit width)
Rn = run-up height
T = wave period
Tp = peak (spectral) wave period
a = slope angle (to horizontal)
£ _ tana^ _ j r r j i , a r e n o r Battjes index
 PREFACE

This report is a final document prepared under a research programme titled 'Di-
mensioning of Coastal Structures' commissioned by RIJKSWATERSTAAT'and DELFT
HYDRAULICS. The major objective of the study was to prövide a state-of-the-art
review of coastal defence measures and practices, aimed at deeper understanding
of the physical processes affecting coastal structures, thus putting forth a design
background for coastal engineers.
The realm of coastal processes and the interactions of coastal structures and the
marine environment can be broadly classified as far-field and near-field phe-
nomena. The scales are somehow arbitrary but can be roughly identified as those
greater and smaller, respectively, than characteristic dimensions of a structure or
coastal feature.
The description of the transformation of shore in larger scales, i.e. the far-field
effects, is summarized in Chapter 2 while the near-field mechanisms, encompassing
different overall and local failure modes, stability and performance are dealt with
in Chapter 3. Both are foliowed by Chapters 4 and 5 with design computations
and examples, respectively. Unconventional design is illustrated in Chapter 6, and
national policies of coastal management and defence are depicted in the closing
Chapter 7.
The design procedures for coastal structures should include geometrical design
and s t r u c t u r a l design reflecting respectively the far-field and near-field require-
ments imposed on structures. This corresponds to our division of design procedures
into two basic groups concentrating on

• overall layout and configuration of a structure as a whole, and its interaction

with the coastal environment to produce desirable sedimentation patterns
and coastal management effects

• stability and reliability of the structure and its components, hence dimen-
sioning of structural constituents, associated with possible unavoidable and
undesirable hazards due to the loadings exerted by the coastal environment

In other words, the first group involves design parameters producing the best en-
vironmental effectiveness of a structure in 'ideal' conditions, i.e. upon negligence
of possible 'harmful by-effects' such as different modes of failures and instabilities,
both overall and internal. The second group is concerned about these 'by-effects'
and provides the tools which secure the integrity and proper operation of the struc-
ture' and its components.

IX
X Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

In this report we concentrate on the numerous hydrodynamical, sedimentologi-

cal, geotechnical and structural factors and processes, both far-field and near-field,
controlling the effectiveness of shore protection measures. Hence a background is
provided for understanding of the behaviour of coastal structures. Together with
the modeHing teehniques for the processes outlined for various defence schemes,
this background information is shown to be useful in establishing criteria for the
selection and design of shore protection and management schemes.
Hence the concept of this study can be formulated as physical and mathematica!
description of coastal phenomena, parametrization of far-field and near-field effects,
and an outline of the pertinent geometrical and structural design procedures and prac-
tices. Aside from this unified approach, frequent reference is made to the less
accessible eastern sources, somehow exotic and hopefully thought-provoking for
a western reader, cf. numerous Soviet, Polish, etc. bibliographical entries. Cross-
references are also provided to Shore Protection Manual (US Army, 1977, 1984),
the broadly cited worldwide Standard, so as to shed light on the diversified topics
and problems of coastal engineering, and to identify the 'grey spots' in our knowl-
edge and technology, at the same time.
In most chapters we provide certain overview comments foliowed by highlights de-
serving most attention. It should be stressed, however, that it is not our intention,
nor is it possible in this report to summarize all achievements in the field covered
herein. An attempt to provide a unique, precise and comprehensive summary is
obviously an overly ambitious task, in view of the wide spectrum of concepts in
shore protection, approaches to implementation of these concepts, and interpreta-
tion of the effectiveness of coastal measures.
CHAPTER 1

Coastal defence and design background;

Boundary conditions

1.1 GENERAL: OBJECTIVES, OPTIONS, METHODS...

Coast Protection Acts all over the world empower various authorities to construct
works and take measures to protect land from erosion or encroachment by sea.
Erosion is tacitly taken to mean loss of land while "encroachment" concerns
the subsequent incursion of the sea. Works so constructed are known as "coast
protection" means. Sea defence works are usually understood as those the primary
function of which is to prevent or alleviate fiooding. No clear-cut distinction is
made in this report between coast protection and sea defence schemes.
There is a growing awareness of the need to design coastal works compatible
with the marine environment, in particular the beaches, which provide the main
natural protection to the coastline. This design is a rapidly developing science but
nevertheless also remains an area of engineering, and art, in which experience
plays a major role. Even more so, coastal defence gradually evolves into
coastal management, in terms of which a single defence project for an isolated
location must be looked upon in its broader environmental perspective. An
individual structure should not only provide sufficiënt protection for its immediate
neighbourhood but also minimize its detrimental effects on the adjacent section
of coastline. Hence coastal management means rational perception and control of
coastal processes, in a variety of scales, aimed at preserving the coastal environment
system.
Coastal management, in its widest sense, must take account of all factors which
have a bearing on the future of the coastal zone. This may well entail many
scientific and engineering disciplines other than coastal engineering and at sites
and locations far removed from the costal zone. For instance, the construction of
a dam far upstream from a river mouth can lead to a significant and sometimes
dramatic reduction in the sediment concentration in the river. The effect of this
on the coastline can be catastrophic and irrevesible. Many other factors could be
cited, some of which are listed below (Stickland et al. 1987):

•• sand and gravel extraction

1
2 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

• commercial and fishing harbours

• yacht marinas
• waste disposal
• water cooling inlets and outfalls
• dredged channels
• reclamation schemes
• river training works
• dune conservation
• protection of flora and fauna
• artifical islands
• cliff erosion
• requirements of leisure and tourism
• coast protection works
• pollution
• water quality.
Some of these factors interact with one another, others are almost uncorrelated.
The extent to which this applies in any particular region, area, or specific site needs
careful evaluation. This is one of the major rolés of coastal management.
The primary objectives of a typical coastal management study are to formulate
long-term engineering planning and financial strategies for the future usage, de-
velopment and conservation of the coastal zone. In this process priorities should
be defined both for new works and essential maintenance, with estimates for con-
tingency items to cover emergency situations which inevitably occur.
The key element in any coastal management study is a thorough understanding of
coastal processes by which one means the interaction between the hydraulic envi-
ronment of winds, waves, tides, surges and currents with the geological conditions
in the coastal zone. To be effective this may require a very broad view to be taken
on a regional basis in the first instance. A regional cell could then be sub-divided
into smaller cells once the basic coastal processes had been established, and so on,
with decreasing cell sizes until the cell in question becomes the specific one of the
project itself. It is only in this way that the impact of new works in the coastal
zone can be satisfactorily evaluated or long-term planning undertaken.
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 3

Figure 1.1. Natural and Anthropogenic Factors Affecting the Coastal Zlone, its Management, and
(Mathematical) Modelling; SOGREAH Artist's Vision.
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 5

b. intercept and dissipate wave energy,

c. directly armour the shore, and

d. retain dune bluffs, cliffs and any other earth slopes against sliding.

The basic tools of the coastal engineer are still fairly limited and comprise cross-
s h o r e structures (such as groynes, jetties, spurs...) shore-parallel structures (off-
shore breakwaters, sea walls, dykes, revetments (generally close to shoreline)...),
beach nourishment and, to lesser extent, headland structures.
environment-friendly measures Groynes (Fig.1.3) generate considerable changes
in wave and circulation patterns but their basic function - to slow down the rate
of littoral drift is sometimes overlooked. In the absence of beach nourishment,
groynes can redistribute the existing supply and, in a continuous littoral system,
may be expected to create a deficiency at the downdrift end where the uncon-
trolled drift rate is reestablished. Without an adequate supply of beach material,
groynes are, of course, of no value.
In addition to controlling the rate of drift, groynes are also used extensively to con-
trol the distribution of material along a frontage and to limit the temporary effects
of drift reversal. There are unfortunately many examples where either bad design
or failure to provide for the downdrift consequences has resulted in an adverse
effect on the coastline. In other instances, failure to maintain groyne systems has
proved worser than having no groynes at all.
Offshore b r e a k w a t e r s (Fig.1.4) are usually provided either to reduce wave energy
at shoreline structures or to modify the wave climate and redisturbute sediment
transport patterns so as to improve beach levels and create desirable beach fea-
tures, such as salients. Offshore breakwaters can be shore-connected or detached,
submerged or emerging, longshore or oblique, etc.
Sea wall (Fig.1.5 a), often used interchangeably with bulkhead (Fig.1.5 c) is ei-
ther a retaining wall intended to hold or prevent sliding of the soil behind it or a
massive structure whose primary purpose is to protect the backshore from heavy
wave action. Sometimes one speaks of "beach wall" or "shore wall".
D y k e s are generally intended as means of flood prevention. The crest of a dyke
is elevated high enough to counteract or confine overtopping in rare storm surge
events.
R e v e t m e n t (Fig.1.5 b) is placed on a slope to protect it and the adjacent uplands
from erosion, with no defence of the neighbouring areas. The wave reflection,
a serious disadvantage of vertical-wall bulkheads (sea walls), does not accelerate
erosion as strongly at revetments as it does at sea walls. Beach n o u r i s h m e n t or
fin, or recharge, (Fig.1.7) consists in importation of granular material to a beach
from an outside source. It is not new, and has been used in some countries for
decades, but is now being applied to an increasing extent and in a greater variety of
6 Ejfectiveness of coastal defence measures

Variable

(Heavy)
GROYNE PROFILE
Varies

*>%2

fc_
CROSS-SECTJON A-A

Figure 1.3. Example of Cross-Shore Structure: Groyne.

CROSS-SECTION A-A

Figure 1.4. Example of Shore-Parallel Structure: Offshore Breakwater.

 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 7

MWL
LWL s^.
Beach
a)

W&föïmr-
REVETMENT

Concrete Blocks

b)

BULKHEAD

s?#s^

c)

Figure 1.5. Examples of Shore-Parallel Structures: Sea Wall (a); Revetment (b); Bulkhead (c).
8 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Figure 1.6. Cross-Shore and Longshore Structures (Groynes at bottom and Sea Wall at top left) on
the Dutch Coast near Petten (HydroDelft 68, 1984).

ways. The resulting beach provides some protection to the area behind it and also
serves as a valuable recreational resource. The beach fill functions as an eroding
buffer zone, and its useful life will depend on how quickly it erodes. One must be
prepared to periodically renourish (add more fill) if erosion continues.
Headland control has been devised by analogy to the Nature's efforts to keep
in equilibrium a certain crenulate shape of erosion bays sculptured for thousands
or so years (Silvester 1972, 1976, 1980). The crenulate shaped bays can be kept in
equilibrium by the use of a system of headlands. The headland sysfem is claimed to
be in feedback with coast and to combine the advantages of groynes and detached
breakwaters (shore-parallel or oblique).
Various low-cost, environment-friendly, emergency and temporary mea-
sures, and combinations therof (Chapter 6) are shown as alternatives to the
principal measures. These systems are often appropriate for application only in
sheltered waters. Inherent in the concept of environmental friendliness and low
cost is the assumption on the equal importance of physics, engineering, ecology
and economy. Hence the approach in this study to provide a background for un-
derstanding of the physical mechanisms intervening in the operation of various
coastal defence schemes.
From the physical perspective, the coastal processes can be classified as long-
shore and cross-shore. The schematization depicted in Figures 1.9...1.12 visu-
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 9

Figure 1.7. System of Detached (upper) and Shore-Connected (lower) Breakwaters Combined with
Artificial Beach Nourishment to Regenerate Pedregalejo Beach and Maintain One of the Most Used
Recreational Area in Malaga (Spain).
4 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Figure 1.2. Construction of Artificial Island in Japan, as Example of Offshore Engineering Activities
Affecting the Coastal Zone.

Given that a thorough understanding of coastal processes is central to any coastal

management study, it follows that the fundamental prerequisite is the collection,
analysis and interpretation of data. At present much of this data collection is car-
ried out for speciflc projects and frequently for limited lengths of coastline.
The emphasis in this study is placed on coastal engineering, with fringe interest in
planning and financial strategies, and other non-engineering activities. Particular
attention is focused on the understanding and description Qf coastal phenomena
in the presence of various defence schemes. Such knowledge is deemed crucial
to coastal management, and is therefore collated in the following chapters of this
report.
Three basic options are possible in response to the coastal erosion problem:
1. do nothing and suffer the inevitable loss or sell and pass the problem on the
someone else
2. relocate or move the endangered structures
3. attempt to control or reduce the erosion through some protective measures..
This report considers the third option only and thus presents the measures that
a. interact with wave, current and sedimentation patterns to produce a desirable
degree of coast control
10 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

second series of headlands

possible downcoast
control
1st headland

Waves
direction of drift river oullet

original waterline

headlands
constant refracted orthogonais
distance offshore

Figure 1.8. Concept of Headland Control and Some Implementations.

alises the distinction, with the additional feature of two-dimensionality in the ver-
tical (Fig.l.9...1.11) and horizontal (Fig.1.12) plan.
The basic wave processes intervening in the coastal zone with structures are illus-
trated in Fig.1.9. The incident wave energy E, is reflected from a structure, (Er),
transmitted across it (Et), dissipated through breaking, mixing and friction in vari-
ous types of flow (Ediss), and may be utilized for generation of currents (Ecurr), or
other modes of motion. The variety of transmission, dissipation and reflection pat-
terns brings about diversified responses of protected shores, outllned in Fig.1.10,
still in the two-dimensional vertical view.
Accretion and erosion trends shown schematically for faultless submerged and
emerging breakwaters in Fig.1.10, may become much more complex if the struc-
tures, such as bulkheads, seawalls or revetments in Fig.1.11, are subject to con-
tinuing overtopping and undermining, resulting in gradual worsening of the struc-
ture's functioning. More still, the three-dimensionality of the coastal processes,
the horizontal aspect of which is brought to the reader's attention in Fig.1.12, may
dramaticaly alter the overall picture and thus considerably modify the effectiveness
of coastal protection.
Outflanking alone, being an additional contribution of Fig.1.12 to the overtopping
and undermining in Fig.1.11, and the wealth of wave motions, currents and combi-
nations thereof illustrate the importance of the problem of complete and reliable
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 11

description of all coastal processes likely to occur on natural and engineered coasts.
The manner in which waves interact with a structure, is predominantly governed by
the form of the structure itself. Rigid structures resist wave attack through holding
a very high mass, and thus a very high inertia. In this, they act as almost a single
unit of armour that is so large that wave energy should be incapable of moving it.
A rigid structure can destroy wave energy in at least three ways:
(a) The wave impacts upon the structure, such that it is converted into a large
volume of spray, which rises high into the air. This is an efficiënt destruction
mechanism, but the impact forces are very high. Shock waves are induced in the
structure and these can be dangerous, if transmitted into a non-rigid foundation.
(b) The wave is almost totally refiected. This is a much more efficiënt process than
impact, since the wave forces are minimum, but full reflection is usually only eco-
nomically possible, for the smaller or non-extreme waves. Wave reflection however
may generate dangerous toe scour if the rigid structure is founded upon an erodi-
ble sea bed, and the water depth is significant. Wave reflection is very common in
Nature, on hard rocky or cliff coastline.
(c) The wave is forced to expend its energy by uprush across a sloping rigid hard
artificial "beach". The wave lifts a weight of water a distance (with only partial
breaking) to expend its volume of potential work. This is again an efficiënt pro-
cess, but on a smooth rigid slope, the uprush height that must be allowed, becomes
excessive. A reflective wall at the top of a well sloping rigid seawall, is thus a
common feature, often allied with a stepped or roughened surface on the sloping
surface, to increase the uprush drag.
The degree to which any of these three processes become dominant, is generally
controlled by the slope of the rigid structure. Large vertical structures attract the
impact mechanism, whilst gently sloping structures follow the uprush solution. All
rigid structures however, tend to hold a high reflection coëfficiënt and this will
control the wave behaviour, for a fair percentage of the total input, of the more
moderate waves. Some relatively steep rigid structures may demonstate a combi-
nation of all three wave destruction mechanisms, simultaneously for much of the
time.
An unfortunate feature of rigid structures, is their sensitivity to overload. Larger
waves than the design capacity of the structure can rapidly lead to massive over-
topping, even if the structure holds its structural integrity. Quite small errors in
the design wave exposure can then result in widerspread damage, landwards of the
structure.
In the use of flexible rubble structures, mankind is in fact closely following Na-
ture. Sandy and gravel beaches are Nature's own rubble mounds - it is just that
the armour units (sand grains and gravel stones) are much smaller than most of
mankind's armour. Natural beaches follow exactly the same "rules" as man-made
 12 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Ei=Er+Etr+Ediss+Ecurr*

Possible Some Possible

Transmission ( t r ) Dissipation (diss) Reflection ( r )
Modes Mechanisms Modes

overtopping wave
breaking

I ^ K
penetration
-f- = 1
through permeable
i structures

-ÊgP turbulent Kr<1

X mixing
Mach effect
O
overflowing
plan _U_ E
wall
*fK friction view

Figure 1.9. Wave Mechanisms Encountered in Coastal Engineering

Ecurr — energylost jForgeneration ofcurrents, nonwave modes, etc.
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 13

mounds, there exists a quite precise relationship between wave energy, beach slope
and partiele (i.e. mini-armour) size.
The manner in which the "final" wave that reaches the structure, interacts with it
to discharge its hydraulic energy, is therefore largely controlled by the type of the
structure itself. But the properties of the final wave are controlled by its previous
shoaling history. This wave history is again pre-controlled by two other parameters,
the type of seabed and the depth of water. Of these two parameters, the class of
seabed is the most important. The final shoaling wave that has propagated over
an impervious seabed holds a cross-section over twice that of the porous seabed
wave, and its length is also greater.
The realm of coastal processes and the interactions of coastal structures and the
marine environment can be broadly classified as far-field and near-field phe-
nomena. The scales are somehow arbitrary but can be roughly identified as those
greater and smaller, respectively, than characteristic dimensions of a structure or
coastal feature.
The far-field effects have been discussed at length in our Chapter 2 while the
near-field phenomena have been outlined in Chapter 3. These chapters are fol-
iowed by Chapters 4 and 5 with design computations and examples, respectively.
Unconventional design is illustrated in Chapter 6, and national policies of coastal
management and defence are presented in the closing Chapter 7.
The design procedures for coastal structures should include g e o m e t r i c a l design
and s t r u c t u r a l design reflecting respectively the far-field and near-field require-
ments imposed on structures. This corresponds to our division of design procedures
into two basic groups concentrating on

• overall layout and configuration of a structure as a whole, and its interaction

with the coastal environment to produce desirable sedimentation patterns
and coastal management effects

• stability and reliability of the structure and its components, hence dimen-
sioning of structural constituents, associated with possible unavoidable and
undesïrable hazards due to the loadings exerted by the coastal environment.

In other words, the first group involves design parameters producing the best envi-
ronmental effectiveness of a structure in 'ideal' conditions, i.e. upon negligence of
possible 'harmful by-effects', such as different modes of failures and instabilities,
both overall and internal. The second group is concerned about these 'by-effects'
and provides the tools which secure the integrity and proper operation of the struc-
ture and its components.
In this report we concentrate on the numerous hydrodynamical, sedimentologi-
cal, geotechnical and structural factors and processes, both far-field and near-field,
controlling the effectiveness of shore protection measures. Hence a background is
14 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

VS*

W a v e Transmission

Wave
Refractk

Scour

Figure 1.10. Interaction of Waves and Engineered Shore (2-DV).

Fig. 2.4

• . •= ~ < ?
ft*
Percolation
. ^ tiquefoctton

SCOURING ON BOTH
SIDES OF STRUCTURE

Figure 1.11. Sea Bed Transformations at Structures (2-DV); Undesirable Effects.

 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 15

provided for understanding of the behaviour of coastal structures. Together with

the moddeling processes outlined for various defence schemes, this background in-
formation is shown to be useful in establishing criteria for the selection and design
of shore protection and management policies.
Hence the concept of this study can be formulated as physical and mathemat-
ical description of coastal p h e n o m e n a , p a r a m e t r i s a t i o n of far-field a n d
near-field effects, and an outline of t h e p e r t i n e n t geometrical and s t r u c -
t u r a l design p r o c e d u r e s a n d practices. Aside from this unified a p p r o a c h ,
frequent use is made of less accessible e a s t e r n sources, somehow exotic and
hopefully thought-provoking for a western reader, cf. numerous Soviet, Polish,
etc. bibliographical entries. Cross-references are also provided to Shore Protec-
tion Manual (US Army, 1977,1984), the broadly cited worldwide Standard, so as to
shed light on the diversified topics and problems of coastal engineering, and iden-
tify the "grey spots" in our knowledge and technology, at the same time. In most
chapters we provide certain overview comments foliowed by highlights deserving
most attention. It should be stressed, however, that it is not our intention, nor is it
possible in this report to summarize all achievements in the field covered herein.
An attempt to provide a unique, precise and comprehensive summary is obviously
an overly ambitious task, in view of the wide spectrum of concepts in shore pro-
tection, approaches to implementation of these concepts, and interpretation of the
effectiveness of coastal measures.

VOCABULARY
Some notions which are referred to throughout this document include the follow-
ing concepts of coastal management and defence: effectiveness, reliability and risk.
Therefore it is appropriate to formulate them more precisely.
Effectiveness of shore protection is a combination of morphological effects, reli-
ability of protection measures, total cost of investment and maintenance, and pos-
sible outcome of failures. Effectiveness is evaluated through the achieved coastal
defence and management goals measured in terms of shore stabilization or trans-
formation, with inclusion of unavoidable and unwanted by-effects.
In passing, d a m a g e can be defined as a certain change in the state of structures,
with respect to (1) external boundaries ; (2) configuration and cross-sections; (3)
integrity of constituents.
Changes (1) and (2) often correspond to a certain physical loss or displacement of
material of the structure and its surroundings. This in turn may cause a certain
loss of functions.
In practice there may be a gradual loss of functions with increasing damage. There-
fore failure can be regarded as a phenomenon corresponding to the state of a
 16 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

©
CROSS-SHORE STRUCTURE SEA WALL IREVETMENT)
(GROIN .PIER , J E T T Y )

t*-«. Ojttlanktrtg Original Shorelnc

';; I ( )Eddies

^
Current c
WaVe Reflectkm
Littoral Row at
Drift Wave DiffrGct-^

Partial
Reflecfon
Wave O f f r o c t i o n
c Structwe

Zf
Rov» at
Structurc f\ f\ f\ 1
/ 7 R^fte<1ioA
Way< T7 '

V V V '
SHORE-PARALLEL STRUCTURE
(OETACHEO 8REAKWATER 1

/
Incident Waves

Figure 1.12. Shore Evolution at Structures (2-DH).

Flood Erosion Wave Runup

OBJECTWE Wave Transformatön Control
Prevention Prevent ton Contrd

Gcnvotion of Oures Stope GeneraGon ond Shelterirto, and Protection

STRATB3Y Stobfertion
and Oykes Protection of Water Ansa
of Beoeh

-Oykes -Seo Walts -Croynes Nearshore Naurishment iRefroction Control ]

Beach Naurishment Berms and Steps (Breaking Control 1

METHOO
Con»truond Oun
• e StaaEzation -Stope Wave Ossipation Struchxes
Mouten and SuppteSon Revetments -Offshore Break
waters Detoched BreakwaterslReflection Controle)

Figure 1.13. Review of Objectives, Strategies and Methods of Coastal Defence and Management.
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 17

certain u l t i m a t e degree of damage, denoting irreversible changes.

Reliability of a defence mesure is referred to as effective operation of the mea-
sure within its design lifetime, in (variable) design conditions, both external (the
so-called 'boundary conditions') and internal.
Risk is commonly associated with failure of a structure or measure. Ideal effec-
tiveness and reliability are equivalent to zero risk, which is hardly conceivable in
view of the randomness of coastal phenomena (rare events do occur no matter how
low their probability) and our limited knowledge of the factors of coastal defence.
Risk is assessed more quantitatively in the forthcoming sections.
Effectiveness, reliability and risk depend on quality of defence concept and system
chosen, design, materials and performance of construction.
The factors, or ingredients of the coastal defence mentioned, can be grossly iden-
tified as the design factors encompassing the following items
• coastal morphology

• hydraulic boundary conditions

• geological and geotechnical boundary conditions

• sedimentation, shore evolution, and lithological interactions with defence

measures
C o a s t a l m o r p h o l o g y in the design stage requires the knowledge of general to-
pography of the site, and the shore profile and its transformation. Bathymetric
and topographic charts for the surf zone, stretching by depths about 10 m, and the
strip of land endangered by runup, overtopping etc, including the flooded hinter-
land, are important background documents. Together with the type of shore profile
and its characteristic seasonal slopes one should identify shoals and bars, beaches,
dunes and cliffs, shoreline configuration and its discontinuities, lagoons, lakes and
estuaries, vegetation and anthropogenic effects.
Hydraulic boundary conditions should incorporate design data on water lev-
els, wind, waves, currents, tides, ice and other hydrological phenomena, including
the effects of lagoons, lakes, estuaries, intracoastal waters and groundwater. A
variety of hydraulic interactions with land and coastal structures, such as runup,
overtopping, percolation etc, should be considered. Statistical description seems
quite obvious, and joint probability distributions are most desirable.
Geological and geotechnical b o u n d a r y conditions should also be quantified
in a design-oriented manner. Geological surveying reflected in charts and cross-
sections provides the configuration of various soil kinds of which the coast consists
and the thickness of active strata of sand, fairly immobile cohesive beds, etc. Soil
characteristics, such as grain size distributions, densities, porosity, angle of internal
fricfion, specific cohesion, e t c should rnake up a sound basis for adequate design
18 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

of external and internal loads on protection structrures, both static and dynamic,
resulting from combinations of hydraulic and geotechnical boundary conditions.
Seepage flow, buoyancy and uplift, suffosion and percolation are examples of pro-
cesses being controlled by both types of boundary conditions.
S e d i m e n t a t i o n a n d ftthotogicai processes contrei the behaviour and evolu-
tion of shore in both far and near field, with or without structures. For design
purposes, one should determine the kind, structure and properties of sediment
over the coastal zone protected, configuration and capacities of natural and artifi-
cial resources of sand being supplied to the coast (including entrapment, bypassing,
dredging etc), sediment transport rates, either as a map of local rates or more sim-
ply as gross longshore and cross-shore figures, and the like. This data should be
used for evaluation and design modelling olshore evolution, which is clearly related
to daily, monthly, seasonal, yearly, and long-term variation of sediment transport
patterns, hence changes in shore topography, and alternating accretion and ero-
sion. Modelling of shore evolution, so crucial for adequate selection of a defence
measure and the design of its ultimate shape, is unfortunateiy susceptible to even
slightest inaccuracies in design input parameters.
Hydraulic boundary conditions and the "static" aspects of Hthological processes,
i.e. coastal morphology, are dealt with in this chapter, while the "dynamical" pro-
cesses of the shore and its interaction with structures are treated in Section 2.7.

1.2 MORE ON FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Usual design stages embody

(a) assessment of coastal hazards and potential damage, failure or disaster

(b) formulation of functional requirements, general concepts, and alternative

solutions;

(c) determination of the hydrological, sedimentological and geotechnical input

(so-called "boundary conditions");

(d) assessment of morphological effects of the alternative design;

(e) review of failure mechanisms;

(f) cost analysis, assessment of environmental impact, and other non-engineering

tasks;

(g) selection of design version and its components;

(h) follow-up design of structural details, specifications for construction materials

etc.
 Ch.l: Coastal defence and design background 19

Let us first concentrate on general design policies, i.e. formulation of functional

r e q u i r e m e n t s , as in item (a) above. They determine the area of performance in
which the structure will opera te satisfactorily.
Examples of some of the most prominent functional requirements of coastal
structures are:

• flood prevention of low hinterland (sea dykes and walls) or inland waters
(barriers);

• prevention of wave overtopping (sea walls, barriers);

• prevention of wave propagation (breakwaters, jetties);

• dissipation of the energy of waves and currents (offshore breakwaters,

groynes);

• flow control (jetties);

• slope erosion and scour prevention (revetments, bottom protection...).

It should be emphasized that these functions may vary in time. Additional func-
tions may also be assigned to an existing structure during its lifetime. Temporary
structures, for example, are often used during construction. In such cases, require-
ments with respect to materials and damage may be treated differently than those
of final structure.
Important issues in the design of a coastal structure system and its constituents
are:

• type and magnitude of loadings to be expected during the lifetime;

• accepted damage level given the expected loadings;

• permeability of the system and its foundation, core, etc;

• flexibility of the system;

• construction and transportation aspects;

• management aspects;

• environmental impact.

All of these elements impose certain (sometimes temporary) functional require-

ments given below.
20 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Design requirements Remarks

Stability & risk protection of external boundaries;
of damage protection of internal boundaries;
Permeability dissipation of wave energy;
reduction of internal hydraulic
gradients (pore pressures) and
internal flow velocities;
retaining of (finer) core-
and construction materials;
Flexibility neutralization of small deformations
and initial damage
Construction requirements of handling and equipment
Management placement and recycling of units
stock piling of materials;
accessability of structure for
inspection, maintenance and repair;
Environmental landscape, vegetation, recreation;
acceptability

The near- and far-field phenomena may be looked upon from different perspectives,
and can incorporate further divisions. For instance, one may distinguish the aspects
of stability, flexibility, durability, maintenance, safety, acceptability, cost, etc, as
already done above. Let us follow the wording accepted by PI ANC WG 4 (1988).

(a) Stability: - structure must be capable of withstariding the imposed loads

and must have the necessary strength characteristics to resist displacement.
It must stabilize and prevent erosion of the subsoil

(b) Flexibility: - structure must be capable of accommodating deformation

without its other functions being adversely affected

(c) Durability: - structure must not suffer loss of function due to ageing during
its design life. Resistance to attack by chemicals, ultraviolet light, microbes,
vandalism etc. embodies aspects of durability

(d) Maintenance: - should incorporate features to facilitate maintenance which

will include repair of local damage and renewal of degraded materials. Ele-
ments requiring periodic maintenance must be easily accessible for inspection
and renewal

(e) Safety: - potential hazards to construction workers and users should be

eliminated by design. Safety features should be incorporated to take account
of all activities which may take place on or about the structure, whether they
are authorised or not
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 21

(e) Social and e n v i r o n m e n t a l acceptability: - structure will become part

of the landscape and local ecological system. It will provide employment
during its construction and maintenance, and opportunities for recreation.
The design must encompass more than purely technical considerations to
meet broader requirements
(f) Cost: -the design must fulfil all its functional requirements within the cost
allocation available for the scheme. Cost is a function of many elements,
including installation, maintenance and replacement costs - discounted to
present values, i.e. the life cycle cost. Cost comparison between two different
schemes should be done by comparing life cycle costs.

It can be seen that near-field and far-field phenomena are archifactors in the
stability, etc. aspects. Hence all these aspects but cost are dealt with in this docu-
ment.
Critical elements of the design of shore protection and coastal management mea-
sures include (1) generation of desirable far-field effects induced by construction
of the control measures (2) provision of the stability of structures and their mem-
bers, (3) prevention of undermining, outflanking and other modes of unwanted
morphological changes in t h e near field of the structure, (4) minimization
of settlement, seepage, removal of structural units, and many modes of i n t e r n a l
failure. Adequate attention must also be paid to elements of (5) external failure
m o d e s , such as overtopping.

1.3 SOME BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

1.3.1 General; Coastal Hydrodynamics

Definitions
This section contains a certain broad description of a selection of the aforemen-
tioned hydraulic boundary conditions and shore morphology. The d y n a m i c
interactions of the water, shore and structures are discussed in Chapter 2, i.a.
Sec.2.7 on mathematical modelling.
The coastal zone can be identified as shown in Fig.1.14, where it stretches from
land to "deep water", i.e. the area of practically negligible effect of wave motion on
sea bed. It encompasses coast proper, beach and nearshore zone, hence modifies
the Shore Protection Manual terminology, in which the coastal area ends at the
seaward edge of the surf zone.
Wind, waves, surges, currents, and other phenomena combine to cause coastal
disasters. Wind is an important factor which generates surface waves and causes
storm surges. The combined action of wind waves and wind- and wave-induced
set-üp brings about substantial transformations of shore.
22 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures
Cootlol ar«a

Cocst Beoch or shore Negrthora zone

(daflnas areo of naarehora currantt)

I n s h o r e or s h o r e f a c e
(extenda through b r e a k a r z o n a )

S u r f Zone

Ordlnorv tow wottr taval

Pluftga polnt '

Bot torn

Figure 1.14. Schematisation of Coastal Zone.

In assessment of extreme erosional effects due to exceptional storms it is natural

to resort to an analysis of rare hydrological evehts that create so many problems
in coastal defence and may seriously affect success of any project. Attention to
e x t r e m e events should always be paid.
A particular problem facing coastal engineers is a rational assessment of the prob-
able deep-water wave to which the structures are most susceptible. It is known that
coastal structures are most prone to change from the largest waves only, which are
generated during rare storm events. Severe storms become superimposed on the
normal weather as an added variable.
The major problem is that each of the probabilistic distributions attributed to "nor-
mal" and "rare" events cannot be simply added or combined. The coastal structure
designer thus has to assess the exposure of each structure from separate ocean wave
climates - each of differing severity and probabilistic distribution.
This range of probabilities of each class of these events creates the greatest prob-
lems in all wave climate forcasting exercises. If the coastal enginéer relies on usual
weather data he will probably vastly underrate the extreme event wave properties.
If he attempts to synthesize the properties of the extreme events, his predicted
wave train, wind set-up and surge could be widely in error due to lack of data. For
many years, coastal structures were proportioned to accept the "design wave". Re-
cently however, the concept of the measured prototype wave spectrum has gained
greater support.
In addition to "mean" and "rare", extreme "freak" waves do exist, although their
probability will almost certainly not be detected within normal weather system wave
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 23

statistics. This phenomenon, together with a better understanding of the behaviour

of natural wave groups, will probably lead in the future to the use of a "design
wave train" for assessing coastal structure exposure. A single wave seldom destroys
a structure, but three or four "freak" waves or groups of them, can cause the same
havoc as several hundred smaller waves.
In more accurate analysis one must also take into consideration numerous nonlin-
ear energy dissipation and attenuation processes which, along with inertia effects,
control the growth of wind in high-speed atmospheric phenomena. Duration of
different wind events is yet another quantity to be included in the realm of all
statistics possible.

Wave Forecast
Hence different statistical techniques must be harnessed to assess extreme, or gen-
erally all possibly important, wind-wave-surge... climates. In our discussion we
merely mention the simplest available and usable predictive tools.
To obtain the quantities characterizing the wind-induced waves, it is assumed that
the controlling parameters of wind field are:

• average wind speed Vw at a certain height (z) above still water surface (usually
z = 10 m),

• wind fetch X,

• wind duration t.
Nondimensional characteristics are often selected for the computation of the effects
of wave growth. The results are commonly presented in terms of the fetch-limited
or duration-limUed graphs. When both, the fetch and duration, are sufficiently
large for significant wave height and period, Hs and T s , to reach limiting values,
these will become dependent only on the wind speed Vw and the condition of fully
developed sea will arise. In order to attain the fetch-limited condition, a certain
time tmin is needed.
At a location where no information on the wave climate is directly available,
the characteristics may be estimated by application of existing wind data. At
present, for the engineering practice the following empirical prediction methods
are suggested:
-SMB method (Shore Protection Manual, 1973) with the following prediction
"fetch graph" (providing the significant wave height and period Hs and Ts):

^ = 0.283 tanh J 0.0125 (^) 1 (1.1)

and '
 24 Effecüveness of coastal defence measures

r,"•50"
g-H

Figure 1.15. Wave Forecast Graph Recommended by Soviet Standards SNiP.

gTs
V
* in
1.200 tanh
Men
-Krylov method (Krylov et. al., 1976, yielding the mean wave parameters H and
(1.2)

1 -2'
gB_
0.16 n - 1 + 0.006 (1.3)
VJ

as illustrated in Fig.1.15.
Joint probability functions for wave height and sea level are not available, at least
as general guidelines or particular matrices for a given site. High water levels at a
certain station may be caused by remote storms and set-up of water due to other
reasons. At the same time, the local waves may be quite small. Yet it is quite likely
that enormous waves are also generaled at a rather low water level. Hence one
may claim there is no clear-cut correlation between sea level and wave height. On
the other hand, extreme water levels are often caused by the same atmospheric
pressure systems which generate high storm waves. This would suggest a significant
correlation of both factors. Hence the best way to find a way out is to construct an
empirical correlation matrix basing on site data. In its absence, it seems reasonable
that a certain design compromise is made between no correlation and significant
correlation. However it must be realized that wind set-up, storm surges, and wave
 Ch. 1: Coastal defence and design background 25
Type of breaking Slope
wave Smooth slope with np-rap
proteclion

Surgmg

;>3.o

Coïiapsing

£>3.3 2.0<£<3.0

Plunging

0.5<£<3.3 K2.0

Spitiing

£<0.5

Figure 1.16. Types of Wave Breaking.

set-up all share the common feature that they are governed by meteorological
events, which are generally impossible to forecast accurately, although some simple
formulae for wind set-up and wave set-up are available, while storm surge levels can
be predicted by using mathematical modelling techniques. Wave transformation
processes are very important in the coastal interactions. For the sake of brevity
we are not dealing with them in this study report, and the reader is addressed to
numerous relevant books and manuals. Since it is basic, and besides introduces
the important quantity f, we are presenting the types of wave breaking (Fig.1.16),
a phenomenon that has so many bearings on coastal effects. The quantity £ is
called Irribaren number but is also referred to as Battjes number or wave index,
or breaking index, in various implementations with a variety of subscripts denoting
deep water, as proposed originally by Irribaren, breaking area, as intended by
Battjes, etc. Despite our restrictions we are however describing in more detail two
of the most spectacular phenomena controlling the stability and overall dimensions
of structures, viz. wave run-up and overtopping.

1.3.2 Wave Run-up and Overtopping

Introduction
For many coastal structures, the most important dimension is the height of the
crest, which has to be related not only to the design still water level, but also
to the wave action. Waves striking a coastal structure will run up its face to a
26 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

certain elevation: if this is greater than the crest elevation, then a certain degree
of overtopping will occur. With random waves, it is not possible to define a coastal
structure crest level which will never be overtopped: however high the crest there
is always a statistical chance that a severe storm or a rogue wave will occur which
will give a run-up level greater than the crest level. The designer therefore has to
specify the tolerable limit either for the percentage of waves which can be allowed
to overtop the coastal structure, or for the volume or discharge of the overtopping
water. In principle, quantifying the overtopping water is to be preferred, since it
is this which governs the degree of fiooding in the hinterland, and the amount of
damage to the coastal structure, or to people or property behind the structure. In
general however rather more information is available for quantifying wave run-up
levels than for overtopping discharges.
O v e r t o p p i n g is defined as the transport of significant quantities of ocean water
over the top of a seawall, either as greenwater, splash, or spray. Overtopping
causes damage in several ways, by exerting direct vertical and horizontal forces,and
by eroding materiai from behind waiis.
In most coastal environments it is not practical to built a seawall that will not
be overtopped during severe storm conditions. At many sites, cost is a limiting
factor. For example, for a rip rap structure with a triangular cross section, and
fixed seaward slope, the volume (and cost) of rock required is proportional to the
square of the height. Where property behind the wall is at a relatively low elevation
(less than 5 metres above Mean Lower Low Water), aesthetic and beach access
problems may limit seawall height. Few coastal residents or cities are will ing to
build seawalls which will significantly block their view of the ocean.
As the wave retreats from the seawall, the water level falls below its still water
value, reaching a minimum run-down just as the next wave arrivés. For various
reasons, for instance on slope revetments, the greatest potential for damage to a
revetment occurs between the points of minimum drawdown and the still water
line. Prediction of the minimum wave drawdown is therefore also important.

Wave Run-up
Wave run-up is always defined as the vertical distance R between still water level
and the highest point reached on the beach, dune or coastal structure. The run-up
level depends on details of the coastal structure, including the slope, roughness
and porosity of the seaward face, and the dimensions of any berm which may be
incorporated into the design. The run-up level also depends on the wave height,
period, direction, and spectral width. For plane s m o o t h slopes most authors
agree that the relative run-up Rn/Hs is a function of the Irribarren number f

£ = tima/y/H,/Lp (1.4)
For Irribarren numbers less than about 2.0 (seawall slopes typically flatter than
1 : 2), a linear relationship generally exists (Pilarczyk 1987):
 Ch. 1: Coastal defence and design background 27

j l = Cns/2^ï (1. 5)

where Cn is a constant depending on the type of wave spectrum, and on the

percentage exceedance n. For revetments, the design run-up level is usually taken
as R2%, the level exceeded by 2 percent of the waves. From laboratory experiments,
field measurements and theoretical considerations, different authors have estimated
slightly different values for C2, from about 0.55...0.6 for narrow band wave spectra
to about 0.7...0.8 for broad band spectra.
Using C2% = 0.70 and wave steepness of about 5 % (typical storm value for the
North Sea Coast) one obtains the so-called "Old Delft Formula" commonly used
in the past for calculation of 2-% run-up (R2%) on the Dutch sea dikes, viz.

R2% = 8 # 5 t a n a (1. 6)

which is valid for cot a > 3% and relatively smooth revetments.

As a safe approach it is recommended to use C2% = 0.70 for determining the
run-up due to the wind-waves. In this case one has:
R2%
-- 1.75&, for f < 2.5 or R2% = 3.5 for f > 2.5 (1. 7)
H.s
For random waves with an Irribaren number greater than about 2.0 (relatively
steep walls and/or long swell waves) there is a considerable and apparently random
scatter in the run-up results, both among tests carried out by the same authors,
and between different authors. Fig.1.17 shows the ranges of results. Ahrens (1987)
published different equations for different revetment gradients based on his test
results, although in fact the differences between the equations are less than the
Standard deviations in most cases.

The effective run-up on an inclined structure can be defined as

R• n = RnsVRVBVp (1-8)

where
Rns = run-up on smooth plane slopes, defined as 4he vertical height above
still water level,
VR = reduction factor due to slope roughness and permeability,
vB = reduction factor due to berm
vp = reduction factor due to oblique wave attack. For rough impermeable slopes
there is very little quantitative data on run-up of random waves. For regular waves,
a roughness factor vR has been introduced as the ratio of the wave run-up level on
the roughened slope to the run-up level on an otherwise identical smooth slope.
Table 1.1 shows the typical values: these can be used to gain first estimates of the
run-up levels due to random waves. However it should be pointed out that the
28 Effectiveness ofcoastal defence measures
s •

2 4 6 8 10 12
Figure 1.17. Run-up on Smooth Plane Slopes.

Table 1.1. Roughness Values for Various Types of Sea Wall Construction.
Seawall construction Roughness value
Smooth, impermeable (e.g. asphalt, smooth concrete) 1.0
Stone blocks, pitched or mortared 0.95
Geotextile mat, grass mat, open stone-asphalt 0.95
Concrete blocks 0.9
Stone blocks, granite sets 0.85 to 0.9
Turf 0.85 to 0.9
Rough concrete 0.85
One layer of stone rubble on impermeable base 0.8
Stones set in cement, ragstone etc 0.75 to 0.8
Gravel, gabions 0.70
Dumped round stones 0.6 to 0.65
Two or more layers of rubble 0.5 to 0.6
 Ch. 1: Coastal defence and design background 29

Figure 1.18. Run-up on Rough or Porous Plane Slopes.

roughness factor changes with wave height, wave period, and revetment slope. For
example, Fig.1.18 shows the relative run-up levels for plane slopes with roughness
elements, and for slopes consisting of a single layer of rock over an impermeable
base. In both cases, the geometrical roughness was the same for all slopes but the
run-up results show that the roughness factor uR increases as f increases (steeper
slopes). The expected values of vR would be about 0.65 for the roughness elements
used, and about 0.8 for the rock: at small values of £ (shallow slopes) the roughness
factor VR is less than expected, whereas at larger values of f (steep slopes) VR is
greater than expected.
The most common type of rough permeable slope would be a rock revetment
consisting of two or more layers of stone, for which Table 1.1 would indicate a
roughness factor of about 0.5 to 0.6. However random wave tests have shown that
the extra porosity makes very little difference to the run-up levels for £ less than
about 3, although at higher values the relative run-up becomes constant, Fig.1.18.
Introducing a near horizontal b e r m onto the front face of a revetment can make
a substantial difference to the run-up levels, especially if the berm can be placed
close to the design water level (hb/Hs less than about 0.5). At this level, wider
berms produce less wave run-up, although for berms which are wider than about
0.3Lo there is very little further reduction. For berms at this optimum depth and
width, the wave run-up levels on plane slopes may be reduced by the following
factors (Pilarczyk 1987):
30 Effectiveness ofcoastal defence measures

Slope uB at hB < 0.5HS

1 : 5 to 1 : 7 0.75 to 0.80
1 :4 0.6 to 0.7
1 :3 0.5 to 0.6

All the above methods of estimating wave run-up apply to the situation where waves
strike the structure orthogonally. Until comparatively recently this was thought to
produce the worst case, with wave run-up reducing quite rapidly for oblique wave
attack. However, some recent research studies have indicated that for angles of
incidence between 0 and about 40° there is very little change in run-up levels, with
even a slight increase at angles of about 15...20°. The actual increase depends on
the structure slope, but Tautenhain et al (198.) have suggested an expression of
the form

lf} = cosdtt - cos30)1/3 (1.9)

where f3 is the angle between the line of the structure and the wave crests. This
expression peaks at a value of 1.09 at an angle of about 22°. Alternatively, an
oblique wave attack, at an angle /? can be roughly taken into account by

vp = cos(fi - 10°) for 0 < 0.65° (1. 10)

For fi > 65° one has Ra > Hs (but not less than H, !) (N.B. f} is reduced by 10°
on account of variation of f3).
For bermed slopes, slopes with roughness elements, and rough porous slopes it is
likely that orthogonal waves do indeed give the wave run-up. For oblique waves the
length of the roughened slope, or the width of the berm, does effectively increase,
causing a reduction in wave run-up.
N o t e : Depending on the wave spectrum, i.e. the anticipated maximum wave height, and the type and
permeability of revetment, type ofsubgrade, the run-up can vary substantially. Hence the slope protection
has to be more or less extended. For particular cases model invesügation may provide proper answer.

Run-up on a shingle beach is depicted in Fig.1.19.

Run-down
The only published data which is available for run-down under random waves
relates to plane, smooth slopes. In these situations the lower limit of slope area
attack by waves (where primary protection is necessary) can be defined roughly as
(PIANC 1987):

^ = (0.8e + 0.5) for C < 2.5 (1. 11)

and
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 31

O l —
«.02 C.04 «Si
H /
Slgnltlcinl vtTt hclght/ftcln v i t t Unflh . I L

Figure 1.19. Run-up on Shingle Beaches, Owen (1989).

- ^ = 2.5 /or f > 2.5 (1. 12)

Hs

The addition of berms, or of slope roughness, is likely to make a significant

difference to the run-down level, and for these structures model tests would be
necessary to define the lower limit of the required slope protection.
Overtopping Discharges
Standard run-up calculations for seawalls (or any other structure) typically consider
only the frequency of overtopping by 'green water'. The height of this run-up is
usually calculated using empirical or theoretical formulae based on water depth,
beach slope, significant wave height, wave period, maximum expected sea level,
and the type of structure involved. Unfortunately, these calculations often ignore
the potential effects of overtopping by wave splash, and the erodibility of materials
behind and above the seawall.
With random waves, it is not possible to define a structure crest level which will
never be overtopped: however high the structure, there is always a statistical chance
that a severe storm or a rogue wave will occur which will give a run-up level greater
than the crest level.
Usually therefore the designer has to consider the consequences of the structure
being overtopped. Principally, this means estimating the volume or the discharge
of the overtopping water, since it is this which governs the degree of flooding in the
32 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Table 1.2. Threshold Overtopping Discharge for Damage to Sea Walls

Type of seawall and construction Threshold overtopping discharge m3/s.m
Embankment type seawall:
3
Crown and back slope unprotected 21• 0 -
(eg.clay, compacted soil; grassed)
Crown protected,back slope unprotected 10- 2
2•
Crown and back slope protected 5 -10- 2
R e v e t m e n t - t y p e seawall:
Apron (promenade) unpaved 10- 2
5•
Apron (promenade) paved 2- lO"1
N o t e : To be used as general guidelines only.

hinterland, and the amount of damage to the structure or to people or property

behind the structure. For the design of the structure, a "tolerable" overtopping
discharge has to be defined. Depending on the nature of the particular scheme,
this tolerable or design discharge has to satisfy various requirements including
(a) The stability of the crest and back face of the structure
(b) The discharge capacity of any drainage channels behind the structure
(c) The total volume available for storage of flood waters behind the structure, or
alternatively the depth and extent of flooding which can be tolerated
(d) The possibility of damage to buildings or vehicles behind the structure, or of
injury to members of the public.
Items (b) and (c) above are probably self-explanatory, except to note that the
discharge capacity of the channels has to be related primarily to the overtopping
discharge at the peak of the storm, whereas the degree of flooding is related to
the total volume of water overtopping the structure for the total duration of the
storm. The stability of the structure is much more difficult to determine, since it is
based on so many different factors. However, Table 1.2 gives general guidelines on
the tolerable discharges, which should not be exceed if damage is to be avoided.
Similarly, Table 1.3 provides figures for discharge values not to be exceeded to
avoid damage or injury to buildings, vehicles or people behind the structure.

Estimating overtopping discharge

All the available methods for predicting overtopping discharge relate only to "green
water" (or solid) overtopping, and do not include the effects of "white water" or
spray. This is mainly because spray overtopping cannot be successfully reproduced
during model tests, and most predictive equations are based on such tests. Because
wind-driven spray cannot be quantified, efforts should be made to design a structure
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 33

Table 1.3. Threshold Overtopping Discharge for Damage or Injury to Buildings,

Vehicles or Personnel
Category Threshold overtopping discharge m3/s/m
For a person to walk immediately
behind the seawall:
with little discomfort 4-10-6
with little danger 3 • 1(T5
For a vehicle to pass immediately
behind the seawall:
at high speed 1 • 1(T6
at low speed 2-KT5
For a house located immediately
behind the seawall:
to suffer no damage 1 • KT 6
to suffer no structural
damage, although experiencing partial 3 • KT 5
damage to windows and doors
N o t e s : (1) To be used as general guidelines only
(2) At 10 m behind rather than immediately behind the seawall the above discharges can be increased
by a factor of about 10.

that is not too susceptible to spray generation.

For most revetments, the mean overtopping discharge caused by random waves
can be predicted from an equation of the form

g, = A • exp(—BR*) (1. 13)

where dimensionless discharge

9 / $ ^1/2
(1. 14)
\1/2^9TT;

dimensionless freeboard

(1. 15)

wave steepness

2nHx
S= (1. 16)
9T*
34 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Table 1.4. Values of the Coefficients A and B for Simple Sea Walls
Seawall slope A B

1:1 7.94 • 10- 3 20.12

1:1.5 * 1.02 -10- 2 20.12
1:2 1.25 • 1(T2 22.06
1:2.5 * 1.45-10- 2 26.1
1:3* 1.63-10- 2 31.9
1:3.5 * 1.78-10- 2 38.9
1:4 1.92-10- 2 48.96
1:4.5 * 2.15 • 10- 2 55.7
1:5 * 2.5 • 10- 2 65.2

Boïd type - values determined from model tests

Asterisk - values derived by interpolation based on published run-up data.

where Rc and q are respectively the actual freeboard (difference between crest
elevation and still water elevation) and the actual mean overtopping discharge
(expressed as volume/time/unit length of structure).
A and B are dimensionless coefficients whose values depend on the geometrical
profile of the revetment, together with the roughness and porosity of its seaward
face. To a lesser extent, the coefficients also depend on the width of the wave
energy spectrum.
For simple, impervious, smooth sloping revetments, the values of A and B
determined from model test are given in Table 1.4. This table also includes
interpolated values for other slopes not examined by model tests. It is interesting
to note that there is very little difference in overtopping performance between 1 : 1
and 1 : 2 sloping revetments.
For simple rough slopes, (porous or non-porous) theoretical considerations
suggest that the overtopping discharge can be predicted from the equation
Q* = Aexp(-BR*/isR) (1. 17)
(where VR is taken from Table 1.1). However, recent studies indicate that the.
discharge estimated from this equation is probably conservative, i.e. roughening
the seaward slope of the revetment reduces the overtopping discharge more then
expected. This equation should therefore only be used for initial estimating pur-
poses, and specific model tests carried out to refine the overtopping prediction.
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 35

For smooth, non-porous, bermed revetments, the values of the coëfficiënt A

and B can be found from literature . The effect of introducing a near-horizontal
berm onto the front frace of the revetment depends on the width of the berm
relative to the wave \ength,B/Lö, on the berm elevation relative to the still water
line and the wave height, h,B/Hs and to some extent also on the relative freeboard
R*. For very low freeboard (R* less than about 0.04) introducing a berm can ac-
tually increase overtopping discharge, because of pronouced wave set-up on the
horizontal berm.
However, for most practical revetments the effect of the berm is to reduce over-
topping discharge. Berms located close to the still water line give the greatest
reduction in discharge, with the effect diminishing rapidly when hs/Hs is greater
than about 0.5. Increasing the width of the berm also reduces the overtopping dis-
charge: initially this effect increases rapidly with berm width, but beyond a certain
width the effect is very much less marked. The optimum berm width depends on
the berm elevation: for a berm close to still water level a berm width of about
0.15I/0 will give about 80% reduction in overtopping discharge: Fig.1.20 shows the
berm width required to give the same reduction for other berm elevations.
For rough, impervious bermed revetments recent tests have indicated that in-
troducing the published roughness coëfficiënt "r" into the overtopping equation
results in a very serious overestimate of the overtopping discharge, and this is also
likely to be the case for rough porous bermed revetments. Where the overtop-
ping discharge is critical in design, for these types of revetment the overtopping
should therefore be quantified from model tests.
The values of the coefficients A and B which are quoted above relate to revet-
ments which have a very narrow crest, without any form of vertical or recurved
wave return wall mounted on the crest. The overtopping discharge can be reduced
slightly by increasing the crest width, since some of the water reaching the crest
will drain seaward. The discharge can also be reduced significantly by adding a
wave return wall, whose purpose is to intercept the overtopping jet of water, and
deflect it back out to sea. The effectiveness of the return wall depends very much
on its geometry, and on its dimensions relative to the depth of the overtopping
water. Exact quantification of the reduction in overtopping which is achieved can
only be assessed by model testing, but reductions of up to 90% are often possible.
In general, it is preferable that the water is returned seaward at a very mild angle
above the horizontal: if the water is deflected vertically a moderate onshore wind
can easily transport it landward over the revetment.
Overtopping discharge is also affected by the angle between the wave crests and
the seawall. Contrary to expectations, the worst overtopping does not necessarily
occur under normal wave attack. For relatively steep, simple, smooth slopes, and
for revetments incorporating rather narrow berms, the worst overtopping occurs
at an angle of about 10...20° off normal, in some cases reaching as much as 65%
36 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

1.4 . 1

\.X . 1

1.0 ,
_B_
L0
o-s .

„.(„ -,

o4 ——7

0-2. ^—^ - ^

da
O-A 06 ÏZ.

Figure 1.20. Optimum Berm Width B for Reduced Overtopping Discharge.

Ctat* WI(U U. SVU

Figure 1.21. Overtopping on Recurved Walls, Owen (1989).

 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 37

greater discharge. For those revetments, the overtopping discharge reduces below
that occuring 0° only for directions greater than about 30°. However, recent tests
have indicated that this general effect applies only for long crested random waves,
such as might occur in relatively shallow water: for short-crested random waves
the overtopping discharge stays reasonably constant over the directions 0 to 30°,
before falling away at larger angles. For revetments with a rather mild slope, or
wide, shallow berm width or the effective length of roughened slope, and therefore
reduces the overtopping discharge consistently.
Goda (1985) provides extensive material on overtopping caused by a wide variety
of structures, mostly port and harbour ones, in the presence of random waves. An
example for a particular case of recurved wall configuration is depicted in Fig.1.21.

Vertical Forces due to Overtopping

Both greenwater and wave splash can exert strong upward, vertical forces on struc-
tures and materials near the crests of seawalls, especially those with vertical faces.
Wheré moderately deep water lies in front of a vertical seawall, even relatively
small (3 to 4 feet high) breaking waves can send jets of water up to twenty feet
in the air. In high-surf conditions, the vertical forces exerted by such jets have
destroyed overhanging decks and fioors of ocean-front homes.
At several sites, vertical wave forces have lifted rip rap and other rocks up to one
to two feet across from the base of vertical walls and erosion scarps, and thrown
them inland. Where vertical seawalls or rock cliffs face deep water, waves have
broken off immense blocks of stone (up to 50 cu. ft.) from the crest of the wall or
bluff, and rolled them landward.

Horizontal Forces due to Overtopping

Water overtopping seawalls in the form of green water or splash can also exert
significant horizontal forces on structures or materials behind the wall. Matthews
(1934) documents damage to buildings twenty feet inland from vertical masonry
seawalls. Where low seawalls are overtopped by white-water bores, these bores
may cause great flooding and property damage hundreds of feet inland. This dam-
age may be increased if floating logs and debris are floated or thrown over the
wall.
Rip rap walls are generally assumed to have a lower run-up coëfficiënt than smooth
concrete or timber walls. However, because of their sloping seaward face, splash or
green-water overtopping, rip rap walls may have a greater horizontal component
of velocity than splash over vertical walls of the same height. Wave splash has
been observed to travel further inland at locations where rip rap has been placed
than where waves hit vertical bluffs. Waves overtopping high rip rap (19 feet above
MLLW) knocked out entire home fronts at Via Gaviota in northern Monterey Bay,
during storms in 1983 , cf. Fulton-Bennet and Griggs (1987).
38 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Q<

Figure 1.22. Sediment Budget in a Coastal Cell.

1.3.3 Coastal morphology

Introduction
Any coastline, natural or artificial, is subjected to coastal processes, of which some
are depicted in Fig.1.22. The sediment compartment shown may incorporate eas-
ily erodible segments (such as sandy beaches) and more resistant segments (such
as cliffs or coastal structures). Sediment budget within the compartment includes
longshore and cross-shore sediment tranport rates, Qi and Qc, aeolian transport
rate Qa, sediment discharge from rivers QT, and Qe, the rate of sediment eroded
about cliff or structure. The sum of all Q components within the compartment de-
termines the rate of accretion or erosion, i.e. the temporal variation of the volume
of sediment, V. Hence, modelling of coastal evolution requires the knowledge of
respective transport formulae, together with the intervening waves and currents,
which control both sedimentation and operation of coastal structures.

Shore evolution takes place in different time scales (Fig.1.23). Discussed below
are short-term changes (days to months), longer processes (years), and the effect
of coastal structures. Although he must be aware of long-term processes, such
as eustatic changes and sea level rise (e.g. caused by the greenhouse effect), and
many other geological and climatological factors, the coastal engineer is usually
concerned about time scales of the order of 100 years, i.e. his own and his grand-
children's playground. Of course, this does not prevent him from assigning long
return times, or very low probabilities, in his design on extreme events, occurring
once per one thousand or ten fhousand statistical years.
One may distinguish far-field effects, with length scales exceeding a characteristic
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 39

i Accretion *
Erosion \ mean
/ trend relative

hA JvxT^f- * MA .rv r
accretion \

datum
hr\ ^

1yr 2yr 3yr time

Figure 1.23. Position of Coastal Feature (e.g. Shoreline): Multiscale Variability.

dimension of the structure or coastal feature considered, and near-field processes

of smaller linear scales. The former are discussed in Chapter 2 while the latter are
dealt with primarily in Chapter 3.
S h o r e evolution in any scale depends primarily on coastal climate (waves, cur-
rents, etc. or hydraulic b o u n d a r y conditions), properties of shore t o p o g r a -
p h y and bed sediment, and features of coastal s t r u c t u r e s .

Beach profile
The cross-shore profile of a nearshore zone, referred to as a b e a c h or shore p r o -
file, must be known for at least two objectives: (1) assessment of shore evolution
and (2) control of the effect of a coastal structure on coastline.
Dean (1977) postulated the following time-averaged two-dimensional

h = anxT (1. 18)

in which h is the depth below still water line in terms of the distance x seaward
from the shoreline. A later modification, with a rectilinear stretch at shoreline
is depicted in Fig.1.24. The average exponent m has been shown about 2/3, in
agreement with the theory assuming uniform energy dissipation across surf zone.
Dean (1987) noted a close fitting of data on an and the settling velocity Ws (cm/s):

ar 0.067W?"44; an = m 1 ' 3 (1. 19)

Vellinga(1986) has proposed
an w 0.39W0-44 (1. 20)
Boon and Green (1988) found that the parameter an may be readily calculated
from the beach slope tan/? (subaqueous nearshore slope at shoreline, which may
be replaced by subaerial beach face slope on steep, highly concave barless beaches):
40 Effectiveness of coastal defence measwes

Figure 1.24. Dean Profile.

tan/? = a)!m (1.21)

The Caribbean beaches investigated by Boon and Green (low-energy ones consist-
ing mainly of skeletal calcium carbonate sands of marine origin) display average m
= 0.5 and good correlation of an with wave steepness:

in which
Hb, T = breaker height and period,
d = mean grain diameter,
g = acceleration due to gravity.
Close agreement with laboratory findings of Sunamura (1984) is noteworthy.
Schematisation of shingle beach profile is depicted in Fig.1.25. Powell (1990)
argues that the profile can be described by three distinct curves; the resulting nine
predictors are correlated with the available model data, so that the shingle profile
can be predicted for any set of input variables (although for normal wave attack
only at present). Owen (1989) notes that the height of the shingle beach crest and
the level of wave run-up depend only on the wave height and period.
Storm waves transport beach material offshore and form an underwater bar. Waves
of low steepness, between storms, give rise to beach accretion and generation of
a berm. Earlier laboratory studies emphasized the role of plunging breakers in
the production of bars and determined the role played by wave steepness and
beach slope, cf. Fig.1.26. Recent experiments in a large wave fiume (CRIEPI,
Horikawa, 1988) demonstrated that spïlling breakers also create bars. The CRIEPI
experiments relate the water depth of both bar crest and bar trough, hc and ht to
the breaker height Hb
hc = 0.59-fff, = 0.59&1 (1. 23)
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 41

Scheraatisation of s h i n g l e beach p r o f i l e

Figure 1.25. Shingle Beach Profile, Owen (1989).

=ê 0.01 r

10"" (t«n^)-" W/L.)"'

Figure 1.26. Classification of Sandy Beach Profile, Sunamura & Horikawa (1974).
42 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

There are other theories Iinking generation of bars to longshore currents, edge
waves, Bragg resonance etc.

Short-term beach changes

Again, a short "static" outline ïs provided in this subseetion. More details on the
dynamical interactions of water, sea bed and structures are given in Sec.2.7.
Three-dimensional models of shore evolution have been proposed by Sonu (1973),
Short (1978,1979), Davis and Fox (1972,1975), Sasaki (1983) and others. Some of
these studies have been synthesized by Sunamura (1985) in a model summarized by
Horikawa (1988), cf. Fig.1.27. This model can be applied to beaches of moderate-
to-high energy environment, microtidal range (i2 m), moderate nearshore bottom
slopes (1/50 - 1/200), fine-to- coarse-grained material (0.1 - 2 mm in diameter),
and the dominant shore normal sediment-transport regime. The inner bar is
reproduced only in zones with multiple bars.
The model consists of eight topographical stages; two limiting stages, erosional and
accretionary, and six transitory stages. A dimensionless parameter K+, is employed
here to explain stage movement through the model
K* = ËHgT2h (1. 24)
where Hb and f are the daily average values of the breaker and wave period.
The stages and associated shore transformations, along with characteristic morpho-
logical features (bar system, cusps, mega cuspes, storm cusps, berm-step systems,
and beach-face slopes) are described by Horikawa (1988).
The dynamic response characteristics of the beach system, recently examined by
Wright and Short (1984) and Wright, Short, and Green (1985) on the basis of exten-
sive data on Australian coasts, are instructive. The presence of (1) morphological
hysteresis and (2) time lag of beach stage occurence to input waves elucidated and
six representative beach stages (called "beach states") were defined using the Dean
parameter Hb/WST. A heuristic model for prediction of beach stage change was
also proposed by Wright and Short (1984) and Wright, Short, and Green (1985).
Mathematical models become increasingly important in prediction of waves, cur-
rents, sediment transport and shore evolution. In view of the multiscale phenom-
ena, depicted in Fig.1.23, time-dependent 3-D models are hardly feasible. There-
fore one may recommended a semi-analytical quasi-3D model by de Vriend and
Ribberink (1988) which describes tidal motion, waves, nearshore currents and sed-
iment transport in complex coastal areas; although, at present the prediction is not
better than that provided by the 2-DH version of the model.
Protected (or engineered) coastlines may be modelled in a variety of ways. A de-
gree of sophistication reflected in a mathematical model depends i.a. on desired
accuracy. Complex 3-D models may be substituted by simpler one-line or multi-
line models using sets of equations for the geometry of one or more characteristic
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 43
Erosional extreme

ï"~7?
Accretiunary sequence Erosional sequence
i Troojh
Mean watet shorehne

8 • A
A\>20 -1- t
Bar

Troutfh
~ 5 < A'. < 20
IA "ScarïT" !
t

3a , v 3b 7 iA-
Rip Disconünuous b»"- jfm A'.£20
-tl 1
Cresccntic 'bat

»£nS» 5<A-.<20
Inactivc beach OispsiA

e A'
A'.>10
| -q^Welded bar , ,- "incipicnt *bar \

?<K.<I0 , Scarp
| Burïed rïp channel A

Accretionary extreme

Scep
! ..L...
Accretionary sequence v- Erosional sequence
A" i—r
u
1 Berm
'VN
*• T \ B a r
| Siep —^—-

!
'''#t\ E r o s i o n
1 Accreüon

Figure 1.27. Beach Transformation Modelling, Horikawa (1988) (top)

Figure 1.28. Classification of Morphological Changes due to Presence of Stuctures, Tanaka (1983);
Arrows indicate the direction of net sediment transport (bottom).
44 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

features of shore profile, sediment transport rate, wave diffraction etc. A certain
classification of shore evolution models is given by Kraus (1983).
From among the 3-D models available one may recommend Perlin and Dean
(1985). Multi-line models are well represented by Kriebel and Dean (1985). Han-
son (1987) presented a synthetieal numerical model referred to as Genesis, which
provides a selection of potentials for modelling about structures. Boundary condi-
tions at seawalls are discussed by Hanson and Kraus (1986). Evolution patterns,
from straight shoreline at t = 0, due to a series of converging and diverging waves
at a seawall and other structures are predicted. Steetzel (1987) proposed a model
for beach changes near dune revetments. Mc Dougal et al (1987) provide simple
equations for the landward encroachment of sea and the size of the eroded area
on the downdrift side of a seawall. These and other models are discussed more
comprehensively in Section 2.7.

Long-term shore evolution

Long-term morphological effects may be attributed to the gross variability of coastal
climate and to islands, headlands, promontories and other structures, natural or
artificial, which bring about large-scale variation in depositional and erosional pat-
terns. Some natural features are illustrated in Fig.1.28.

1.4 MORE ABOUT STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Many costal structures may have some common features with regard to functional
requirements, design formulae and construction methods. Therefore it is instruc-
tive to examine more closely certain types of these structures.

1.4.1 Longshore Structures

Seawalls and kindred structures

Seawalls (beach walls) have been constructed in a wide variety of materials and
cross-sections. With respect to the cross-section the most common types of seawalls
are listed below. Monolithic and sheetpile type seawalls are widely used through-
out the world as rigid structures. Both concepts, rigid and fiexible structures, such
as fiexible revetments, a modern defence concept, because of their typical wave
reflecting characteristics, usually need a considerable fiexible berm to reduce re-
flection and the hazard of scour. The following types can be distinguished:
• monolitic seawalls;
• sheet pile seawalls;
• palisade-filled seawalls
• rubble mound seawalls;
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 45

• composite-type seawalls (monolithic, on rock foundation);

• random placed sloping rock (natural or artificial), covering a core of erosive

material;

• as above, with regular placed rock elements,

• bituminous systems;

• gabions, stone mattresses;

• berm type seawalls (characteristic alternative geometry for systems listed

above).

An overview of these basic concepts is provided in Fig.1.29 and Fig.1.30.

Seawalls that protect interior waters against storm surges are commonly known
as b a r r i e r s , sea dykes or s t o r m dykes. For economie reasons barriers can be
constructed largely with natural materials. For elements with specific functions also
artificial and industrial materials are applied. Examples of the latter are moving
elements as turning and sliding doors, which are often made of steel. In particular,
in deeper water a considerable volume of material is involved, which often makes
natural (rock) materials competitive. The principal barrier concepts are the same
as for seawalls. Two major categories are permeable and impermeable designs.
Permeability can be controlled by means of materials chosen or by special mea-
sures.
In b r e a k w a t e r design, similar concepts may be applicable as for seawalls. Break-
waters can be shore-connected or detached, e m e r g i n g or s u b m e r g e d , long-
s h o r e or oblique. They may also appear in various combinations and systems,
much as other types of structures. Typical functions and construction methods how-
ever will in general result in respective differences versus seawalls, for example in
geometry and size of material elements. Breakwaters are mainly applied for beach
protection and to reduce wave disturbance in harbours and entrance channels.
Depending on their specific function, breakwaters may have strongly variable align-
ment and cross sections. Both the alignment and the cross section of a breakwater
affect, to a certain extent, the hydraulic loading of the cover layer. Moreover, the
bulk volume of a breakwater is mainly determined by these geometrical charac-
teristics. In many cases breakwaters are exposed to relatively heavy wave loadings
because of their exposure. Given the strong dependence of the required armour
strength on the wave height, often high demands must be made upon the armour
elements, construction techniques and equipment. Depending upon the specific
function of the breakwater, overtopping and wave transmission may be allowed
or not, which has important consequences for the design of the structure. The
above concepts can also be applied to breakwaters. For a detailed description of
all aspects of breakwater design one can refer to the report of PIANC WG12.
 ON
C
>-t

5• ?
SEA WALL CLASSIFICATION

Q
SLOPINO
COMBINATION
of BOTH
7=i_
—\ VtRTICAL
9

I MULTIPLE
WITH BERMS
SLOPE
SINGLE SLOPE
VERTICAL FACE
BAT7ERED FACE
RE-CURVED FACE 8
00 n.
n POROUS NON-PO ROUS NON-POROUS POROUS

ARMOURED STEPPED SMOOTH ORAVITY

3
STRUCTURAL GRAVITY CRIBWORK
REINFORCED SHEET PILING
Cd STRUCTURÈ
SLOPES SLOPES SLOPES STRUCTURES CONCRETE
BREASTWORK os

s
a RUBBLE STONE INSITU CONCRETE MASS MASS INSITU RC. STEEL SHEET STONE F I L L E D
TWO RÖWS
VERTICAL PILES
S
PILES GABIONS HORIZONTAL PLANKS
a OR RIP RAP BEAMS k STEPS CONCRETE CONCRETE RETAINING WALL
wrrH ROCK.INFILL
e. RANDOM PLAGED INSITU CONCRETE
CONCRETE BEAMS
( K S I T U OR PRECAST) PRECAST RC. CONCRETE SHEET RAKI NO TIMBER
t*5
CONCRETE ARMOUR BEAMSWITH PRECAST MASONRY PILES WITH
WITH RC SLABS RETAINING WALL PILES
UNITS STEPS HORIZONTAL PU'NKS
- j (INSITU OR PRECASTi
ROCK INFlLL

PATTERN PLACED INTERLOCKINS

INSITU CONCRETE TIMBER SHEET
CONCRETE ARMOUR CONCRETE BRICKWORK PILES
STEPS ONLY SUBS
UNITS

PRECAST CONCRETE STEEL H-PILES

FLÈXIBLE ARMOUR OROUT WITH
BEAMS WITH INSITU
REVETMENT SYSTEMS MATTRESS CONCRETE P U N K S
STEPS

SANO OR STONE GRASSEO SLOPE

ASPHALT CLAY BANK

HAND
STONE FILLED
PITCHED
GABION MATTRESS
STONE
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 47

rï§
monoüthic seawall
with scour protection sheet pile seawall
with scour protection

seawall with block revetment rubble mound seawall

with berm

f
1
composrte seawall sloping rubble seawall
Figure 1.30. Basic Sea Wall Concepts.

Flexible revetment systems deserve special attention. A revetment system

must be designed as an integrated system of cover (top) layer, filter and base
(core) material. In general, a revetment system will consist of a number of layers,
the principal of which are the cover layer, the filter layer(s) and a separation layer,
which can be a geotextile or equivalent substitute.
Changes in one of these elements can have an important effect upon the perfor-
mance of the revetment. The protective function of the revetment and its required
flexibility define the range of concepts, that can be used in the design.
The cover or armour layer is the major protection of the structure and should resist
external and internal loadings. Strength against external loadings can primarily be
provided for by a sufficiënt weight of the armour elements .
The resistance against internal loadings (uplift pressures) depends to a large extent
on the permeability ratio of cover- and filter layer. For a given wave loading uplift
pressures can be reduced by lowering the permeability of the cover layer relative
to filter permeability.
Further, the permeability of the core will also affect the stability of the cover layer.
Additional stability of the cover layer can be obtained by friction-, interlocking- or
tensile forces. These forces may act between the elements of the armour layer and
between the armour elements and the underlayers. Most of the artificial systems
have been designed deliberately to mobilize these additional forces.
48 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Figure 1.31. Flexible Revetment Concepts.

Revetment concepts are usually distinguished after their cover layers. The most
common concepts are listed in Table 1.5.
Most of these concepts use rock as the basic material. Additional materials can
be applied to provide for an increase in stability.
Dykes and their design are discussed at many places throughout this document,
wherever pertaining to the subject.
Dykes are incorporated, together with jetties and other river and coastal engineer-
ing structures, in the project aimed at protecting the city of Valencia (Spain) from
flooding by Rio Turia (Fig.1.32).

1.4.2 Cross-Shore Structures

Jetties
The principal functions of jetties are control and guidance of flow or fixation of
gullies, often throughout the coastal (surf) zone. Therefore the structural differ-
ences versus breakwaters are minor. Hence, in principle, breakwater and seawall
strategies can be applied for jetties.

Groynes
Groynes are used as structures oriented more or less perpendicularly to the coast-

*
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 49

Table 1.5.
Revetment concept Alternative systems
Random placed natural stone rock
rubble
rip-rap
gravel
loose, concrete blocks
Placed or cast units units cast in-süu
loosely placed blocks
cable-connected concrete blocks
interlocking concrete blocks
Container-type systems gabions (wire, polymer)
stone mattresses
bags (jute, fabric)
fabric mattresses
tubes (fabric)
Bituminous system grouted stone
open stone asphalt
sand asphalt
asphalt concrete
bituminous membranes
Vegetative cover layer natural grass-type plants
plant containers
Other systems breakwater armour units
tyre mattresses
grid mats
filament mats (polymer)
pocket fabrics

Fig.1.32. Example of Longshore and Cross-shore Structures Combining in a

River k. Coastal Engineering Project off Valencia; SOGREAH
50 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

line. Their function is coastal protection along the coasts subject to erosion in
the presence of longshore s e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t , which is manifested through
preservation, or even generation, of a wide beach.
It is generally assumed that groynes bring about accretion of sediment in situations
withrather small, obliquely incident-waves-, while high storm waves cause erosion
despite the presence of groynes.
A single groyne has never proved successful, and therefore groynes are constructed
in groups or systems. Downdrift erosion on the lee side of the groyne system is
seldom avoidable.

1.4.3 Other Systems

Bottom or scour protection

The means intended for scour protection, usually costructed with primary coastal
defence or management measures, often evolve into heavy structures themselves.
They cannot be classified as strictly longshore or cross-shore.
Stabilisation of seabed may be required for several reasons. Navigation and protec-
tion of submarine cables or pipelines are some examples. Also local scour, induced
by coastal and ocean structures, such as seawalls, breakwaters, groynes, etc. or by
other human activities on the seabed, may require a bottom protection. Because of
advantages mentioned and since often the natural geometry must be maintained,
flexible concepts are employed in such cases. Scour protection is always needed if
scour is expected to endanger the stability of the foundations of structures. The
principal concepts for bottom protection are:

• roek-type (single- or multilayered);

• mats of artificial blocks;

• container-type mats;

• bituminous systems;

• sealing methods (these are beyond the scope of this report).

Concepts of seabed stabilization are discussed in detail in the subsequent chapters.

The variety of combined s y s t e m s is only limited by designer's imagination. The
common property of most systems is the mobilization of additional resistance forces
between idividual elements. This resistance can be friction, interlocking or tensile
forces.
Breakwater armour units are an example of interlocking, which is provided for by
a variety of typical shapes. Because of the combination of size (mass) and shape,
considerable moments are exerted on joints of these units. As a result, material
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 51

strength parameters become a dominating factor for the response of these units
when exposed to wave loading. Material strength and reinforcement thus become
limiting factors for application. These units are described in the report of PIANC
Working Group 12 (Breakwaters).
Tyre mattresses can be considered as an example of the application of waste ma-
terials. When connected and ballasted with concrete, scrap tyres provided a cheap
alternative type of flexible revetment.
Many possible and attractive alternatives are discussed in Chapter 6.
Vegetation can be applied as reinforcement of a basically erosive material. This
gives an increase in strength of the base material. Additionally, vegetation may re-
duce the loadings due to dissipation. Vegetation can be provided for by seeding or
by placing of plant containers ( bags, tubes, etc). The container is filled with soil,
enclosing the root system and initial sterns of plants. Roots and sterns can grow
through the container. When conditions are favourable, both sterns and roots will
grow and develop the final strength of the system. The strength largely depends
on the health of the plants.
Mats can be used as an intermediate layer to provide for additinal friction or soil
reinforcement . Pocket fabrics, filled with soil and young vegetation, can also be
used to allow for the development of a natural flexible revetment.
As already mentioned, these and other environment-friendly, low-cost, temporary,
etc. coastal defence and management measures are presented in Chapter 6.

1.5 DESIGN APPROACH; DETERMINISTIC VS. PROBABILISTIC

1.5.1 General
A coastal structure is subject to the external effects of the environment, labelled
shortly as loading. The response of the structure to this loading, in the form
of linear and angular displacements, is usually characterised through stability or
deformation. In terms of the theory of dynamic processes one has loading as an
i n p u t and stability or deformation as an o u t p u t . Since s t r e n g t h is also associ-
ated with states of stability and deformation, we are henceforth employing it as an
output feature.
Basic functional relationships linking the stability, or strength, to loading, referred
to as transfer functions, are used to describe the limit states in the domains
of hydraulics and geotechnics. These relationships, which form the basis for the
structural design are often known as the "stability criteria". Eventually acceptable
(limit state) deformations and displacements should be included through a rela-
tionship between loading and deformation. After analysis of the physical process
involved, loading and strength functions can be derived from the stability function.
52 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Loading and strength are both functions of a large number of basic variables and
parameters. The strength variables are determined by material properties and the
geometry of the structure. The loading variables of marine structures mainly orig-
inate from the environmental boundary conditions (wind, waves, currents, ice).
The general formulations for the strength and Ioad functions, that are used in the
remainder of this report are respectively:
strength function: R = R{XUH2 Xm);
loading function: S = S(Xm+l...Xn);
where: Xi,X 2 ....X m are the strength variables and
Xm+i Xn are the loading variables.
T h e s t r u c t u r e response is then defined as displacement, movement or deforma-
tion. This is illustrated in Fig.1.33 by the interactions (transfer functions) indicated
with 'T".
For the structural design of a coastal structure now the following elements should
be considered in a design procedure:
• boundary conditions;
• external transfer functions (I);

• loadings (forces, pressures);

• internal transfer functions (II);
• structural system transfer functions (III);

• response of system (displacements).

When the loadings have been determined, the strength has to be derived from the
functional relationships. Usually stability formuale are used to determine the limit
state strength. Safety is provided for by chosing a design strength, which exceeds
the limit state strength. Now the structure is stable, except for a certain probability.
Two principal options exist to limit this probability by adjusting a sufficiënt safety
margin between strength and loads: deterministic or probabilistic.
In a probabilistic design, assumptions have to be made and (if possible) verified
with regard to the statistical distribution functions of the design parameters (eg.
wave height, stone density, filter permeability). The choice of either probabilistic
or deterministic design approach has consequences for the design data that should
be generated. The essential difference is that probabilistic methods need additional
statistical information on the input data, for instance not only a mean wave period
but also a Standard deviation of wave periods.
Prior to embarking on details of the deterministic and probabilistic c design schemes
one has to specify the notions of failure, d a m a g e , fault t r e e and s y s t e m a p -
proach which will be employed henceforth.
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 53

HYDRAUUC HYDRAUUC
C0ND1T10NS COND1TIONS
AT EXTERNAL AT INTERNAL
SURFACE SURFACE RESPONSE
OF
P»X (y.0 Pint (y.0 STRUCTURE
HYDRAUUC MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES PROPERTIES
OF STRUCTURE OF STRUCTURE
AND SOIL

Figure 1.33. System Approach.

When, at any time within the lifetime, the principal functions can no longer be
fulfilled, the structure has failed. This failure does not necessarily imply a total
collapse or disappearance of the structure. A certain reduced level of functioning
may be maintained after failure has occurred. A certain residual strength may also
remain after failure.
In general, damage can be defined as a certain change in the state of the structure.
The state of a structure is reflected by the following three characteristics of the
structure; strains, movements or diplacements.
Changes of the types (1) and (2) often correspond to a certain physical loss or dis-
placement of the material of a structure. This in turn may cause a loss of functions.
Failure can thus be expressed as a certain threshold damage, and the correspond-
ing specific loading level. When a (sudden) progressive increase of damage as a
function of the loading level cannot be observed, the point of failure has, for prac-
tical reasons, to be defined at one particular degree of damage. Failure can occur
to parts of a structure and to an entire structure (eg. partial failure of an armour
layer and total failure of a breakwater due to liquefaction of the subsoil). Partial
failure as such is in general regarded as less serious than total failure.
Some failure mechanisms can be accepted to occur repeatedly up to a certain limit
(eg. the displacement of an armour stone). For other mechanisms not even a single
occurrence can be accepted (eg. liquefaction of the subsoil under a breakwater).
54 Effectiveness ofcoastal defence measures

*—*
• • bredkwater face (\fctn eter Meer t988
* - - * böttbra protëcticHi tTïedêkéf 1985}
progressive^oiture1

5j30o mooQ ISPOO 2aaoo

N=number of waves

Figure 134. Evolution of Damage as a Function of Time.

Repeated occurrences of one mechanisms lead to increasing damage (loss of filter

material in the first example given above).
The frequency of repetition determines the evolution of damage. In general, the
damage will not only increase with the loading level (as shown in the j*iven exam-
ple), but also with time. An important question is whether (at a certain constant
loading level) the rate of damage will decrease or increase with time. Increasing
damage rate, as shown by the fictitious line (3) in Fig.1.34, is typical for coastal
structures, which derive an important part of their strength from interlocking and/or
friction and which are exposed to loadings beyond the design value. Examples are
found amongst block revetments and breakwater armour units.
A fault tree is a schematic diagram, which gives an ovierview of possible failure
mechanisms and their mutual relationships. A simplified example of a fault tree
is'given in Fig.1.35. (In fact this is part of the much more extended tree that can
be made for breakwaters and seawalls). In a fault (or failure) tree óf possible
mechanisms a number of subsystems can usually be distinguished (eg. degradation
of crest level due to wave attack or due to settlement, shown in Eig. 1.35.
A major distinction must be made between parallel or series systems. In the re-
port of PIANC Working Group 3 ("Risk considerations for Bank Protections") this
has been treated in detail. Évent trees can be used similarly to failure trees to
schematize the functioning of systems rather than the failure. It should be noted
that mechanisms appearing as parallel elements in a failure tree are series mecha-
nisms in an event tree. For definition of parallel and series systems one is referred-
to the event tree of the system. In the example of failure tree in Fig.1.35, both a
series (left) and a parallel (right) subsystem areshown. In a series system failure
one needs failure óf only one subsystem, where in parallel systems the failure of
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 55

deg©>dation of crest level

d.c.

wave ssttlement sliding of front slope

overtopping s , s . f ..
w .o.
toe scour
1 .sJ
Figure 1.35. Fault Tree.

all parallel subsystems is needed to cause failure of the system. Usual rules of the
theory of probability are applïed accordingly to respective combinations of partial
failure probabilities in series and parallel systems.
In the fault tree analysis, failure has thereby been considered as the result of the
exeeedence of a limit state. In the following geometrical and structural design a
structure and its constituents can be schematized to be mechanical systems. The
input is the loading (either hydraulic or geotechnichnical) and the output is a re-
sponse.

1.5.2 Design Approach

The motivation of a design process is the expected impovement, in terms of con-
struction measures, of the risk-benefit balance compared to the existing circum-
stances. Implications for the design process are that a maximum level of function-
ing of the future structure is required against a minimum cost during the life cycle
of the structure.
In general, two levels of design can be distinguished, viz. geometrical and struc-
tural design. As choices made in the geometrical design may have consequences
for the structural design, an iterative process may result. The two levels are dealt
with in our C h a p t e r 4, separately under "morphological (overall) di-
mensioning" standing for the g e o m e t r i c a l d e s i g n , and "forces, sta-
bility and near-field effects" referring to the s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n .
In the stage of geometrical design, general layout and concept is developed,
aiming at an optimum geometry. This optimisation is made from different points
of view. The most important of these are the functional requirements, expected
loadings, available materials, transportation, future use and management.
In the structural design, the dimensioning of various constituents of the struc-
ture takes place. In the most general sense the objective of the structural design
56 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

is to provide for a detailed technical specification that will enable the construction
with a certain strength/loading ratio. This ratio is the ultimate criterion that follows
from the functional requirements of maintaining a prescribed state of the structure
under the expected loading conditions. This will ultimately imply a strength that
is not exceeded by the lpadings. This implies that the strength variables (Xi...Xm,
see above) assume values at which the strength R exceeds the design loading S to
a prescribed degree.
Using a deterministic approach a design strength {Rd) and load (Sd) are assigned
to the structure. Traditionally, the ratio Rd/Sd is called the safety factor. Using the
distribution function of S one defines the probability of failure as the exeedance
frequency of Sj.
Intermediate or semi-probabilistic methods assign partial safety factors to the most
relevant mechanism, which are fmally combined into an overall safety factor. These
are the simplest probabilistic methods, in fact very close to deterministic methods.
Probabilistic techniques give the designer more objective means to built into the
design a certain degree of safety. The uncertainties in environmental and material
parameters are thereby taken into account.
In a probabilistic approach the moderate loading conditions and the uncertainties
of S and R are also included. At present deterministic and probabilistic methods
are the two basic options to secure (or built into the design) a certain safety for a
structure.

Possibilities to Control the Hydraulic Loading

The primary function of coastal defence measures is to protect the edge of land
and water from hydraulic loading by waves, tides and currents. The determination
of the hydraulic design conditions is the result of a quantification of the local condi-
tions in combination with a certain level of safety. In this way the design conditions
are defined and presented in the form of water level, wave height and wave period,
usually combined with a certain accepted form of the energy density spectrum and
sometimes an estimate for the duration of the selected design condition.
However, the fact that the design conditions are fixed, does not necessarily mean
that the loads on the protected structure are also fixed. Within certain limits, it
is however possible for the designer to infiuence and consequently to choose the
size, the sort and the place of attack of the hydraulic loads, by a proper selection
of construction materials, geometry and configuration.
A good designer will make an optimum use of these possibilities. In the following
some of the different ways to control the loads are briefly illustrated for the case
of flexible revetments (Leeuwestein, 1989):

• By changing the slope steepness the breaker type can be inrluenced (see
Fig.1.16) The value of the breaker parameter

¥
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 57

£ = taW(f) 1/2
is not only decisive for the type of breaker but also for the levels of runup
and rundown. For a given value of the wave steepness H/L0 the value of £
increases with increasing slope steepness. The type of breaker in itself deter-
mines the way a breaking wave exerts loads on a slope and thus on a slope
revetment. This can be with a huge wave impact or, on the opposite, with
large masses of water running up and down the slope. Because the levels
of wave runup and rundown are also influenced by the value of £, the slope
steepness determines the required crest elevation and the level where the
maximum wave impact takes place and the level where other damage mecha-
nisms endager the structure's stability. It is therefore essential to realize that
it is possible to choose the critical damage mechanism by manipulating the
slope steepness.
Especially for rubble slopes, or other types of random placed slope protec-
tions, the influence of the combination of slope steepness and wave steepness
is difficult to establish, because for these types of structures it is the combina-
tion of parallel and perpendicular flow on and in the toplayer that determine
the toplayer stability

• By variation of the toplayer permeability it is possible to focus the hydraulic

loads on certain parts of the revetment structure and to relieve other parts.
So the design can be optimized for the locally available construction materials
and techniques. For example, a less permeable toplayer leads to fairly limited
pressure variations in the sublayers, also during large pressure variations on
the outside of the revetment. Consequently, the internal stability can be
quaranteed easily (but the stability of the toplayer is severely endangered
in this situation by the resulting upward loads on the toplayer from the
filterlayers at the moment of maximum wave rundown).
With a very permeable (=open) toplayer, on the contrary, the hydraulic
gradients over the toplayer will always be small, also under severe wave attack,
but in this situation the loads on the sublayers are large because almost no
damping occurs through the toplayer. In this situation a real hazard also
exists of the erosion of filter material through the toplayer. Accordingly, the
designer should give special attention to the design of filter layers and internal
intefaces. In Chapter 4 the formulae for the calculation of the underlaying
physical processes are presented. It appears that the ratio of the toplayer
and sublayer permeability k/k', determines the value of the leakage factor
A, which determines the pressure difference over the toplayer <j>w and the
internal hydraulic gradients i
• The application of wide graded or fine filter material reduces the filter
' permeability and consequently increases the toplayer stability. However, for
58 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

wide graded filters there is a danger for internal instability (suffosion) when
the fine fraction is eroded from in between the coarse fraction, thus increasing
the permeability of the filter material. In this situation there is also a real
chance for undermining of the toplayer by erosion of (the finer) part of the
filter material
• Application of a very thin granular filter layer underneath the toplayer re-
duces the upward hydraulic gradients over the toplayer and consequently
leads to a reduction of the required weight of the toplayer. However, the
loads on the base material (sand or clay) will increase. This may lead to in-
stability at the interface between base and filter, where the fine base material
may be eroded.

The examples above, that all refer to placed block revetments, are merely presented
to illustrate the fact that no strict procedure can be given for the determination of
the external or internal structure's geometry covering all practical situations. Dur-
ing the process of designing a slope revetment, numerous, more or less subjective,
choices must be made, influenced by considerations about price of construction
materials, locally applicable construction techniques, technical restrictions, func-
tional requirements and personal preferences.

Possibilities to Control the Strength

It seems somewhat illogical, but the possibilities for a designer to manipulate the
strength of a structure are by far more limited than those for manipulating the
loads. On the other hand it should be mentioned that often the change of a con-
struction detail influences both, strength and loads. With respect to the sublayers
the choice of the granular materials should be such that the materials itself and
the internal interfaces are sufficiently stable under design conditions (see Chapter
4 for the design of granular filter layers) and will remain stable ("ageing" of the
material) during the design lifetime of the structure. A geotextile sublayer should
be selected for the purpose it must serve and should be (and stay) sufficiently strong
for the tearing and punching forces during construction and operational use.
For the toplayer in fact only two possibilities exist to increase the strength:
• By increasing the block weight.
• By increasing the capabilities of cooperation between individual blocks in
such a way that perpendicular forces and moments can be taken.
By manipulating the strength in one of these ways the designer should be aware
that improvement of only the strength of a toplayer without taking the rest of the
structure into consideration will usually solve only a half of the problem; another
part will now be the weakest.
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 59

Figure 1.36. Distribution Functions and Probability of Failure.

Deterministic approach
Both loadings (S) and strength (R) are stochastic quantities, characterized by their
respective statistical distributions. In general, R and S are functions of one or
more basic parameters regarding to environmental or material characteristics (eg.
wave height, stone diameter, material density etc). Often these parameters are
also stochastic. In the design, a deterministic approach is traditionally chosen, to
provide a certain safety margin between the loads and strength. This implies that a
limit state condition (ULS or SLS) is chosen with respect to the accepted loading
of the structure. This limit state usually corresponds to a certain characteristic
value of the strength. Exceedance of this limit state condition (which is usually
called failure) is not accepted, except for a certain probability (PF). This probabil-
ity is usually based upon considerations of safety and economy. From a statistical
analysis, the design loading (eg. wave height), which corresponds to the accepted
probability Pp must be found.
In practice, the (small) value of Pp is usually expressed as an (average) probability
per year that the structure fails. Often the somewhat confusing, reciprocal value
of the latter is used: the (average) return period (TR = Ij Pp). This is interpreted
as the average time between two occurrences of the design loading (wave height).
Because of this assumption (no damage for S < SD) the deterministic approach
has an important limitation: no account is taken of the fact that loading below the
design value contributes to the development of damage. This is a serious short-
coming when future damage must be estimated and quantified for maintenance
assessment.
The probability density functions of S and R usually have a shape comparable to
the examples shown in Fig.1.36, which can be characterized by a maximum, cor-
60 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

responding to the "average" values S and for R and a declination with increasing
horizontal distance from the "average" values. By chosing a characteristic strenght
value (Rc) and a design load (SD) so that Re exceeds SD sufficiently, the resulting
failure probability, P(S > R), is kept low. Therefore a safety factor T(T > 1) can
be defined as:
T = RC/SD (1. 25)
Through the choice of T thus a certain safety margin is maintained. In fact the
stochastic character of the strength and loading variables is only accounted for very
roughly. The choice of T is largely based upon experience gained from existing
structures. In particular when several partial safety factors are applied, a conser-
vative design might be obtained. General standards for the choice of T are not
available at present and are often adjusted in a rather subjectïve way. However,
values recommended in standards apply to the use of specific materials in indus-
try and civil engineering. In a quasi-probabilistic approach T is composed from
a number of partial safety factors T (eg. for wave height, material strength, fric-
tion factor, etc). Probabilistic methods are also used to find a rational basis for
the partial safety factors. The report of PIANC WG 12 provides more extensive
information.
Statistical data with respect to R and S can be used fo find their respective proba-
bility density functions (ƒ«, ƒ,) and distribution functions (FR,Fs) . Subsequently,
Pp can be found as the probability P{R < S}. Probability distribution and - density
functions of any parameter x are related through:

Fx = f fxdx' (1. 26)

J~ oo

The quantity P{R < S}, is found by (doublé) integration of the joint distribution.
Using Fs, however, P{R < S} can be shown to follow from single integration of
the product of 1 - Fs and fR:
o
/• o
P{R <S}= {1 - F,(x')} • fR(x')dx' (1. 27)
Jo
This probability is illustrated by the shaded area in Fig.1.36, where the density
functions of S and R are also shown. When stability of rock armour is considered,
for instance, S and R can read as wave height and stone weight, respectively.

Probabilistic approach
Better implementation of stochastic characteristics of design variables has been
postulated above. Analysis of the behaviour of structures under influence of
stochastic loading, both in prototype and laboratory, has shown that the simplified
failure concept, disregarding any effect on the structure of loadings below the
design level, can be improved. This improvement has led to the use of probabilistic
methods. The efforts of a probabilistic approach will be payed back in saving cost.
 Ch. 1: Coastal defence and design background 61

Additionally, an improved appreciation of the stochasic elements in both loadings

and strength also offers means to assess the expected damage during the lifetime
of a structure.
In summary, the major advantages of the probabilistic approach compared with
the traditional deterministic approach are:
• better appreciation of strength and loading statistics;
• prevention of unnecessary conservatism, leading to cost saving;
• provision of means for maintenance assessment and management data.
To a certain degree, the probabilistic methods are logical extension of the tradi-
tional method. Hereby a safety margin is obtained implicitly by taking into account
all the uncertainties of the loading and strength variables. By accepting a certain
probability of failure the designer adjust the safety margin in a rational process.
By international conventions, probabilistic methods can be distinguished on 3 lev-
els. These are listed here in the order of decreasing complexity:
Level III : these methods take account of the real probability distributions of the
strength and loading variables
Level II : these methods use schematised distribution functions for the strength
and loading variables;
Level I : these are in fact quasi-probabilistic methods that use partial safety factors
for the various variables.
The deterministic method that uses one safety factor T between characteristic
strength and loading is in this order often indicated as a level-zero probabilistic
method.
Cost analysis of defence measures embodies the following elements
• primary construction cost, including materials;
• cost of financing (interest);
• cost of management (maintenance, repair).
Loading and strength form the basic factors that determine the behaviour of the
structure during its life cycle. As a result, the total capitalised cost, including
management (maintenance and repair) can, to a certain degree, be controled
during the design through the strength/loading ratio. Also, the degree to which
the functional requirements are met and the total capitalized risk level are largely
determined by the strength/loading ratio. In general, account should be taken of
the possibility that the strength of a structure changes (decreases) with time (wear,
abra'sion).
62 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

. COSTS DURING STRUCTURAL

f LIFETIME EST I MAT E D TOTAL COSTS

ESTIMATED CAPITAL
INVESTMENTS

ESTIMATED CAPITALIZED
MAINTENANCE AND
REPAIR .

>• - RELATIVE STRENGTH

OF BREAKWATER

Figure 1.37. Cost Optimization.

Probabilities of failure provide an important link to the economy of design. In the

design stage a fundamental choice can be made with respect to the choice of capital
investment and reservations for maintenance and repair. Other considerations,
for example those related to construction, might be included here as well. The
strength/loading ratio adjusted during the design stage is the controling factor for
both investment costs (Cj), risk (or cost of ensurance, CR), and the cost of future
management (CM)- CI is a function of the design load, or the accepted probability
of failure (pj). CM includes maintenance, repair and rehabilitation. The formulae
for these costs, in terms of present or constant capitalised cost over N years, can
be written as follows:

C^CföR)
In this equation R represents the real interest rate and Cm are the expected yearly
costs of management (expenditures on repair and maintenance). These costs are
determined by the expected damage (eg. volume of displaced stones, for given R
and S) and by the cost of materials (eg. stones), labour and equipment. The total
costs over the lifetime of N years, which is a function of R and S, can then be
written as:

C = CI + CR + CM1 (1. 28)

In Fig.1.37 an example is given of an optimisation curve for the design of a break-
water with four optional values for the outer slope.
As already mentioned, in this document we will n o t discuss cost aspects, so that
hereafter we confine ourselves to an introductory discussion presented by Rietveld
and Burcharth (1987).
The final design should represent a cost minimum in Fig.1.37. Capital investments
can be calculated rather accurately whereas maintenance and repair costs are much
more difficult to estimate.
 Ch.1: Coastal defence and design background 63

r VERTICAL WALL TYPE

/-CONVENTIONAL ARMOURED
f RUBBLE MOUND TYPE
-BERM TYPE (SACRIFICIAL)
RUBBLE MOUND

- • SEA STATE

Figure 1.38. Illustration of Coparative Damage Sensitivity of Various Types of Structures, Rietveld
& Burcharth (1987).

If we design for condition A we might find ourselves in B if the maintenance and

repair costs are underestimated. A flat curve for maintenance and repair costs will
restrict the economie risk.
For a quantification of the principles outlined above a stochastic model should
preferably be used (e.g. Nielsen and Burchart, 1983).
Due to limitations of knowledge regarding wave climate and structural response
there is always a chance of damage or failure. The cliënt responsible for the main-
tenance of the structure should have a "user's guide" which will inform him about
the vital parts of the structure and the maximum allowable damage done to these
parts. He should also be told at what external conditions certain effects might be
expected. Regular surveying and special surveys after extreme conditions should
be prescribed ("survey to survive").
The basis for such a user's guide is the knowledge about the residual strength (re-
sistance) of the breakwater under various levels of damage, such as displacements
and breakage of armour units, sea bed scour, deterioration of rock and concrete
materials, displacements of superstructures etc.
This knowledge can be provided by much more extensive model test programs than
generally used today because such programs involve many stages of partial failures
and also involve material aspects. In principle respective diagrams should be pro-
duced. The obvious possibility of co-existence of several damage modes makes it
necessary also to produce at least some characteristic diagrams and tables for the
evaluation of joint partial damages.
The damage evaluations of course depend very much on the type of a coastal
structure. At least three types of structures can be identified due to significant
differences in sensitivity to exceedence loads, Fig.1.38.
CHAPTER2

Far-field (morphological) effects

2.1 GENERAL
This report has been intended as a general study on the effectiveness of coastal de-
fence and management measures. This chapter deals with macroscopic, far-field
effects, while Chapter 3 contains a review of near-field aspects, such as scour,
stability and durability of coastal structures, along with possible failures. Both
chapters are aimed at providing a background on coastal processes intervening in
various protected zones so as to yield guidelines on selection and design of coastal
schemes and enable the planner and designer to select their primary options for
coastal management and defence. The material is based on a fairly broad spec-
trum of bibliographical entries discussing cross-shore and shore-parallel structures;
beach nourishment; headland control; and low-cost, environment-friendly, emer-
gency and temporary measures.
The fmdings on the far-field behaviour of different structures and measures in
the coastal environment are presented in this chapter in the above order, together
with description of the operation of various coastal schemes combining features of
different protection measures. Together with conclusions on durability and stability
of structures and other near-field effects in Chapter 3, these fmdings are harnessed
in this report to serve the aforementioned purpose of guiding planners, designers,
and engineers in their coastal projects.

2.2 CROSS-SHORE STRUCTURES (Groynes)

A variety of cross-shore structures, arranged normally to shoreline, are encoun-

tered in coastal engineering. They include jetties,breakwaters, causeways, piers,
groynes etc. In view of the objective of this study, only the structures deemed for
most immediate coastal protection, i.e. groynes, will be discussed, as typical and
most common representatives of cross-shore structures.
Since quite recently it has been widely accepted that after a sufficiently long time the
shore and beach topographies around single groynes and system groynes, positioned

65
66 Effecüveness ofcoastat defence rneasures

Breaking line

Q) YT Originat shore line

b)
Net longshore transport
*mm®^ Resulting shore line

Original shore line

Shore iine after Resulting shore line

beach till after groin construction

Figure 2.1. Effect of Cross-shore Structures: Single Groyne (a) and System of Groynes (b), Sorensen
(1978).

normally to the mean shoreline, look like those depicted in Fig.2.1 (Sorensen,
1978). However, the recent studies on beaches protected with groynes, cf. Tom-
linson (1980), Summers (1983) and United Nations Report (1982) have brought to
our attention that the use of groynes has been successful only in some cases while
in many other it caused either minor changes, with an insignificant slowdown of
erosion, or even detrimental effects. These observations indicate that groynes may
react with beaches in different ways and also that our knowledge of the relevant
coastal phenomena is limited.
Groynes are usually constructed at normal or small angles to mean shoreline. Some
examples on Polish coastline are illustrated in Fig.2.2. Their primary function is to
protect natural and man-made beaches and stabilize shores that are subjected to
severe storms or seasonal transformations. They can also be used to create new and
enlarge the existing beaches, recreational or defence-oriented. The Soviet coastal
engineering practice makes distinction between sand-trapping and beach-preserving
groynes (Khomitskiy, 1983).
Beach supply due to groynes originates from entrapment of the longshore transport
and limitation of the sediment transport out of the protected area. This process is
enhanced by division of the protected area into smaller segments (often nourished
artificially) and by local altering the direction of the shoreline into normal to the
prevailing waves. Groynes can also serve as preventive means against sand accre-
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 67

Figure 2.2. Three Polish Coastline Areas with Groyne Systems.

68 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

tion on their lee side, if the latter proves an undesirable effect in some locatïons.
A variety of groyne systems is noted. Groynes can be implemented as permeable
or impervious, short or long, high or low, with constant or variable height (Fig.2.3).
Single groynes or groups of groynes can be made from different materials, such as
timber, stone, steel and concrete.
Groynes are widely used in the coastal environments with prevailing longshore
sediment t r a n s p o r t . They redistribute wave and current patterns, but their basic
function is to slow down the rate of littoral drift. Groynes are of no value with-
out a n a d e q u a t e supply of b e a c h m a t e r i a l and create material deficiency on
their downdrift side. They are also used extensively to control the distribution of
material along a frontage and to limit the temporary effects of drift reversal.
Suitability of groynes has been questioned on a number of occasions, and therc
remains a significant diversity of opinion on the subject. There are, however, very
many examples where the success of groyne systems is not in doubt, and it is the
authors' opinion that - if properly used - <*rovne systems remain a valuable tooi for
beach management.
Hence groynes are one of the most controversial coastal defence measures. In
many instances they are successful but equally well they might be situations with
detrimental environmental effects. These effects are due to local conditions of
the coastal environment, design characteristics of sediment transport, and general
variability of many factors.
The performance of groynes on a cobble or shingle beach is reasonably well es-
tablished, but as the grading of the beach material becomes finer, adverse effects
of wave-generated currents in causing scour within the groyne bays increase. The
sutability of groynes on a flat sandy beach with a large tidal range is certainly open
to question.
The operation of groynes under normal wave attack has not been explored suffi-
ciently. The measured data indicate that circulation cells are generated in bays
between groynes, whereas water flow along the structures gives rise to intensive
scouring in the very proximity of groynes. The active length of a groyne increases
with growing angle of wave incidence. The gaps between groynes in a coastal de-
fence scheme should be closely related to this length. The efficiency of groynes
depends on their length, i.e. their penetration into the surf zone. During se-
vere storms, groynes can operate as relatively short structures for which erosion at
groyne heads and scouring on the updrift side is commonly observed, while dur-
ing periods of relatively calm weather the structures become long, and stimulate
accretion and widening of beach.
The bed transformation at the stnicture depends on sand properties; this problem
has not been explored to a sufficiënt degree. Some authors indicate that in the case
of fine sediments, which are moved mostly as suspended load, erosion occurs on the
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) ejfects 69

a)

sw sw

b)
fSZZS&VXxZZ Z&K?V?m>&

/ c]

V -.-21

y^wï^x&cfrï&ixsfó?^ '&&/<">: ^K^^/f/Ss»-^^

d)

£KaaKifrftK^<^^

Figure 2.3. Types and Shapes of Groynes.

70 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

updrift side of a structure together with accretion on the downdrift side. Opposite
effects are encountered for coarse sediment transported mostly as bedload.
Efficiency of groynes depends on the degree of their permeability. Permeable
groyne or submerged groynes will entrap less sediments then impermeable high
groynes. Moreover, durmg periode of storm surges, berms and beach foot will be
subjected to more severe erosion due to wave reflection from an inclined beach.
The effect of groyne permeability on the processes of sediment transport and evo-
lution remains undetermined. Some investigators ascertain that for the clearance
of 37% the longshore sediment transport is reduced by about 50% (Kolp and Otto,
1971), while some others prove that groyne permeability has no practical impact
on the sediment transport rate.
It should be remembered that a local coastal defence scheme can have negative
impact on the neighbouring coastal segments because of falling sediment supply
and the growth of erosion pockets.
Groynes are usually applied if the long-shore sediment transport predorninates.
One must be aware of the erosion on the down-drift side of a group of groynes.
Such erosion may require additional artificial beach nourishment at places particu-
larly vulnerable to damage. Dramatic examples are provided by the GDR coastline
where lee erosion was remedied temporarily by construction of additional groynes,
those being later supplemented by next groups, etc. The final effect consists in
"armouring" of the coast without visible improvement in view of permanent deficit
of sediment (Khomitskiy, 1983).
Accretion can be encountered on the up-drift side of a groyne system. The tempo-
ral changes include variation of geometrie characteristics of groynes, their relative
length in the surf zone etc.
Field observations of Dutch groynes provide the following summary given by
Rakhorst (1984)

• Erosion prevails over accretion on average coastline protected with groynes

• Erosion of shoreline after construction of groynes slows down from maximum

6...16 m/year (prior to construction) to 0...6 m/year (protected coast). It is
noted that the erosion process is not arrested entirely

• Erosion intensifies at extremites of groyne systems

• The use of groyne system leaves uncertainties as to whether and how the
groynes affect positively the coastline to be protected, as the protection effects
depend heavily on proper dimensioning of groyne system.

Bakker et al (1984) stipulate that in the case of a groyne system in tidal seas
the first check point should be an evaluation of the risk of washing out of piles
by shoreward motion of tidal channels. One might face situations that even the
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 71

maximum practical pile length will not be enough to guarantee constructional

stability. Hence it is so important to consider near-field effects, on which we
embark in Chapter 3.
From an extensive and comprehensive review of the interaction of groynes and
the coastal zone it can be seen easily that the opinions on the performance and
effective configurations of groynes and groyne systems are divided. This can be
exemplified by the tabular excerpts from different sources presented in Appendix
2-1. Nevertheless, despite all controversies we have to endeavour some conclusions.
The recommended parameters of geometrical design of groynes are given in Section
4.1 while the following items shed light on the general performance.
Hence the following concluding r e m a r k s can be ventured for groynes
• for coastal environments with prevailing long-shore sediment transport, the
protective structures used most often are cross-shore structures called groynes

• the operation of groynes under normal wave attack is known insufficiently.

The measured data indicates that circulation cells are generated in bays be-
tween groynes, whereas water flow along the structures gives rise to intensive
scouring in

• the active length of a groyne increases with growing angle of wave incidence.
The spacing of groynes in a coastal defence scheme should be closely related
to this length

• the efficiency of groynes depends on their length, i.e. their penetration into
the surf zone. During severe storms groynes can operate as relatively short
structures for which erosion at groyne heads and scouring on the updrift side
is commonly observed, while during periods of relatively calm weather the
structures become long and enforce accretion and

• the bed transformation at the structure depends on sand properties. This

problem has not been explored to a sufficiënt degree. Some authors indicate
that in the case of fine sediments which are moved mostly as suspended load
erosion occurs on the updrift side of a structure together with accretion on
the downdrift side. Opposite effects are encountered for coarse sediment
transported mostly as bedload.

• efficiency of groynes depends on the degree of their permeability. Permeable

groynes or submerged groynes will entrap less sediments than impermeable
high groynes. Moreover, during periods of storm surges berms and beach
foot will be subjected to more severe erosion due to wave reflection from an
inclined beach

• the effect of groyne permeability on the processes of sediment transport

' and evolution is not defined in a final and unique way. Some investigators
72 Effectiveness ofcoastal defence measures

Figure 2.4. Bed Changes at a Single Groyne of Varying Length, due to Oblique Waves, Tarnowska
(1985).

ascertain that for the clearance of 37% the longshore sediment transport is
reduced by about 50% (Kolp and Otto 1971), while some others prove that
groyne permeability has no practical impact on the sediment transport rate
• it should be remembered that a local coastal defence scheme can have
negative impact on the neighbouring coastal segments because of falling
sediment supply and the growth of erosion pockets.

Adequate parameters of geometrical dimensioning, or design with regard to the

far-field (morphological) effects, are recommended in Section 4.1.
Mathematical modelling of cross-shore structures is discussed in Section 2.7. As
an introduction, it can be said that in modelling coastal processes at groynes one
may successfully apply the one-line theory, which despite its simplicity reproduces
quite well the prototype conditions. The degree of complexity inherent in n-line
models is overly high for sophisticated boundary conditions. Depending on specific
coastal conditions and practical necessities one may recommend the refined model
derived by Le Mehaute and Soldate (1980), together with a complex system of
computational procedures GENESIS presented by Hanson (1987).
Movable-bed wave tanks can prove helpful in elucidating the shore transformation
phenomena. Fig.2.4 shows examples of bed transformation measured in IBW PAN
laboratory.
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 73

Figure 2.5. Jetties and Regenerated Beach at Los Urutias - Murcia (Spain).
74 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Other cross-shore structures, such as the jetties shown in Fig.2.5, can also be suc-
cessful in maintaining sand on the updrift side, and provide very spectacular results
if combined with artificial beach nourishment.
An overview of the existing groyne practices is given in Appendix 2.1.

2.3 OFFSHORE BREAKWATERS

2.3.1 General
Offshore b r e a k w a t e r s , sometimes referred to as detached breakwaters, are shore-
parallel coastal structures sited at a certain distance away from shoreline. They
are preferred to other options if the cross-shore sediment transport mode prevails.
Their primary destination is to dissipate wave energy and redistribute wave and
current patterns so as to protect or even nourish the protected beach. Some other
uses (sheltering harbours and preventing siltation in port access ways etc) are not
dealt with in this report.
Distinction must be made between low and high, i.e. s u b m e r g e d and emerging
breakwaters. Sometimes it is assumed that the former have a height hB of less
than 40% of the water depth h or the relative submersion (h — hB)jh,s > 0.5.
The former are often referred to as reef b r e a k w a t e r s , sometimes sills, while the
other are common barriers protruding above still water level.
The functioning of offshore breakwaters depends on their geometrical proportions
and local environmental conditions.
Low breakwaters ( s u b m e r g e d or reef-type) have a very little effect on wave prop-
agation, but can generally cause transformations of waves and currents. They
produce strong nonlinear interactions between waves and mass movements. For
instance, at the base of the coast-side sloping face of these obstacles, when the
slope is about 1:1, an almost exclusively shoreward velocity has been observed,
Cortemiglia et al.(1986). This seems to be the chief cause of erosion arising on
the coast side of breakwaters, removing as it does the sediments from the obstacle.
At the same time, there is an area near the bottom where sediments move only
towards the coast, while they return towards the sea only if carried in suspension.
For rather heavy particles the effect of this is a sand-trap, since the material passes
in one direction but cannot return. Less heavy particles only show a tendency to
move towards the coast, as their concentration is greater near the bottom.
High obstacles (emerging breakwaters) also produce a significant attenuation of
the wave that generally breaks on them. The effect on the beach derives partly
from attenuation of the wave, but partly certainly from the presence of this im-
passable barrier for particles moving on the bottom.
Offshore breakwaters are often constructed as rubble-mound breakwaters of trape-
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 75

zoidal cross-section, having different slope angles on the seaward and shoreward
sides.
The slope angle of a breakwater depends on the forces exerted by the waves. Un-
der breaking waves on the seaward side a mound is subjected to impact forces.
Steep walls bring about rise in reflection-caused velocities and eddies at the foot
of the structure, this in turn causing local scour and settlement of the structure.
Flat slopes give rise to energy dissipation on a longer section of structure.

2.3.2 Morphological Interaction of Coast and Breakwaters

Emerging breakwaters
In coastal engineering those structures are in most common use to:
• shelter harbours against waves

• prevent port access ways from silting

• protect beach against erosion

• nourish beaches.
The two latter aspects i.e. coastal defence with detached breakwaters will be dis-
cussed below.
The bulk of data on the performance of offshore breakwaters is still inconclu-
sive. The site-specific nature of every project and the large number of parameters
involved, as well as the fact that this is still a developing design area, makes stan-
dardised solutions inappropriate.
Detached breakwaters dissipate the energy of incoming waves by damping, reflect
waves on their seaward slopes and create shadow areas in which wave diffrac-
tion is most pronounced. Due to the diffraction and associated with them local
changes in wave - current fields arround the structure, the littoral sediment trans-
port is modifled, which results in sand entrapment and accretion on the shadow
area. Characteristic spits or salients, are generated (Fig.2.6). Under favourable
conditions these forms can join the structure to create a tombolo (Fig.2.7). On
the seaward side of the structure the wave refiection, together with eddies about
the structure extremities can bring about scouring and the degradation of beach
profile.
An empirical attempt to determine the relationships between beach response and
geometrie parameters of offshore breakwaters has been undertaken by Pope and
Dean (1986). The following five beach forms were distinguished:
• permanent or temporary tombolo

• pronounced salient
76 Effectiveness ofcoastal defence measures

• weak salient

• no sinusoity.

The analysis was based on many field observations and measurements on eight
protected coastlines in the USA. The geometry of offshore breakwaters has been
characterized by dimensionless parameters ^ (the ratio of breakwater length to
gap width, whïch characterizes the capacity of the system to absorb wave energy),
and ¥& (ratio of distance from shoreline water depth, which reflects the response
of the system, wave diffraction and shoaling), cf. Fig.2.8. It was assumed that well
pronounced beach forms are generated if a small amount of energy is transported
towards shore line, while the absence of sinusoities is characteristic for consider-
able wave energy reaching shore line. The demarkation lines shown in Fig.2.9 as
functions of ^ and p - can provide guidelines for designers in siting of structure.
One must stress that the protection systems monitored were located in regions of
moderate waves.
Although offshore breakwaters have many merits in the area of morphological ef-
fects, such as favourable controllable accretional patterns, Cortemiglia et al.(1981)
rightly pinpoint that some negative features are also apparent, viz.

• onset of erosion in unprotected adjacent areas, due to the trap-effect caused

by the area of calm water behind the breakwater

• onset of degradation in the quality of the sand and water in the closed
area near the entrance when the tombolo reaches the breakwater. This
degradation is accentuated by the concentration in a small area of too many
bathers in summer

• rapid sinking into the sea bottom of the breakwaves, requiring maintance
work;

• degradation of the aesthetic aspect of the beach;

• erosion and creation of rip currents in the gaps between breakwaters. These
may be very strong when the barriers are overtopped by the waves, and very
dangerous for inexperienced swimmers.

Hence coastal defence with detached breakwaters has its advantages and disad-
vantages. The former include i.a. preservation of continuous longshore sediment
transport while among the latter one may list relatively high investment costs, par-
ticularly due to special equipment for underwater works. Coastal engineers have
shown a lot of interest in detached breakwater for the two recent decades, but still
the insufficiënt experience gained so for might bring about a risk of erroneous de-
sign while the low number of projects in operation substantiates limited confidence
in this type of structures.
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 77

^ * ï J:•> * I?*^fcï_t jfcij < T \ *>*.?

Figure 2.6. Regeneration of Rihuette Beach - Murcia (Spain); Three detached breakwaters 90, 85 and
80 m long plus 180,000 m3 ofsand supplied to form the beach.

Figure 2.7. Castell de Ferro Beach - Granada (Spain); Three detached breakwaters, each 80 m long
connected by two submerged breakwaters, 150 m each, plus 130,000 m3 ofsand and gravel supply.
78 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

8 RESULTING SALIENT (SPIT)

/?f
UPORIFT EROSION * -DOWNDRIFT EROSION
RIGINAL SHORELINE

&<&
**%&

-GAP —-f-BREAKWATER-f- Gg H

0 %
RESULT1NG SALIEN
• T iSPIT)
/£• >v^ TOMBOLO

p: , 2* ^ - ^^——yfir
^ ":-V

-ORIGINAL SHORELINE

Figure 2.8. Effect of Shore-Parallel Structures: Single Detached Breakwater (a) and Segmented
Detached Breakwater (b), Daily and Dean (1986).

Y
B 80
h •7
B 70

60

50

40

30
x & -./
20 • -3H ' „ / .5 *S>
10
. . _ . . __1 1

0 0.5 1J0 15 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 GQ_

I-B

Figure 2.9. Effect of Breakwater Layout on Coastal Features, Pope and Dean (1986).
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 79

Coastal transformations in the presence of a detached breakwater are affected by

wave diffraction. The latter in turn is controlled by the wave length, height and
angle of incidence, and additionally by the relative spacing of segmented breakwa-
ters. Some other parameters involved are the local variation of sea level, slope of
shore profile, supply and gradation of sediments.
For segmented breakwaters, an essential role is played by the distribution of wave
height in the sheltered area for it afFects the relative spacing of the segments. In
computation of the diffraction effects Daily and Pope (1986) recommend simple
graphs (SPM, 1984).
The type of bed processes seawards of a structure will depend on the existence
of breakers (of. Onoszko et al 1980). If an unbroken wave reaches a structure it
may be subjected to total or partial reflection, and wave interference is typical for
the area seaward of the structure. The size and character of this area depends on
whether waves are incoming normally or at angle to the structure.
One notes two detrimental effects of wave reflection from structures. They are
bed scouring during storms, which is associated with settling of various revetments
and rubble mound and the phenomenon of bed liquefaction which can bring about
displacement of weak soil by a heavy structures. Breakwaters are practically seated
on various depths which means different position with regard to the breaking of
the energy containing wave components.
The angle of wave incidence controls both beach equilibrium and the intensity of
accretion. Oblique waves give rise to littoral drift which can dominate local circu-
lation cells generated by a breakwater and also reduces the accretion behind the
structure. The intensity of accretion in the sheltered area is controlled not only
by the prevailing angle of wave incidence but also by the type of the directional
spectrum. If the latter is wide then longer structures are required to reduce the
effect of oblique waves.
The equilibrium of tombolos and salients depends on the magnitude of littoral
drift and length of structure. If accretion is promoted on the up-drift side then
asymmetry of the system is stronger and the accretional form is displaced in the
downdrift direction. On the other hand, weak supply of sediment brings about an
analogous displacement in the updrift direction.
The operation of shore-parallel structure is also controlled by the variation of sea
level. If the latter has amplitudes above 1.5 m then accretion forms of the tombolo
type are not continuous features.
The initial bed slope plays a significant role in the selection of the distance of the
structure from shoreline.
Generation of tombolo depends on the ratio of the breakwater length to the dis-
tance from shoreline. Different criteria are given; Daily and Pope (1986) assume
that this ratio is about 1.5.
80 Ejfectiveness of coastal defence measures
f =30*
\

Y=45°
\

Figure 2.10. Bed Topography at Offshore Breakwater for Relative Distances -^- and Wave Incidence
•* b

Angles <j>, Tarnowska et al. (1987).

Existence of stabilized coastal forms depends on sufficiënt sediment supply. For a

weak supply accretional forms develop very slowly without reaching the equilibrium
(Daily and Pope, 1986). Artificial beach nourishment should be used in such cases.
Large-scale tests in a movable-bed wave tank conducted for a few years at IBW
PAN have shed light on the quality of the processes occurring about single detached
breakwaters (Tarnowska, 1989). Fig.2.10 provides examples. The shore transfor-
mation has been clearly differrent for the two cases: YB < Yb (breakwater insïde
surf zone) and YB > Yb (breakwater seawards of breaking line. In the former case
one observed a very intensive erosion at the updrift extremity of the structure and
minor erosion on the downdrift side. The sediment was transported away from the
zone of wave interference on the seaward side of the structure, and settled in the
shadow, where a salient grew. In the case of YB = Yb strong erosion was repeated
in front of the structure, together with asymmetrie salient (depending on angle of
wave incidence), while for YB > Yb thr phenomena were much weaker or did not
appear at all.
Single and segmented detached breakwater are practiced in coastal engineering.
The former, having various lengths are primarily designated to protect local shore-
line while the latter stretch along sections of coastline. Equal lengths of the break-
waters and gaps between them are common practice.
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 81

Detached breakwaters are placed on various depths (Toyoshima, 1974) and there-
fore assume various positions with regard to wave breaking.

Submerged breakwaters
These structures are intended to attenuate waves, primarily through selective break-
ing of the (highest) waves, and promoting sand accretion in the sheltered area.
Submerged breakwaters are used in coastal zones with prevailing on-offshore mode
of sediment transport and insignificant tidal ranges. Water exchange behind sub-
merged breakwaters is better than that for detached breakwaters.
Submerged breakwaters can be constructed in the form of long continuous struc-
tures without gaps. The latter give rise to rip currents, bed irregularities and
tombolos. The advantages include preservation of environment and relatively low
capital investments. Both detached and submerged breakwaters suffer from con-
siderable settling due to scouring at the foot, vibrations and sediment transport
under the foot.
Submerged breakwaters, similarly to emerging ones, are intended for prevention
of beach erosion. This function is accomplished through entrapment of suspended
sediment travelling off shore with the return flow and overtopping the breakwater
in the onshore phase of wave motion. One way or another, a submerged breakwa-
ter dissipates wave energy and prevents more intensive bed movement.
Aminti et al. (1983) claim that, in certain respects, submerged breakwaters are bet-
ter than emerging breakwaters. The advantages of submerged breakwaters include
the following features:

• they exert a selective action on the waves, stronger on the largest ones, thus
assuring better water exchange during normal wave condition

• they may be forseen as long continuous structures, thus avoiding gaps and
drawbacks connected with them

• they do not spoil the aesthetic aspect of the beach

• they may result more economical than emerging structures.

A comparison between continuous and discontinuous submerged barriers in

terms of average agitation behind them (Cortemiglia et al.,1981) is made for
barriers of the same volume at 2.5 m depth; the emerging barrier is 3 m high
and has openings along 30 % of its length. Instead, the submerged barrier is 1.5 m
high, the slope of the rubble mounds is 2/3 in both cases, and the width of the tops
is 2.5 m and 7.1 m respectively. Comparison is extended to the case in which water
depth becomes, for example, 3 m because of the tide.
The highest waves, breaking at a 2.5 (3.0) m water depth and being 2.0 (2.4) m
high there, cause a mean wave agitation of 1.28 (1.58) m behind the emerging
82 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

banier and 0.92 (1.34) m behind the submerged one. For lower waves the
submerged barrier is much more permeable, and thus does not need openings
for the necrssary continuous exchange of water to and from the internal area.
Barrier continuity prevents the formation of tombolos and other hindrances to the
longshore current.
The results shown in the literature, with graphs and formulae, give fairly reliable
information as regards design, but in most cases they only deal with effects con-
nected with wave motion: transmission, reflection and breaking.

2.3.3 Some Details; Studies and Predictions

Detached breakwaters can be constructed as inclined wall structures made of rub-
ble or as vertical wall structures, mostly on steel sheet piling or piles. The rubble
structures are primarily designed for considerable depths with strong waves. The
vertical-wall breakwaters usually apply for areas with relatively weak such as Great
Lakes, gulfs etc. (cf. S.P.M. 1977).
Because of a relatively small bulk of data available for the operation of detached
breakwaters, the prototype observations in USA, Israël and Japan will be utilized
in this report.

Emerging Breakwaters
The first detached breakwaters in Israël were constructed at the turn of the six-
tees (Nir, 1982). The breakwaters were usually sited two hundred meters from
the original shoreline, on depths from 3 to 4 m on bare rock. The selection of a
site was dictated by economie factors, mostly foundation. The lengths of break-
water segments were equal to the distance from shoreline. Accretion forms of the
tombolo type were generated between the structures and the shoreline. Majority
of these forms reached their final shape after one or two years, while in next three
years one saw the mature form. The area of the tombolo was 40% to 50% of the
rectangular side behind the structure. Upon the maturity only seasonal changes
were observed, i.e. growth in the summer and weakening of the form in the winter.
Interesting observations were done after two years from completion of the struc-
ture. The amount of the accumulated sand decreased clearly during that time
which was attributed to a weaker supply from the neighbouring regions.
It was also observed that there was a relationship between the length LB of a struc-
ture and its distance from shoreline. This is usually expressed by the ratio YB/LB.
The higher the ratio YB/LB the lower the amount of sand accumulated behind a
structure. Accretion is very small or does not occur at all if the ratio YB/LB is
equal to or greater than 2 (Fig.2.11). This critical value is slightly smaller than that
given by Imman and Frautschy (1966) who proposed 3 to 6, basing on their studies
in California. The Israëli structures have not that high figures of YB/LB.
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 83
H 2.001-
Tel Aviv I
tahariyya
Carmel
Tel Baru^HN^ Netanya(north)

0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 250

^L B
Distance from oiginol shoreline/Length of breakwater

Figure 2.11. Sediment Quantity Entrapped Behind Breakwater as Function of j ^ - , Nir (1982).

Nir (1982) indicates that the ratio YB/LB also determines the thickness of the sand
layer accumulated in the tombolo. This relationship can be given by the following
equation

d* = 1.786 - 0.809- (2.1)

in which:
dt = mean thickness of sand layer
YB = distance of breakwater trom shoreline
LB = length of breakwater
Nir has also assessed the quantities of sand accumulated most early in the dry part
of the accretional form. These quantities are given by the Hall formula:
d-c(2a + b)
(2.2)

in which
la = length of the section along which tombolo is connected to the
structure
b = half of tombolo base menasured along shoreline
c = distance of tombolo apex from shoreline
d = depth of water measured at tombolo apex.
84 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Nir sugests that similar quantities of sand were accumulated under water.
The first experimental detached breakwater were built in Japan in 1966 (Toyoshima,
1982). The success of this project gave rise to a system of detached breakwaters
proposed to protect Kaiko coast. The first breakwater having length of 150 m was
eonstructed thereon a depthof about 5 m * d i s t a n e e of ll&m from shoreline. The
structure was implemented trom rubble mound and tetrapodes. The breakwater
has proved very effective. The thickness of the sand accumulated about the apex
of the salient was about 4 m, versus about 2 m at the shoreline in front of the
sea wall. Again, the sucess of this project stimulated the construction of ten other
breakwaters spaced equally every 50 m. As a result, sand was accumulated not
only on the lesside of the structures but also seawards of the breakwaters, thus de-
creasing the bed slope and smoothing out the isobaths. The latter tendency could
not have been explained.
Rosen and Vajda (1982) summarised their own and other data to produce Fig.2.12
and Fig.2.13.
Relatively little experience has been gained in the USA for the operation of seg-
mented detached breakwaters. Single detached breakwaters have been in use
since long both as submerged breakwaters localized close to shoreline and high
structures emerging above still water level, siruated in deep water, and connected
to other structures.
The detached breakwaters in use in the United States are straight structures, shore
parallel, mostly in the form of rubble mound. The design lengths reach 600 m, and
the distances from shoreline vary from 46 m to 600 m. The top of a structure varies
from + 0.4 m to + 5.5 m above mean water level. These structures are founded on
depth from 0.3 m to 7.6 m. Daily and Pope (1986) provided characteristic parame-
ters for single and segmented detached breakwaters. From the data it follows that
a tombolo was formed if the ratio was close to one. In addition, the authors have
given a theoretical relationship for this ratio in the case of perpendicular wave inci-
dence and constant depth on the landward side of a structure. According to these
computations, a tombolo can be generated both behind a single breakwater and
between segments of group breakwaters and shoreline provided L& > 2YB- It must
be noted that a number of factors, such as depth changes, wave breaking, effect of
wave frequency and nonlinear effects have been neglected. These circumstances,
together with the observations on tombolo for LB — YB forced Daily and Pope to
suggest that the design criterion of the tombolo should be taken as LB > l.5YB.
Segmented breakwaters are usually eonstructed if the length of a protected coast-
line is at least 5 times greater than the design distance of breakwater from shore-
line. If complete tombolo is desirable then each of the segments should be up
to two times longer than its distance from shoreline. These parameters should be
tailored to the anticipated form of shoreline. Daily and Pope say that the gaps
between segments should be two mean wave lengths for a period of a relatively
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 85
LEGEND
o Rosen & Vajda (1980
• Shinohara et al (198)
0.3H A Nature (Israël)
V ——•• ( U S A )
i — i i — (Japan)

Lines of constant M / / Nataharia

#
0.2 •/ / /" °
V'
s' ->*Tel Baruch
,, Izhizaki
>-" / / / / ^ i Sheraton

m
' L b °t , H a C a r m e l
Natania S
0.1 * / >StMonifi<r Natania N
BreakeiS-p
-*~i
•
' r Venice

^K
TA
0"£
01 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Y A /Y B
Figure 2.12. Equilibrium Relationships for Salient Parameters, Rosen and Vajda (1982).

LEGEND
1.5 Data fromlhman {1966)tTqsöshima (1976), Nir (1976) .-(LB-XT)/2YB
i — A
T/YBLB
o—V T /L B V^tan/3

tan/3- av bottom slop's

VT-votume of trapped sand

Y£ LBtan (3
10 / 1.5
L/YB

Figure 2.13. Equilibrium Relationships for Tombolo Parameters, Rosen and Vajda (1982).
86 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

calm weather. Long gaps can bring about sinusoidal shoreline of high amplitude,
while small length of segments and small gaps can promote a smoother shoreline.

Detached breakwaters have not yet been tried in Poland. Slomianko (1971)
mentioned the operation of shore-parallel amusement pier in Kolobrzeg, whieh
can be identified as a longshore structure. Shortly after the shore-parallel segment
was completed clear-cut shallowing at shoreline was observed which subsequently
increased its area.
The observations by various authors cited do not yet substantiate any generalisation.
The investigators emphasize that an accurate prediction of shore transformation
cannot be reached at the present state of the art.

Laboratory tests of Harris and Herbich (1986) provided the following relation-
ship of the accumulated sediment as a function of relative length of structure:

— 2 — = exp{31481 - 192187(yB/i:B)} (2. 3)

Yb-LBtlB
This relationship was verified by field data from the USA, Japan and Israël and
laboratory data by Shinohara.
Seiji, Uda and Tanaka (1987) have endeavoured a relationship of the accretion
behind a breakwater and relative depth hB/hb and relative breakwater length ^-.
In addition, the effect of shoreline at gaps between segmented breakwaters was
also given in terms of f-2-, %?-, kP--
1
° l/B 1B ' B
Laboratory tests have been conducted by Suh and Dalrymple (1987). The results
refer to a single breakwater as well as to a system of segmented breakwaters. The
tests were carried out in a spiral wave tank and concentric topography. The results
have been compared with field investigations of other authors and are presented
graphically. It has been found that the relative length of the structure LB/YB
is an important factor affecting the quantity of entrapped sediment. This is an
important factor affecting the quantity of entrapped sediment. The spit amplitude
Ys also increasses with increasing length of the structure.
Depending on the location of the structure relative to wave breaking the spit
amplitude is respectively (Fig.2.14):
• for Yb/YB < 0.5 i.e. for a remotely situated structure, seaward of surf zone;
YS/YB = 0.156
• for 0.5 < Y^/YB < 1.0 ie. for a structure in the outer nearshore zone closer'
to break point YS/YB = 0.377 • LB/YB.
It may be concluded that for the same relative length of breakwater the structure
located more closely to shoreline is more effective.
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 87

To determine the efficiency of group breakwaters Suh and Dalrymple have proposed
a dimensionless parameter which relates the gaps to the length of the system seg-
ments.
The following formula has been presented for the efficiency of a system of break-
waters expressed in terms of the spit amplitude YB

y
— = U.8GBjyexp{ — '—} (2. 4)

From this equation it follows that the relative spit amplitude increases with in-
creasing parameter Q£B- (Fig.2.15). This amplitude becomes maximum YS/YB = 1
for the parameter GfYe = 0.5. Once this critical value is exceeded the spit ampli-
tude falls dramatically.
It has been emphasized that the efficiency of detached breakwaters in terms of the
relative spit amplitude is better in field than in laboratory.
A graphical method for the assessment of the effectiveness of segmented breakwa-
ters constructed of artifical armour units has been presented by Spataru (1986). The
operation and effectiveness of a structure may be determined for a given relative
height of structure and depth of water ^ (Fig.2.16); wave dissipation and reflec-
tion and permeability of a structure are also taken into account. Spataru's method
refers to submerged breakwaters, and is also acceptable for emerging breakwaters.

Submerged breakwaters
Shore evolution is closely related to transmission of wave energy towards beach.
Upon prediction of wave flux one can indirectly model the eventual bed changes.
Using this type of control one may enforce erosion or accretion. The review of
studies on shore parallel submerged structures and their effect on coastal evolution
is given by Onoszko, Tarnowska and Zeidler (1980). This type of structures is most
common in Japan and the USSR. The review embodies the studies up to 1980 and
includes primarily the effect of structures on changes in regular wave height. Mei
and Black (1969) provide theoretical background basing on small amplitude waves
and intended for submerged structures having various widths at their top.
A study by Aftanas (1973) should be mentioned among the Polish laboratory inves-
tigations on the dynamics about a submerged breakwater of triangular cross-section
and relative height (0.2...0.3) h. Significant eddies about the structure were exposed,
associated with a medium size scour on the lee side of the breakwater and a shal-
lower but broader scour on the seaward side. The depth of scour was increasing for
higher wave steepnesses. The maximum scour parameters corresponded to wave
breaking on the breakwater.
Homma and Horikawa (1961) have concluded from their laboratory and field tests
that the efficiency of a submerged breakwater is highest if its relative height is
0.7...0.8.
88 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Suh, Dalrymple(1987)
Shinohara .Tsubaki (1966)
Rosen , Vajda (1982)
*> Suh. Dalrymple (1987)
A Shinohara . Tsubaki (1966)
m Rosen . Vajda (1982)

Shinohara .. Tsubaki
J4 ininonara isuoaw \(1966)
ISDO
5• * * 10 J • Rosen . Vajda 11982)
Y
8 ] * Mimura. Shirnitzu (1983)

Figure 2.14. Salient Amplitude, Suh and Dalrymple (1987).

o Suh. Dalrymple (1987)

Netanya. Israël I R o s e n V a j d a
Tel Aviv, Israël J [ 1932)
Kaike. Japan
an T—^hinojhori
Shinohara.
Tsubaki (1966)
Presque Islë
Ie. USA 1 „ o
Central Beach.USA \ Daily. Pope
Casttewood Beach.USA J (1986)
f
B

r
B /(-fcï
Figure 2.15. Salient Amplitude, Suh and Dalrymple (1987).
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 89

H LB'T —>—:
t 7— S
A
77

B /.:• •A /1;
• -• .\
1
/ ! ' •' :

orlginal
I .Gg shore line

© © ® ©

-^ 0.5
12
4
0
3
~~y?\ c v
\2y \ 4 y b
-0.5 i^M
V 1 ./ -i• a
05 1J5 YB

Figure 2.16. Effect of Offshore Breakwater Layout on Accretion Pattems, Spataru (1986).
90 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

One of the most recent studies was published by Baba (1986). It summarises the
existing computational methods for wave attenuation and coastal defence with a
shore-parallel submerged breakwater. This analysis basing on the laboratory tests
has shown that Goda's theory is the best among the methods assessed (Lizov, 1962,
Goda, 1967 and 1969, and Seeling 1980). The analytical background is provided
by the following data on wave transmission

KT = §- = 0-5[l - sin f ( ^ + /?)] (2. 5)

jtfo ^X -"o

in which
Ho, Ht = initial and transmitted wave height, respectively
X and /3 = empirical factors being

X = 2-2 1
Q n r\ n o
>
I
for vertical wall (2. 6)
p = U.U...U.Ö I

(3 — 0.1 — 0.35 for complex shape of the front side of the breakwater
hp — h — hs = submergence of breakwater top.

The method is applicable for

0.8 < B/h < 1.1 (2. 7)

0.41 < h/L < 0.5 (2. 8)

in which
B = breakwater width at top.
Results of the computations of wave decay due to a shore parallel submerged
breakwater should be assessed with care. This sterns from the fact that the avail-
able forecast methods are based on laboratory investigations for regular waves, Mei
and Black (1969), Baba (1986). The applicability and clearness of these models
also depend on a number of empirical lump factors which are usually selected quite
arbirrarily.

2.4 SEA WALLS (BULKHEADS) AND REVETMENTS

The terms bulkhead and sea wall are often used interchangeably, although,
strictly speaking, bulkheads are retaining walls constructed to prevent sliding of
soil and moderate protection while primary purpose of seawalls is to protect the
backshore from heavy wave action. A revetment is placed on a slope to protect it
and adjacent uplands from erosion and to dissipate wave energy. Both sea walls
(bulkheads) and revetments serve as the last resort in the combat of waves at the
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 91

Figure 2.17. Shore-Parallel Structures Analysed by Graaff & Bijker (1988).

sea-land interface.
Sea walls and revetments are shore-parallel structures meant to protect the hin-
terland against flooding and/or erosion. They are situated about such features as
bluffs, scarps, embankments, cliffs, dunes and promenades.
Sea walls on sandy beaches are analysed by Graaff and Bijker (1988). Fig.2.17
shows three typical cross-sections with a shore-parallel structures. Cases (a) and
(b) are considered by Graaff and Bijker (presence of sandy beach in front of the
structure) while absence of beach is not discussed.
Case (a) is typical for well-developed seaside resorts. On the benefit of a pros-
perous development often a clear distinction between 'sea' and 'land' is desired.
Case (b) is typical for important investments which are apparently at stake. The
encroaching sea obviously causes erosion of the beaches and the dunes. With the
shore-parallel construction the attack of the sea is intended to be beaten off.
All over the world, however, damaged and even entirely demolished seawalls can
be found. In many cases it is feit that in fact design errors are the main cause of the
damage; in some other near-field effects are to blame. The latter, primarily local
scour, are dealt with in Chapter 3, while this section is devoted to some far-field
effects.

Erosion problems about sea walls

Seawalls are often built to overcome the most pronounced problems of our coasts.
In principle two basic erosion problems with sandy coasts do exist, viz.

• erosion/recession during a single storm (surge) event

• gradual long term erosion

92 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Fig.2.18 shows in plan view a stretch of a coast at a certain moment in time (under
'usual' sea conditions). The problems (a) and (b) can be clearly illustrated if the
behaviour of cross-section A-A of Fig.2.18 is considered as a function of a long
time. For reasons of simplicity the behaviour of the position with respect to the
reference line of the so-called dune-foot is considered to be representative for the
behaviour of the entire cross-section (other characteristic profile features could
also be selected). The dune-foot is the intersection line between the gentle beach
slope and the steep slope of the dune front.
Fig.2.19 shows three typical possibilities of the behaviour of a sandy coast.
Fig.2.19 a represents an essentially stable coastline. However, storm (surge) events
cause sudden recessions of the position of the dune-foot. Since the cross-section
in consideration is, seen over a longer period, stable, a recovery of the dunes will
take place in the years after the storm event. Depending on the seriousness of
the storm event the magnitude of the recession can vary considerably. Fig.2.19 a
represents in fact case (a) indicated in this section.
Fig.2.19 b shows a gradually eroding coast (with surge events superimposed on
that). The recovery after a surge is not entire. Fig.2.19 b illustrates case (b).
For the sake of completeness shown in Fig.2.19 c is an accreting coast (also with
storm events), although such cases do not pose problems to the coastal manager.
Erosion of dunes and the upper part of the beaches can occur during a severe
storm. The rate of recession during that event depends on the seriousness of the
storm involved. During the storm not only the wave attack is greater than dur-
ing usual conditions, but also the water level (surge level) increases to levels (far)
higher than usual. Along coasts bordering oceans the increase in water level during
the passage of a storm is often moderate; along coasts bordering funnel- -shaped
seas the increase of the water level may mount several meters.
Fig.2.20 shows schematically what happens during a severe surge. Material of the
dunes is eroded and (mostly) settled again on the foreshore. Since the shape of
the profile becomes less steep, the erosion process (the rate of erosion) slows down
with time. After the surge a retreat distance RD can be observed.
Dean (1986) made an attempt to conduct a rational assessment of the potential
adverse effects of coastal armouring on adjacent shorelines and to propose method-
ology for mitigation, where appropriate. Specific attention is directed toward claims
that armouring causes: profile steepening, increased longshore sediment transport,
intensified local scour, transport of sand to substantial offshore distances, etc.
Coastal armouring in the form of seawalls or revetments is usually designed to
be located along sandy shorelines which are either experiencing an erosional trend
or which are subject to substantial seasonal swings and/or storm-induced fluctua-
tions that could conceivably endanger upland structures.
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 93

water Una

dune— foot

reference Itne

Figure 2.18. Plan View of Coast, Graaff & Bijker, 1988.

poillton posltlon

@ eroding
play-ground

PI.
">-«r
(5) stable Qu,
"><r

- « - time- t!m«

posltlon

Hm«

Figure 2.19. Three Types of Coast Behaviour, Graaff & Bijker, 1988
94 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Figure 2.20. Dune Erosion Process.

Coastal armouring, once regarded as a relatively desirable means of achieving

shoreline stabilization, has recently been the focus of much attention including
various concerns over possible adverse effects to the adjacent beach system, see
for example Kana and Svetlichny (1982). An analysis of the available literature
demonstrates that definitive laboratory or field data are sparse, thereby providing
a fertile ground for conjecture and misinformation. Placed along a shoreline with
an erosional trend, armouring can perform its intended function of upland stabi-
lization while the adjacent shoreline segments continue to erode. The resulting
offset between stabilized and unstabilized segments may be interpreted incorrectly
that the armouring has caused the adjacent erosion.
Coastal amouring does have the potential of causing adverse effects to the adjacent
shoreline. In situations where coastal armouring is contemplated, it is important to
recognize, and where possible to quantity and perhaps mitigate for these adverse
effects. Specific alleged adverse effects of coastal armouring include: (1) offshore
profile steepening, (2) intensified local scour, (3) transport of sand to a substantial
distance offshore, (4) adverse downdrift erosion, and (5) delayed post-storm recov-
ery. We shall herewith Follow Dean(1986) in his arguments on the above issues.
Offshore Profile Steepening
Increased wave reflection can clearly occur as a result of coastal armouring; how-
ever, there does not appear to be a mechanism for an associated offshore transport
to significant depths nor is there evidence to support such transport.
Storm-Induced Intensified Local Scour
During storms, it is expected that increased scour would occur at the toe of the
vertical seawall. This is consistent with data presented by Kriebel et al. (1986) for
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 95

post-hurricane Elena profiles in which, relative to natural profiles, accentuated toe

scour occured at the base of seawalls.
In three dimensions, since immediately in front of armouring there is insufficiënt
sand to satisfy the "demand" of the offshore bar, the shore parallel downward
slope to the area immediately seaward of the unarmoured segment, combined with
the mobilizing effects of breaking waves causes sediment to flow from the region
offshore of the natural shoreline to that offshore of the armoured segment. The
effect of this interaction is to cause an additional "erosional stress" adjacent to
the armouring with the magnitude of this stress increasing with the length of the
armouring. This interaction is illustrated in Fig.2.21 and is consistent with post-
hurricane Eloise measurements as reported by Walton and Sensabaugh (1979), see
Fig.2.22.
Projection of Armouring into the Active Surf Zone
If an isolated armoured segment is constructed on an eroding shoreline where a
substantial longshore sediment transport exists, the armouring will in time project
into the surf zone and will act as a groin to block the net longshore sediment trans-
port. The annual deficit of sediment downdrift of the armourmg will be the sum
of that blocked by the projecting armouring and that not yielded by the upland
protected by the armouring. The downdrift annual deficit will thus increase with:
(a) the length of the armouring, and (b) time as a result of increasing projection
into the surf zone thereby blocking a greater and greater fraction of the longshore
sediment transport.
Effect of Wave Reflection on Longshore Sediment Transport
Dean (1986) argues that the effect of wave reflection is to r e d u c e the longshore
sediment transport.

Interference with Post-Storm Recovery

Wave reflection from coastal armouring could be the cause of a delayed post-storm
recovery. Data presented by Kriebel, et. al. (1986) from Hurricane Elena supports
an equally rapid or nearly equally rapid recovery adjacent to coastal armouring.
Moreover, observations by Mr. Ralph Clark immediately after Hurricane Elena
(September, 1985) and approximately eight months later (May, 1986) indicate that
recovery had occurred to at least the pre-storm condition.
Dean (1986) concludes that
1. There are no factual data to support claims that armouring causes: profile
steepening, increased longshore transport, transport of sand to a substantial
distance offshore, or delayed post-storm recovery
2. The interaction of an armoured segment of shoreline with the littoral systems
depends on the amount of sand in the system vis-a-vis the equilibrium beach
profile for the prevailing tide and wave conditions
 96 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Woves Shore

-Continuous Seowall

PLAN VIEW

Storm Water Level-

Normal Water I
>ïr—
• Normal Beach Profile
';- withoul Seawall
Storm Beach Profile
without Seawall
-Storm Profile with Seawall
-Normal Beach Profile with or without Seawall
ELEVATIQN VIEW
a) Qualitutlve Effects of Continuous Seawall on Storm Beach Profile.

Initial Shoreline Position Under

Normal Wave Conditions
Shoreline due to Storm or Long
Term Erosion without Seowan

.Shoreiine due io Storm or Long

Term Erosion with Seawall

Waves Seawall of Limited Length

PLAN VIEW
b) Effect of SeawalL of Limited Length on Storm or Long-Term Beach
Planform.

Figure 2.21. Two- and Three-Dimensional Effects of a Sea Wall on Beach System During Storm;
Dean (1986).

eo i i i i i r
Postulated Upper Limit tor
Flanklng of Return Wall " X
(trom "Elolse" Data) -p*"'
60 Recession at Beach During Storm-
II Seawall Is not Present= X
/ +E
P
LU /
Lu 40 >• W - Seawalk
7 T"
" Y* _
Cap H e l g h t = v
TI Contour Prolr to Slorm _
20
Tl Contour After Storm

J E= East Slde
W= West Slde
y=Contour Recession Dlstance
due to Effects of Seawall

I I I _L J_ JL I i j_
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 16O0

LENGTH OF SEAWALL (OR STRUCTURE)

Figure 2.22. Additional Bluff Recession due to Sea Wall; Based on Walton & Sensabaugh (1979).
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 97

3. Armoring can cause localized additional storm scour, both in front of and at
the ends of the armouring. A simple sediment supply&demand argument is
proposed to explain the scour.
The arguments presented by Kraus (1989) and others in Journal of Coastal Re-
search No 4 (1989) seem more conclusive and substantiated by empirical evidence,
at least in the near-field domain, cf. Chapter Three.
Another set of arguments is provided by Dette (1987) who examines the history
and experience of the sea wall constructed on the Island of Sylt, where the armour-
ing effects discussed above have surfaced at length.
More than 100 years ago men started on the Island of Sylt (North Sea) to interfere
with a natural long-term coastal recession of sandy beaches and dunes. Groyne
systems did not prove the expected success. In 1907 a 70-m long seawall was built
by a private owner in order to prevent further recession in front of an endangered
hotel. Already in 1912 an extension became necessary because of the downdrift
erosion. Nowadays the chain of coastal structures has reached a length of more
than 3 km in front of the city of Westerland.
Dette (1987) presents a chronological review since 1865 of all types of coastal
structures, with special emphasis on the seawall.
The 40-km long west coast of the Island of Sylt has suffered since centuries from
continuous coastal recession and has been strongly endangered during severe storm
surges. The coastline can be divided in two characteristic sections:
[1.] Approx. 22 m long central part of the island with a chain of cliffs and dunes
(up to 25 m high).
The typical offshore profile consists of the dune, the beach and in the foreshore of
a trough and a longshore bar (also referred to as "ridge and runnel", approx. 400
m distant from the shoreline.
[2.] The northern (8 km) and the southern (7 km) parts of the island can be
considered large sand spits which originate from alternating longshore sediment
transport along the central part of the island.
Already in 1867 three heavy stone groynes were built in front of Westerland. Until
1900 another 44 of such main works at distances of 500 m with 2 intermediare
lighter groynes in between were constructed for protection of the central part (22
km) of the island. These crossing works only could retard the recession process.
Where, however, recession should be stopped, special measures had to be un-
dertaken. So in 1907, after another heavy storm surge, a 70 m long seawall in
Westerland was constructed by a private owner in order to protect his hotel "Mira-
mar" which then was left only 12 m apart from the dune's edge. After further storm
surges and lee-erosions the seawall was lengthened northward in 1912, southward
in 1923 and once more northward in 1924 (Fig.2.23). At this time it had become
necessary already to strengthen the earlier seawall construction by means of toe
98 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

protections.
The years between 1924 and 1936 were fairly inactive. In winter 1936/37 two heavy
storm surges occurred and caused dune recession in between 10 m and 12 m north-
ward of the seawall. After a 20-m wide beach fill in front of the dune as immediate
remedial measure in elongation of the seawall a 1 to 4 revetment consisting of
basalt blocks was built in 1937/38 over a length of 510 m. Those days the revet-
ment was expected a reduced wave impact on the beach in front of the seawall.
Fig.2.24 depicts the dune erosion since 1888 in this area, the dune losses in 1936,
the seaward shifted location of the revetment and the development of the beach
profile in front of the revetment until 1967.
In 1946 the northern end of the seawall was replaced over a length of 3,140 m by
a revetment consisting of concrete slabs. This construction foliowed destruction
of a 60-m long section of the seawall during a storm surge. In 1950 it became
necessary to enlarge the toe protection in front of the seawall by additional width
of 5 m; this was in the wake of continuous undermining of the beach. This process
is illustrated in Fig.2.25 where the dune recession since 1891 is plotted together
with development of the beach profile in front of the seawall between 1920 and
1967.
Due to considerable lee-erosion at the northern end of the revetment it was neces-
sary to extent the revetment in 1954 by 200 m. In December 1954 already another
heavy storm surge occurred and again heavy lee-erosion was caused, this time at
the end of the elongated revetment.
After 1954 the length of coastal works had reached 1585 m (710 m long seawall
and 875 m long revetment). Furthermore concrete pile groynes and 2 flat groynes
were constructed in order to prevent further beach erosion. In 1961 a critical part
of the seawall, a 100 m long part at the northern end, had to be strengthened.
It was decided to place 6-ton tetrapods with a slope of 1 to 1.33 in front of the
seawall. From this measure it was expected that the incoming and reflected waves
would be attenuated so much that the seawall would not be endangered any longer
and further erosion of the beach could be prevented. In order to protect the sheet-
pile toe protection which then was already 14 m distant from the seawall this toe
protection was extended by an additional width of 10 m. By this means a "3rd
generation of toe protection" was created (!).
In the year 1962 the German North Sea coastline was hit by a disastrous storm
surge which was classified as a centennial event, (foliowed already in 1976 and 1981
by even higher storm surges). The 1962 storm surge caused at the northern end of
the revetment dune recession in between 10 m and 12 m. In order to prevent here
a breach in the narrow dunes and a possible flooding of the city of Westerland,
a 420 m long "tetrapod dam" was built as extension of the revetment (Fig.2.26).
Also the southern end of the seawall had to be extended by a 300 m long "tetrapod
dam" due to lee-erosion.
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 99

Figure 2.23. Westerland Sea Wall Between 1907 and 1924, Dette (1987).
100 Effectiveness of coastal defence measiires

Figure Fig.2.24. Dune Erosion North of the Westerland Sea Wall, Dette (1987).

Figure 2.25. Dune Erosion in the Vicinity of Westerland Sea Wall.

4.5 TETRAPO0S
PER METER BEACh

\ _ TW

Design Leve!
v
in —„IIIIA i 't „ t j. —i
.
!-—. —
1
1Xmv^^SiS - "ï
.c +
^TF;gS j NN = M'.TI

Figure 2.26. Design of Tetrapod Mound at Westerland.

 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 101

1907-1924

I 3Q]0Om 1

Figure 2.27. History of Westerland Sea Wall Since 1907.

However, the tetrapods placed in front of the seawall did not help to break deci-
sively the strength of incoming waves and prevent further beach recession. This
demonstrates a typical example showing the "armouring" of a sandy coastline and
the futile efforts against the erosion of the beach in front of a structure.
After this condition had occured a final attempt was undertaken and in 1970 heavy
riprap stones were placed in front of the toe protection. This is shown on Fig.2.27
togefher with a grouping of all man-made measures since 1907 in order to guar-
antee the stability of the seawall against heavy storm surges. Besides, this drawing
illustrates the time history of a seawall over nearly 70 years. In 1972 the necessity
of permanent maintenance works on the coastal structures protecting the city of
Westerland as the only feasible method was abandoned and for the first time an
additional beach-deposit nourishment was carried out in order to make up for the
sand deficit at the structures and, besides, to shift the surf zone seaward away
from the structures. Meanwhile until 1987 two more beach nourishments (1978
and 1984) were carried out.
Dette (1987) concludes that
• The characteristic topography of the foreshore consisting of longshore bars
and troughs has not been "destroyed" due to the presence of coastal struc-
tures by which the long-term process of natural recession was stopped
abruptly. The longshore bar and the trough still existed in 1967 (and in
1987, too), more than 60 years after first seawall was built
102 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

• The seawall in front of Westerland and the necessity of continuous elonga-

tion of the coastal structures due to unavoidable downdrift erosion and the
continuing futile efforts against the beach erosion in front of the structures,
consisting in the construction of "generations" of toe protection may be con-
sidereda typical andclassical example of armourïng (German "Verfelsung")
of the coastline at the expense of beach.
Shore evolution at sea walls can be predicted with a satisfactory accuracy only in
a few cases under strictly observed conditions, Hanson and Krauss (1985). Most
forecast methods are based on the one-line theory, mentioned above for other
types of structures and summarised in Section 2.7. These methods can be applied
if the boundary conditions during the storm surge are known (wave height; wave
period; maximum surge level; storm duration; practicle size diameter; initial pro-
file),cf. Sec.2.7. Many of these boundary conditions have a highly stochastic nature.
Among the restricting boundary conditions one should require that the shoreline
at a sea wall must not retreat landwards behind the sea wall frontline. The general
forecast procedures developed for detached breakwaters may also prove helpful.
The maximum shoreline retreat at the very proximity of a sea wall, in the form of
an erosional embayment is assessed as 10% of the sea wall length in the landward
direction; the bay stretches downdrift to about 70% of the sea wall length.
These and other details may reappear in Chapter Three as the far- and near-field
phenomena combine and intertwine in the vicinity of sea walls.

2.5 OTHER DEFENCE & MANAGEMENT MEASURES

2.5.1 Perched Beach

This section deals with some less conventional, and more recent designs and con-
cepts of coastal defence and management. They include inter alia perched beach,
dykes and artificial beach nourishment.
Perched beach combines a low breakwater, or sill, and a beach fill perched, or
elevated above the normal level (Fig.2.28). This alternative provides a broad buffer
against wave action while offering a potentially recreational site. The sill can be
constructed of various materials, but it must be impermeable to the passage of the
retained beach sand by using, for intance, a filter cloth behind and beneath the
structure. The cloth prevents the fill from escaping through any large voids in the
sill and also stabilizes the structure against settlement. While a graded stone core
could also be used in a rock sill in place of filter cloth, the limited height of such
sills generally precludes use of multilayered structures of this kind. The figure also
shows a splash apron which is provided to prevent scour and erosion of the beach
fill from overtopping waves.
Perched beaches can be provided where offshore slopes are mild enough to permit
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 103
elevation of sill

widtn of scour paos

DHWL

-'- — — 'WAV/A\
struciural aesign o!
scour oads

siruciural Oesign o! SJM

location of sill

filter

Figure 2.28. Perched Beach Design.

the use of a sill in shallow water at a reasonable distance from shore.

In addition to perched beaches, fills can also be incorporated in groin systems
and with breakwaters. In fact, auxiliary fills are almost mandatory in most cases,
otherwise serious erosion problems can occur downdrift.
Beach fills are discussed in this section and are referred to in Section 2.6.

2.5.2 Sea Dykes

The history of the protection of sandy coasts is relatively short compared with that
of dyke construction. About a thousand years ago people in the north-western
Europe had already started to construct primitive dykes, initially to gain or pro-
leet valuable farm land or small communities. However it was not until the 19th
cenrury that the first examples of protection of sandy coasts in the same area were
recorded. Initially, closed or open timber works were used, but because of the
poor durability of the wood these were soon foliowed by more solid structures.
Dykes play many roles but their primary destination is flood prevention. Ac-
cordingly, they are n o t expected to produce any particular, controllable far-field
effects, in the sense of shaping the coast morphology. Therefore we will not dweil
on them in this chapter despite their paramount importance in preservation of the
coastal environment. It seems more appropriate to focus attention on dykes in the
context of Chapter 3, where different failure modes can pose challenge to dykes in
their near field. A common constituent of dyke design, the revetment, is touched
upon in the following section.
Layout of dyke depends primarily on the configuration of the area protected but
also on the bearing capacity of soil foundation, etc. For a complex shape of dyke,
in plan view, the angles and intensity of wave attack can be fairly diversified, and
the far- and near-field effects will vary accordingly, cf. Pilarczyk (1987) and JPilar-
104 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

czyk (1990).

2.5.3 Artificial Beach Nourishment

Artificial beach nourishment is a coastal defence scheme in which sediment is bor-
rowed from a certain area and is transported to a beach to be filled with this
sediment in order to protect the coastline from erosion, to widen the beach or
transform it with any other intention.
With developments in dredging technology, beach nourishment and beach supple-
tion have become an alternative type of protection works. However, the first beach
suppletion works, using a dredging spread, were not carried out until the 1950s.
In fact, beach suppletion only compensates for a deficit in the natural supply of
sand at a certain section of the coast. This deficit results from either natural causes
or human interference.
Beach suppletion, used as a beach protection measure, has gained much support
owing to its cost-effectiveness and flexibility. Since the work is done at intervals,
the actual planning can always be turned to previous experience gained. This latter
aspect is extremely important, since in spite of progress in our basic understanding
of the morphological phenomena involved, coastal engineering still has elements
of an art rather than a science.
The following major conclusions may be drawn from our' review within this study.
Artificial nourishment is undertaken as a coastal protection measure and/or as a
measure to enlarge the recreational posibilities of the beach. The decision to apply
artificial nourishment instead of rigid protective measures (such as groynes, sea-
walls, shoreline revetments etc), is generally made because of the following major
advantages of beach nourishment: environmental friendliness, flexibility and econ-
omy.
Unlike rigid strucrures, artificial beach fill does not interfere with the natural char-
acter of a coast. From the recreational point of wiev, an artificial fill is particularly
attractive, because the widened beach has a greater touristic potential. During the
operation of the nourishment, the temporary limitation in the use of the beach is
generally insignificant for proprietors and managers of beach facilities.
Very often the performance or side effects of rigid protection measures are not ac-
ceptable or predictable. The advantage of an artificial fill is that possible adverse
effects are temporary. Increasing erosion along adjacent (downdrift) coastlines,
as often occurs with rigid structures, will generally be less accentuated. On the
contrary, the adjacent coast might benefit from nourishment as well.
An artificial beach fill is usually cheaper than a rigid protection structure, although
the maintenance cost will be higher as the lifetime of a fill is shorter. A coastal zone
which is in dynamic equilibrium prior to the nourishment will generally not tend
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 105

to erode systematically after placement of the fill. However, profile adaptation di-
rectly after placement and deviating sand characteristics do affect the performance
of the filled beach. One must not expect a beach fill to be stable when placed on a
continuously eroding coast. The rate of retreat might be influenced by the design
of the fill. An integral design method for artificial beach nourishment, including
all relevant parameters, is not yet available. However, for separate aspects of the
design of the beach nourishment, various design tools are available, such as mod-
els for the prediction of the morphological bahaviour of the fill and methods for
the determination of the effect of different grain size characteristics. With some
transportation methods, having losses of the fines size classes, and consequent
coarsening of the borrow material can be significant. As a result the performance
of the fill is sometimes better than predïcted. The development of models which
quantify the modification of material properties during the process between dredg-
ing and dumping is recommended. A review of the available data still indicates
the lack of adequate monitoring before, during and after execution of nourishment
schemes. Moreover, there is an evident lack of standardization in monitoring.
The demand for offshore borrow areas grows. The locations of these borrow areas
should be selected such that negative influences on the beach profile are avoided
and the transportation distance is minimized. More research on this subject is
needed. If possible and economically attractive, material from capital and main-
tenance dredging should be used for beach nourishment. However, the sediment
may contain an excess of fines and, especially in the case of maintenance dredg-
ing, it may be polluted. Therefore, close examination of the dredged material is a
necessity, in order to determine whether it is suitable for beach nourishment.
From a biological point of view, the best time for beach nourishment and dredging
is during the winter, because the spawning season for most nearshore and beach
fauna occurs between spring and autumm, so that larval recuitment is not severely
affected. It should be noted that this may be in conflict with the feasibility and/or
efficiency of execution.
Future studies should include such objectives as optimum location of borrow ar-
eas, improvements in mathematical modelling of shore transformation, sediment
losses during transportation, grain-size factors, and system analysis of all complex
phenomena intervening in artificial beach nourishment schemes.
In addition to the morphological models and empirical rules, coastline computa-
tions are still carried out according to the Pelnard-Considere model. Thanks to
modern computer applications, coastline development can now be computed in
great detail, both in time and place, provided the basic sand-transport characteris-
tics are known.
Frequently, the phenomena involved are so complex and so random in nature that
clear-cut designs are impossible and some trial and error is indispensable in the
formulation of an economie design. Although it is difficult to place a fmancial
106 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

value on the natural visual appearance and reereational benefits obtained from
using beach suppletion rather than those associated with fixed strüctüres, these are
still important aspects.
Apart from flexibility and environmental considèrations, beach nourishment may
be very cost-effective by comparison with "fixed" strüctüres. For an "average" sit-
uation, beach nourishment appears to be most economie if the sediment deficit is
of the order of 500,000 m3/yr or less and the length of beach to protected 5 km
or more. The cost may be reduced by a factor of two or three for lower deficits or
longer beaches.
For more information on nourishment the Reader is addressed to Manual on Ar-
tificial Beach Nourishment (CUR 1987).

2.6 MORE ON STRÜCTÜRES & COASTAL SEDIMENTATION

2.6.1 General
Two main causes can control a gradual erosion of a part of a coast:
• Continuous offshore sediment transport from the upper parts of the beach
profile (beach and dunes) to the deeper parts of the profile
• Gradiënt in the longshore sediment transport.
The following analysis is extracted from Graaff and Bijker (1988)
Case (a): Continuous offshore transport
Cross-shore directed sediment transports always take place in an actual cross-
section of a beach profile. Depending on the wave conditions, water level and
the shape of the initial profile, onshore or offshore transports take place through
an arbitrary vertical cross-section. Seen over a relatively long period (from year to
year for example) the shape of the beach profile often doesn't change so much
(dynamic equilibrium). In a constant situation with respect to the boundary
conditions (constant mean sea level and constant yearly wave climate), there is
in usual cases no reason that a continuous offshore directed transport will be the
reason for a gradual erosion of the coast. If a continuous offshore transport from
the upper parts of the beach profile to the lower parts of the profile occurred, the
beach profile would be flatter with time. Next it can be argued that the offshore
transport rates will then slow down till an equilibrium has been reached.
It is only if the supplied material to the deeper part of the profile is removed again.
(e.g. by a gradiënt in the longshore transport in that region) that a continuous
cross-shore transport might be maintained. The real reason for the erosion of the
coastline is then, however, not the offshore transport, but the mentioned gradiënt
in the longshore transport (case b) in the deeper parts of the beach profile. The
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 107

77777777777777777^777777^^

No further erosion allowed'

i I
A B

Figure 2.29. Variation of Sediment Transport along Coast.

offshore sediment transport is only an intermediary mode of transport.

If the boundary conditions change with time, a more or less continuous offshore
sediment transport might occur. This transport can be seen as a prerequisite
necessary to adjust the shape of the beach proflle so that it fits again the 'new'
boundary conditions. The global sea-level rise and an abrupt change in the wave
climate are examples of changes in the boundary conditions.
Hence it is clear that if changes in the boundary conditions occur, a simple seawall
cannot solve the induced erosion problem. Under usual conditions the seawall
does not interfere in the underlying transport processes. (Only if the seawall is
directly attacked, a certain interference might occur.) The erosion of the upper
parts of the beach will continue. The seawall will be attacked more frequently and
more intensively.
If one intends to control actually the (offshore) sediment transport one has to
think of (submerged) offshore breakwaters. Such a measure might eventually affect
(reduce) the action of waves as they approach the coast and consequently might
reduce the offshore sediment transport.
Case (b): Gradiënt in the longshore sediment transport
In many cases a gradiënt in the longshore sediment transport is the main reason
of the erosion problems of sandy coasts. Examples are the lee-side erosion near
breakwaters or jetties and the erosion of convex coastlines.
Fig.2.29 shows schematically the magnitude of the longshore sediment transport
(e.g. in m3/year) as a function of the position along an eroding coast. The
increasing sediment transport with x is the reason of the erosion problem. The
108 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

magnitude of the gradiënt dS/dx is a measure of the actual erosion problem. If

one wants to stop the recession of the coast on the stretch A-B in Fig.2.29, one
has to nourish volume V (see Fig.2.29) along the section A-B on a yearly basis
or one has to 'change' in one way or another the sediment transport along this
stretch A-B. Instead of a distribution of the sediment transport according to line
(a) in Fig.2.29, a distribution according to line (b) would in principle fulfill our
requirements. The erosion in secton A-B has stopped indeed (dS/dx = 0), but
downstream of the stretch A-B an increased erosion can be expexted. (Increased
dS/dx values in comparison with the initial situation.).
Reaching the line (b) in reality is not a simple task. This is by no means reached
with a seawall. The basic problem was a gradiënt in the total longshore sediment
transport, the latter taking usually place on the foreshore and the shoreface. Since a
seawall does not interfere with this type of sediment transport, no direct reducing
effect can be expected. It is only under storm conditions, when waves hit the
shore- -parallel structure directly, that probably a certain reduction of the longshore
sediment transports might be expected. In that case, however, it is also conceivable
that, due to wave reflection, an increase of the longshore sediment transport will
occur.
Since a shore-parallel construction near the dunes does not intervene generally in
the sediment transport, the erosion continues, the shoreface, the foreshore and
the beaches become deeper and at the end the attack of the sea on the seawall
will intensify. Damage occurs; reinforcements of the seawall will be necessary.
Nearly all seawalls built to restrict the further erosion on the lee-side of harbour
breakwaters or jetties suffer from the stated problems.
Hence it appears it is impossible with a seawall to move the sediment transport
line (a) in Fig.2.29 to line (b). With the construction of a groyne (cross-shore
structure) or a (submerged) detached breakwater (shore-parallel structure), the
desired change from line (a) to line (b) is possible indeed. How to design these
defence measures actually, is another, quite difficult, coastal engineering problem,
but the above physical explanation can help understand the background of erosion
problems.
Fig.2.30 illustrates the difficulty. Case I (line a) shows the same coastal erosion as
Case II (line c). The same gradients dS/dx occur, but yet the magnitudes of the
longshore sediment transport differ considerably. The lines (b) and (d) represent
the ultimately desired sediment transport lines for Case I and Case II respectively.
It is beyond doubt that the operation to achieve line (b) from line (a) calls for
quite different countermeasures than to reach line (d) from line (c). One has
consequently to know quite precisely what the actual magnitudes of the sediment-
transports are, before a proper design of countermeasures can be arranged.
Changing the sediment transports along stretch A-B in Fig.2.29 from line (a) to
line (b) is just necessary and sufficiënt to stop the erosion in that section. If line (a)
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 109

A B
Figure 2.30. Effect of Sediment Transport Rate.

transforms into line (c), accretion of the section A-B can be expected. The erosion
problems on the lee-side of section A-B will, however, consequently increase.
Since so many examples of adverse behaviour of seawalls are available, one might
wonder if seawalls enhance erosion problems on the coasts they intend to protect.
The physical explanation given above provides no argument for this thesis.
Seawalls do not affect sediment transport, hence they will not aggrevate the erosion
problems. This holds at least till some sediment still exists in front of the seawall
under usual conditions. If the beach disappears (the case in Fig.2.17 c), a quite
different situation is reached. Increased as well as decreased sediment transport is
possible, depending on actual external boundary conditions.

2.6.2 Example of Reef Type Breakwaters vs. Other Measures

and their Coastal Effects
The function of reef type breakwaters as a shoreline stabilization measure and the
response of the shoreline to these structures are discussed by Fulford (1985). It
appears useful to examine these fmdings as they help undèrstand the primary mor-
phological functions of coastal measures.
The application and effectiveness of reef type breakwaters for shorelmes typical
of the Chesapeake Bay are compared to conventional shoreline stabilization mea-
sures. The functional design and typical construction costs of reef type breakwaters
are discussed. From these discussions it is concluded that reef type breakwaters
are a viable solution to a variety of shore erosion problems.

Introduction
Reef type breakwater refers to a low-crested rubble mound breakwater located
110 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

parallel to the shoreline and constructed without the traditional multilayer cross
section. This type of breakwater cross section is basiclly composed of homogeneous
stones with individual stone weights sufficiënt to resist wave attack.
As discussed by Ahrens (1984), a number of low-crested breakwaters have been
cohstfuctëd in recent yëars fö profeet beaches or shoreline areas. The percentage
of wave attenuation required to provide the desired degree of beach or shoreline
protection is primarily a function of the crest height of the breakwater. Since the
cost of a rubble mound breakwater increasses rapidly with the height of the crest,
the cost differential between a low-crested structure and a traditional breakwater
that is infrequently overtopped can be significant.

Function of Reef Breakwater

A shore-parallel breakwater constructed offshore provides protection by reducing
the amount of wave energy reaching the water and shore area in its lee. The
breakwater structure reflects or dissipates the incident waves impacting directly on
the structure and transmits wave energy primarily by means of diffraction into the
barrier's shadow zone.
Shoreline T y p e 1
Fig.2.31(top) shows the modification and typical response of a shoreline consisting
of a low bank fronted by a narrow beach as a result of construction of a reef type
breakwater and other stabilization measures. These responses are discussed in the
following paragraphs.
Effect of Reef Breakwater
As shown in Fig.2.31(top) a, the typical response of the shoreline is the formation
of a beach platform on the shoreward side of the breakwater. The formation of
the beach planform is a result of the diffracted waves acting on the sediment in the
lee of the breakwater placed during the construction of the breakwater, the sedi-
ment trapped from the longshore transport and the sediment derived from reduced
erosion of the bank. As the planform evolves to become relatively parallel with
the diffracted wave crests, longshore transport losses are significantly reduced. In
addition, the presence of the breakwater significantly reduces the loss of sediment
in the offshore direction from the newly formed beach and the shoreline area. This
is particularly important in areas where the shoreline sediment is fine-grained and
subject to offshore transport. The resulting planform becomes a stable feature and
acts as a protective beach area, which in combination with the protection provided
by the breakwater, effectively stabilizes the shoreline area.
The low-crested design of the reef type breakwater results in periodic overtopping
of the structure by incident waves. Wave overtopping limits the growth of the
beach planform towards the breakwater. This effect is desirable in that the plan-
form remains unattached to the brakwater. Thus, the interruption to the longshore
transport system which could adversely effect downdrift shoreline is minimized.
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) ejfects 111
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1
C. Bulkhcad

^ GROIN

BEACH PLAHFORn
/ IHITIAL
-,. _f 3H0REL1KE

PLAK
d. Grom

iaiotlon/Kanpo>ia« 0< 5hor*l l m Typ*. 7

Figure 2.31. Morphological Interaction of Coast and Structures, shoreline types 3 and 4, Fulford
(1985).
112 Effèctiveness of coastal defence measures

The ability of a reef type breakwater to dissipate incident wave energy and diffract
waves into the lee of the structure results in the formation of a stable beach platform
as discussed. This ability results in the suitability of reef breakwater construction
in areas which are essentially sediment starved. In these areas, the source of sed-
iment for the beach platform can be provided as part of the construction process
or through continued erosion of the shoreline bank area (at a reduced rate) as
a result of overtopping wave events. The reduced wave energy in the lee of the
breakwater would allow the formation on the beach planform with fine-grained
sediment. Following formation of the protective beach planform, the erosion of
the bank area would be stopped.
Effect of Stone Revetment
Fig.2.31(top) b shows the modification and response of the low bank shoreline fol-
lowing the construction of a stone revetment. Essentially, the revetment stabilizes
the shoreline by dissipating the wave energy before it reaches the shoreline. Since
the dissipation of the wave energy occurs on the revetment slope which is in close
proximity to the shoreline, the revetment slope, crest height and crest width must
be sufficiënt to prevent significant wave runup on the structure which could erode
the shoreline. A splash apron pr shoreward extension of the crest of the revetment
may be required to prevent this erosion. Shoreward extension of the ends of the
revetment is recommended to prevent flanking of the structure. Incorporation of
the recommended layers of bedding, underlayer and armour stone in revetments
along shoreline areas with bank heights less than 3-4 feet may be difficult to achieve
as well as the desired degree of runup reduction.
Construction of a properly designed revetment results in a positive stabilization of
the shoreline area. Due to the construction of the revetment, access to the beach
area is limited. Turbulence during the wave dissipation process and wave run down
on the structure tends to reduce the beach area in front of the structure.
Effect of Bulkhead
Fig.2.31(top) c depicts the response of the shoreline following the construction of
a vertical faced bulkhead. Typically, the bulkhead is located a distance bayward of
the eroding shoreline, anchored shoreward and backfilled . Similar to a revetment,
the function of a bulkhead is the dissipation of wave energy on the structure before
it reaches the shoreline area. The crest height of the bulkhead must be sufficiënt
to prevent wave overtopping which could result in erosion of the backfilled area
as well as the original shoreline area. A splash apron shoreward of the bulkhead
is an alternative to prevent shoreward erosion by overtopping. The incorporation
of stone toe protection to prevent scour at the toe of the bulkhead is highly rec-
ommended as part of all bulkhead construction. This toe scour is a result of the
downward deflection of wave energy incident on the structure and could lead to
undermining of the structure. Extension of the bulkhead shoreward at each and or
connection to adjoining structures is required to prevent flanking of the structure.
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 113

Construction of a properly designed bulkhead along a shoreline area results in pos-

itive protection of the shoreline. However, due to the deflection of wave energy
on the structure, beach area in front of the bulkhead at the time of construction
is generally lost. If the degree of wave and scour action significantly deepens the
area offshore of the bulkhead, this area can become a sink for sediment from adja-
cent shorelines. The result of this action can be accelerated erosion of these areas
as sediment from these areas begins to fill the sink area in a effort to regain an
equilibrium profile.
Effect of Groynes
Fig.2.31(top) d shows the modification of the shoreline as a result of the construc-
tion of a groin. In an area where there is a predominant direction of longshore
sediment transport, sediment is trapped on the updrift side of the groin cresting a
beach planform. Until this beach planform reaches an equilibrium size, at which
time the longshore transport résumés part the groin, downdrift erosion is likely.
Filling the updrift side of the groin with sand as part of the initial construction
can significantly reduce downdrift erosion effects. In areas subject to longshore
sediment transport in both directions, downdrift erosion effects are not as likely to
result as the groin entraps sediment on both sides.
Construction of a groin along a shoreline and the resulting formation of a beach
planform provides a buffer between the incoming waves and the original shore-
line area. As a result, protection is provided during moderate weather conditions.
However, only limited protection is provided against storm- driven waves. Storm
waves characterized by short periods and relatively high steepness (height to length
ratio) can still directly attack the shoreline area. These waves are conducive to off-
shore sediment transport and tend to erode sediment from the shoreline area and
the beach planform and transport it to offshore areas. In some cases the groin can
train the longshore currents in the offshore direction which results in an increase
in offshore sediment transport. This sediment is essentially lost from the littoral
system since longer period, low steepness swell type waves conducive to onshore
sediment transport are not characteristic of the Chesapeake Bay area.
Loss of a significant portion of the updrift beach planform further reduces the
protection provided to the shoreline area. If the formation of the beach planform
is dependent on the trapping of sediment from the longshore transport system,
reduced protection of the shoreline area will exist until the planform is reformed.
Downdrift erosion may also be experienced until the longshore transport of sed-
iment past the groin résumés. These effects may be evoided by artificially filling
the updrift side of the groin.
Shoreline Type 2
Fig.2.31(bottom) compares the modification and response of a shoreline area con-
sisting of a high bank fronted by a narrow beach as a result of the construction of
a reef type breakwater and alternative stabilization measures.
114 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Effect of Reef Breakwater

Fig.2.31(bottom) a shows the response as a result of the construction of a reef
type breakwater. The overall shoreline response is the same as for the low bank
shoreline. The primary difference in this situation is the response of the high bank
versus the low bank. Redueed wave energy in the lee of the breakwater will result
in the formation of the beach planform from sediment derived from the longshore
transport system, erosion of the bank and/or sandfill during construction. Depend-
ing on the wave energy reduction by the breakwater (a function of the breakwater
design), erosion of the bank will continue at a redueed rate during wave overtop-
ping events. Sediment derived from this erosion will aid in the formation of the
platform. Due to the redueed wave energy in the lee of the breakwater, eroded
fine-grained sediment that would normally be transported from the area in the
longshore and offshore directions would tend to remain. This is an important
feature since a significant number of high banks are composed of primairly fine-
grained sediment.
As the beach planform reaches an equilibrium state, the protection provided by
the planform in combination with the breakwater would significantly reduce the
erosion of the bank.
Stone toe protection could be placed at the toe of the bank as added protection.
The addition of drainage control to increase the stability of the bank material would
increase the overall stability of the shoreline area.
Effect of Stone Revetment
Fig.2.31(bottom) b shows the modification and the response of the shoreline as a
result of the construction of a stone revetment. In this situation, significant regrad-
ing of the bank to a more stable slope and the plunging of soil stabilizing vegetation
would be necessary. Without this regrading, continued erosion of the bank as a
result of wave runup on the revetment could lead to failure of the bank and possi-
ble destruction of the revetment. To reduce this possibility, the crest height, crest
width and slope of the revetment would have to be designed to prevent wave runup
from reaching the toe of the bank. Failure of the bank due to instability of the
bank material would also threaten the stability of the revetment.
Construction of a revetment in combination with slope regrading, vegetation and
drainage control would result in a stable shoreline area. However, the acceptabihty
of regrading of the bank would have to be evaluated in view of the structures along
the bank and the desires of the property owner. Shoreward extension of the ends
of the revetment would be necessary to prevent flanking.
Effect of Bulkhead
Fig.2.31(bottom) c shows the response of the shoreline as a result of the construc-
tion of a bulkhead. Similar to bulkhead construction along a low bank shoreline,
the bulkhead is located a distance bayward of the shoreline to allow for shoreward
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 115

anchoring of the bulkhead and backfilling. Along a high bank shoreline, this dis-
tance in combination with the height of bulkhead above the water level must be
sufficiënt to prevent waves from overtopping the bulkhead and eroding the toe of
the bank. Erosion of the backfilled area by overtopping waves must also be con-
sidered in the selection of the design height of the bulkhead. A sufficiënt bayward
distance is also required to prevent the destruction of the bulkhead if failure of the
bank occurs as a result of instability of the bank material. Shoreward extension of
the ends of the bulkhead to prevent fianking is also required.
Regrading of the bank to a more stable slope and vegetative planting would allow
the bayward distance of the bulkhead anchoring of the bulkhead such as batter piles
on the bayside would be possible (assuming regrading of the slope is accomplished)
which would also reduce the bayward construction distance of the bulkhead.
Construction of a bulkhead in combination with regrading of the bank and vege-
tative planting would stabilize the shoreline. However, the proximity of structures
along the bank and the desires of the property owner must be considered when
evaluating bank regrading. Without bank regrading, the required bayward location
for bulkhead may require significant backfilling of the nearshore area as well as a
shoreline protuberance that could interfere with longshore sediment transport.
Effect of Groyne
Fig.2.31(bottom) d shows the results of the construction of a groin. Due to the
lack of protection of the toe of the bank area from storm waves, and the potential
loss of the updrift beach planform during storm events, groin construction alone is
not considered to be a viable solution.
Shoreline T y p e 3
Fig.2.32 compares the modification and response of a shoreline consisting of a nar-
row beach as a result of the construction of a reef type breakwater and alternative
stabilization measures.
Effect of Reef Breakwater
Fig.2.32(top) a shows the modification and response of the shoreline resulting from
the construction of a reef type breakwater. Similar to the other shoreline types, the
typical response is the formation of a beach planform in the lee of the breakwa-
ter. This planform is formed from sediment from the longshore transport system,
erosion of the shoreline and/or sand placed as part of the initial construction.
The construction of the reef type breakwater and the formation of the beach plan-
form provides positive protection for the shoreline area without changing the nature
of the area. Following construction, increased beach area is available for recre-
ational use.
Effect ofRevetment
As shown in Fig.2.32(top) b, the lack of a bank section along this type of shoreline
116 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

BREAKUATER

BREAKWATER j
BEACH
INITIAL BEACH PLAHFORH
SHORELINE

PROFILE PLAN
a. Reef Type Breakuater

CONSTRUCTION NOT POSSIBLE

DUE TO LACK OF BANK AREA
BEACH
INITIAL SHORELIHE

/
PROFILE
b. Revetwenc

EXTENSIVE BULKHEAO
BACKFILL
TIEBACK /
BULKHEAD
INITIAL
SHORELINE
BEACH /

PROFILE PLAN
c. Bulkhead

y GROIN
GROIN
BEACH
PLAHFORH INITIAL
/ SHORELINE

^ - /
PROFILE PLAN
d. Groin
tlodlflcatlon/üesponae o f S h o r « l l n « Typa 3

BREAKUATER
BREAKWATER
WETLAND
3HELTERED AREA BEACH
\ «LU
/ PLANFORM
, WETLAND ' - --

PROFILE PLAN
•• Hodiflcatlon/Reaponae of Shoreline Type 4

Figure 2.32. Morphological Interaction of Coast and Structures, Fulford (1985).

 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 117

to support the sloped revetment makes revetment construction impossible.

Effect of Bulkhead
Construction of a bulkhead along a shoreline without a nearshore bank section is
not practical. As shown in Fig.2.32(top) c, extensive backfilling of the area shore-
ward of the bulkhead would be required to achieve the required stability of the
structure.
Effect of Groyne
Fig.2.32(top) d shows the modification and response of the shoreline as a result of
the construction of a groin. Sand trapped on the updrift side of the groin and/or
placed during the initial construction would form a beach planform as shown. As
long as this planform remains, some protection is provided to the shoreline area.
However, as discussed previously, storm- driven waves would still be able to attack
this area and would tend to erode and transport sand from the shoreline area and
the planform into the offshore area.
Shoreline T y p e 4
Reef Breakwater
Fig.2.32(bottom) shows the modification and response of the shoreline as a result
of the construction of a reef type breakwater. Similar to the other applications, a
beach planform would be expected to form. The wave energy reduction as a re-
sult of the breakwater and the buffer zone provided by this planform would result
in positive protection of the wetland area. Continued propagaton of the wetland
plants would be expected. In fact, the sheltered zone in the lee of the breakwater
would be suitable to the creation of additional wetland areas.
Revetment
As discussed for Shoreline Type 3, revetment construction along this type of shore-
line is not possible.
Bulkhead
Bulkhead construction is not practical along this type of shoreline. Backfilling of
the area shoreward of the bulkhead would eliminate the wetland area if the bulk-
head is located bayward of the wetland. Locating the bulkhead shoreward of the
wetland would result in the loss of the wetland as a result of reflected wave energy
and scouring in front of the bulkhead.
Groyne
As a result of the lack of storm protection provided by a groin and the updrift
beach planform, groin construction to protect the wetland area is not practical.
118 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures
Shoreline position

parallel countours

wave crest

wave ray

Figure 2.33. Schematic Representation of Shoreline Evolution in Pelnard-Considere's Model.

2.7 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING of SHORE TRANSFORMATION

at STRUCTURES

2.7.1 Cross-Shore Structures

The first theoretical model to describe shoreline changes at an artificial cross-shore
structure was constructed by Pelnard- -Considere (1956). This study was quite
fundamental for the analytical description of the interraction between a structure
and beach, and therefore has been used in most later models. In the following we
examine this model.
The primary assumption in Pelnard-Considere's theory are:
- constant angle of wave incidence, not greater than <p < 20°,
- linear relationship between longshore sediment transport Q and the angle of wave
incidence, i.e. Q = Q(<p)
- mutually parallel isobaths and constant equilibrium shape of the beach profile,
thus reducing the problem to the so-called one line.
The basic equation derived by Pelnard-Considere is of the diffusion type
• d 2y cfy
Ü T ~2 = (2.9)
dx dt
in which the system of coordinates x, y is as shown in Fig.2.33. The variable y = y
(x,t) is a temporal function of beach changes. The parameter K in Eq.2.9 is given
by
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 119

K = 19- \v=Vo (2. 10)

n tp
The quantity h is the deep water depth on which indipient rnotion of sediments
takes place.
Eq.2. 10 indicates that erosion and accretion |^ is linearly dependent on the shore
line curvature, longshore sediment transport derivative with regard to the angle of
(f, j?-, and inversely proportional to h.
With adequate boundary and initial conditions Pelnard-Considere's model can be
used practically for every cross-shore structure (breakwater, groyne, causeway, pier,
e t c ) . Because of the assumptions and simplifications the method must not be
considered a universal tooi for prediction of diversified beach profiles, but careful
application of it can produce a number of valuable data for long-term beach
transformations about structures.
Pelnard-Considere has applied his theory to the case of a long impermeable cross-
shore structure. For appropriate boundary conditions his solution of Eq.2.9 reads:

y(x,t) = t?^[sfeKyexp{-U2) - x^E(u)] (2. 11)

in which u = ^
Eq.2. 11 describes shore line transformations in time t and holds true for times
t < ti when the entire longshore transport is being arrested by the cross-shore
structures.
The characteristic time tx necessary for complete rilling of the area on the upward
side of the structure is given by the formula
L 7T
(2. 12)
4:K tan 2 <p0
in which LB = length of cross-shore structure.
For times t > ti the up-wave side of a structure is completely filled with sediments
and then a part of the sediment transported along shore will move seaward of a
structure and therefore further changes of shoreline will be given by
y = LB.E(u) (2. 13)
In this original version Pelnard-Considere's method neglects a number of factors
due to its simplifications.
The most important ones include negligence of wave refraction and diffraction, on-
off shore sediment motion, and the assumption of constant bed slope with mutually
parallel isobaths. These simplifications have given rise to many disparties between
prototype and mathematical models, Le Mehaute and Soldate (1977).
A next step in mathematical modelling of shoreline transformation was done by
120 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

y
"y2

1\
grom -/ WMMMM'
f/////J//)///////t

%
777777777777777
^y1

Figure 2.34. Representation of Two-Line Theory.

Bakker (1968), Bakker et al. (1970). He presented a more sophisticated model for
beach changes around a single groyne or a group of structures. Having accepted
Pelnard-Considere general reliationship, Bakker takes into account wave diffraction
and on-offshore sediment transport linked to cross-shore bed transformation. The
coastal zone in Bakker's model is represented by two lines, which in general must
not be parallel. There are two parts of the beach profile given by two lines
(Fig.2.34), and therefore Bakker's model is referred to as the two-line theory.
The bed transformation in Bakker's method yi(x,t) is computed as the resultant
of the stationary effect of wave diffraction ya(x), and an unsteady effect y[(x, t)

yi(x,t)=y0(x) + y[(x,t) (2. 14)

The quantity ya(x) to mark the steady shoreline is given by the differential euqation:
dya
<Px (2. 15)
dx H2(x)
in which <px,<poo = angles of wave incidence at point x and infinitely f ar away from
the structure, respectively;
H(x) = ratio of wave height at any point x to wave height far away from structure.
The unsteady factor due to the presence of a structure and cross-shore sediment
transport, yi(x,t) can be found from the equation
dq\ d2y[ , 1 dq\dy{ 1y (2. 16)
dt H1(x)dx dx2 +' H^x) dx dx Hi(x) (yi - V2)

in which
q* = A.Hi(x)
qy,A,q2 = constants.
The depth changes below the structure head y2 are given by the differential
equation
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 121

dy2 dq2 d2y2 gy f . .. 1 .

at H2(x)ox ox2 H2(x)
The lines yi(x, t) and y2{x,t) can be found by numerical solutions of Equations 2.16
and 2.17 with given boudary conditions. More accurate discussion of the model
and its application to a system of groynes is given in a number of studies, Bakker
(1968) and Bakker et al (1970).
It should be added that despite the great potentials of the two-lines theory its
practical application is complicated due to the necessity of satisfying boundary
conditions, which is one of the drawbacks of the model. In particular, this
reservation is extended to the quantitinve analysis of pertinent phenomena. It
must be noted that Bakker's theory neglects the following factors: - the effect of
rip currents on the cross-shore transport at groynes
- the effect of wave diffraction on shoreline transformation on the leeside of groynes
- the effect of wave refraction on changes in sediment transport.
These effects in some cases can be of crucial importance to the accuracy of
prediction.
Bakker's theory of two-lines has been elaborated in more studies, intended mostly
towards verification of the model. Some results are presented by Hulsbergen, von
Bochove and Bakker (1976). Among other things it is shown that Bakker's model
yields an approximate description of the phenomena observed in experiments.
It is appropriate to mention a study by Perlin and Dean (1978), in which a number
of computational examples are given for the action of cross-shore structures on
beach. Various methods are compared (Pelnard-Considere and Bakker), along
with implicit as well as explicit numerical schemes. Long impermeable cross- -
shore structures were treated. Perlin and Dean have found that a multiple m-line
model as an extension of Bakker's theory would be most appropriate. The m-line
model would hopefully simulate bed topographies around structures in the best
feasible manner. Two additional studies appeared at the end of the seventies of
Le Mehaut'e and Soldate (1977, 1980). Both have been based on the Pelnard-
Considere theory.
In Le Mehaute' and Soldate (1977) the quantity of sediments bypassed after t> tx
seaward of the groyne head have been analysed The equation:

w=w-(</<1°:6o,38)./J (Z18)

in which Q = longshore sediment transport rate for undisturbed conditions provides

a tooi to follow perturbations in longshore sediment transport due to the presence
of a cross-shore structure.
The graphical illustration of Eq.2.18 is given in Fig.2.35. Assuming that the newly
formed shoreline reaches the head of a cross-shore structure due to the presence
of the latter, after time t = 5ix it is about 75% of the sediment transport Q0
122 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Q/Qo

Theoretical curve

All sand
.stopped by —I
structure
Practical curve with bedload transportation

Figure 2.35. Temporal Variation of Sediment Transport at Impermeable Obstacle, Le Mehaute &
Brebner (1977).

which is passed by seaward of a groyne head while the remaining part is still being
entrapped updrift of the groyne. This illustrates the fact that even after a long
time since a relatively stable shoreline was created there is no return to the shore
configuration for natural conditions without a structure.
Results of the analyses presented by Le Mehaute' and Soldate (1977) have been
utilized by Pruszak and Tarnowska (1982). Basing on their own scale model tests
on the effect of a cross-shore structure on sediment transport distributions and
shore evolution the latter authors have assessed the applicability of Le Mehaute
and Soldate's method. Inter alia, they have found that for an impermeable cross-
shore structure having a length equal to the surf zone, width it is from the very
beginning (t < fa) that a slight portion of sediment is moved behind the groyne
head (about 5% of the sediment transport rate for undisturbed conditions). This
quantity increases subsequently to about 20% of the initial value as the time
approaches ti(t = ti). In another study by Le Mehaute and Soldate (1980) the
theory by Pelnard-Considere is extended for a new single-line numerical forecast
of shoreline evolution in the vicinity of a cross-shore structure. Compared with
Pelnard-Considere's model the latter study includes La. such effects as wave
refraction and diffraction, and changes in bed slope.
The basic differential equation for shoreline evolutions reads
dy B0 + h ,(dy^-id2y , m , N (2. 19)
F{ o)[1 + {
m=-BTh * dï)] ^ + R{x t]
^
in which
B=elevation of the active berm above sea-water level
df
F(v?o
• ) = cos tp0 — cos (pb sm (fo sin <p b (2. 20)
d(p0
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 123

„. . Bo + h-,, .dtp , .dD 1 h TA

(2. 21)
+2 A D —z— cos y>0 sm <£>&

in which D
^ = temporal variation of sea-water level
fM = ^(0.25 + 5.5§)
K D = diffraction coëfficiënt.
Precise meaning of all symbols can be found in the study by Le Mehaute' and
Soldate (1980).
Eq.2. 19 in its general form is unsolvable analytically. Numerical solution can
however be found for given boundary conditions although the task is rather
formidable. Therefore simpler cases are usually analysed for which solutions are
easier.
For a constant bed slope and elevation of berm, upon a number of additional
assumptions, cf. Le Mehaute' and Soldate (1980), one may obtain the following
simplified version of Eq.2. 19
dy d 2 . 1 dD
—- = — KD cos (f0 sm (fb- -—— (2. 22)
at ox m dt
Eq.2. 22 embodies both diffraction and refraction and at the same time is simple in
numerical treatment. In the case of refraction effects alone the following diffusion
equation holds
dy r , .d2y , . . . 1 d 2y ,„ „ .
L x zcosl
-^ = ( ^)ö^ =( PoCosipb-smip0sm<pb)-~^~ (2. 23)

in which z = 0.25 + ö.öf 2 . Taking boundary conditions for a Standard case of an

impermeable cross-shore structure one may solve Eq.2. 23 analytically by analogy
to Pelnard-Considere's solution
[kt x2
y(x,t) = 2taxnp\—exp(—— tarnpE{u) (2. 24)
V 7T ^rrCfc

or otherwise

y(x,t) = cosipsinifb %-t^expi f- - ~E(u) (2. 25)

y J
7rk ^ Akt a
Solutions in Eq.2. 24 and Eq.2. 25 differ from that given by Pelnard- -Considere
in that the parameter K is variable.
Le Mehaute and Soldate have applied their model to Port Holland in State
124 Effectiveness óf coastal defence measures
1600 1967 Shoreline positions
1968 Actual
1968 Predicted

Breakwater planforms

Calculated

200

-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
Figure 2.36. Le Mehaute and Soldate's (1980) Results.

Michigan, USA. The case considered was a system of two neighbouring breakwaters
taken as normal to shoreline. Results of the computation by Eq.2. 22 with
adequate boundary conditions and measurements corresponding to them are shown
in Fig.2.36.
Le Mehaute and Soldate (1980) have determined that a considerable effect on
shoreline evolution is due to wave refraction. It has also been found that despite
its simplifications (no cross-shore transport or rip currents, and long-shore transport
as a function of the variable y only) the model can be used for various cases of
shore discontinuities in the normal sense.
Another example of the application of Le Mehaute and Soldate's model can be
found in a study by Borah and Bolloffet (1983). Computations were carried out for
long-term (about 30 years) forecast of shoreline evolution due to a reconstruction
of a long quay (more than 1 km) protruding into the sea normally to the shoreline
in the neighbourhood of existing piers, and thus about a whole system of structures.
A considerable number of publications have appeared in the eighties for numerical
models of shore-line evolution. Almost all of them are based on the simple
and well-known Pelnard-Considere's theory of single line. These studies do not
introducé revolutional concepts as far as the mathematical modelling of shore-line
evolution at structure is considered. They do provide however simpler or more
sophisticated numerical algorithms for various situations and boundary conditions.
Examples are provided in the studies by Hanson and Kraus (1980), Kraus, Hanson
and Horikai (1984), Matsuoka and Ozawa (1983) or Khomitskiy (1983) and Hanson
(1987).
The University of Lund has offered an interesting and relatively simple numerical
model of shoreline evoltuions, including the effect of groyne permeability, Hanson
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 125

and Kraus (1980). The model makes use of Pelnard Considere's one-line theory
upon the assumption that the long-shore sediment transport rate is proportional
to the angle of wave incidence with no currents, a small angle of wave incidence,
etc.
The differential equation in this model of shore-line evolution is the diffusion
type equation (Eq.2. 9) with a slightly different parameter K given in terms of
the factor of proportionality k between long-shore sediment transport rate and
longshore energy flux at breaking point:

2kyJgHb/hb Hb 2s
K = { ) (2 26)
16h(ps/p-l)(l-p) ÏAÏ6 ' -
in which
p=sediment porosity.

Unlike the earlier models Hanson and Kraus' proposal includes characteristics of
sediments and not only wave parameters. For simple boundary and some constant
parameters of Eq.2. 26 the latter can be solved analytically. However if one seeks
a better approximation to prototype, including wave diffraction, variations of bed
slope and temporal variability of the pertinent factors, then an exact analytical
solution must be approximated with numerical algorithms, similarly as was done
by Le Mehaute and Soldate.
One of the boundary conditions applied in Hanson and Kraus' solution included
the assumption on the permeability of cross-shore structures. Theoretical testing of
the effect of structures having permeability varying from 0% to 60 % on shore-line
evolutions is depicted in Fig.2.37.
The numerical model proposed by Hanson and Kraus is characterized by a typical
sequence of computations which are also present in other studies. They include -
computations and input of initial and boundary data (original shoreline, bed slope,
depth, wave field, location of groyne, groyne permeability etc.)
- determination of the temporal and spacial increments
- determination of the angle, location and height of breaker
- determination of long-shore transport rate and its modification due to boundary
conditions
- determination of consecutive shorelines depending on given boundary conditions.
The details pertaining to the solution of such problems can be found in the study
by Hanson and Kraus (1980).
Khomitskiy (1983) and Selezov et al (1983) have presented a new method for
computations of shoreline evolution at a cross-shore structure being now in use in
the USSR. This is a next version of Pelnard-Considere's one-line theory, very close
to the one proposed by Le Mehaute' and Soldate in 1980, Eq.2. 23.
In Khomicki's formulation (1983) the basic differential equation reads
126 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

— P = 0.20
— P=0.4Ö

— P = 0.A0
'10
m — P=0.60
5
r***& 25 50 100 200

Figure 2.37. Effect of Groyne Permeability on Shoreline Changes. Computations by Hanson &
Kraus (1980) for #=0.7 m, <p=20°, t= 1 day.

dy(x,t) d2y(x,t)
<y) k 0- (2. 27)
dt dx2
This equation can be transformed to
dy(x,t) _ kQ d2y(x,t) _ d2y(x,t)
K (2. 28)
dt z(y) dx2 d'X'
in which K0 = constant linked to wave and sediment properties.
Eq.2. 28 can be solved numerically upon adequate assumptions for boundary
conditions, yielding the curve y(x, t) for shoreline. An analytical solution can not
be found due to the variability of z(y); (in Pelnard-Considere's model this quantity
was constant z(y) = h, Taking z{y) — h one obtains a solution to Eq.2. 28 as a
function y(x,t) analogous to formula 3.3 or 3.5 depending on which time interval
t<ii is considered.
Recent years have been numerous numerical solutions for shoreline evolution
derived in Japan. The study by Matsuoka and Ozawa (1983) is a single-line model
consisting of two parts. The first part describes the wave field together with wave
diffraction and refraction while the second part computes shore-line evolutions.
The continuity equation
dl+ldQ 0 (2. 29)
dt h dx
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 127

is applied by analogy to the diffusion equation assumed by some other investigators.

The model was used for various types of structures, among others for a system of
two piers having different length normal to shoreline. The results of computations
obtained were only partly in agreement with the figures measured in the field,
Matsuoka and Ozawa (1983).
One of the most recent studies has been provided by Hanson (1987). It presents a
system of numerical models referred to as GENESIS, which was derived for shore-
line evolution at structures. All versions of the model are based on the one-line
theory and on the assumption that the shore profile remains constant. It is only
the shoreline position which varies.
Unlike the other models derived from the same concepts, GENESIS represents
complex algorithms which can deal with systems of structures having different loca-
tions and shapes. Wave refraction and diffrafion is included together with sediment
flow about groyne and sources and sinks of sediment, e.q. in estuarial areas.
Aside from the models for direct forecast of shoreline evolution at structures one
should also mention the methods for computations of waves and currents alone.
For given waves and currents one can subsequently assess the patterns of shore
cross erosion and accretion. This problem is not however dealt with within this
report. The readers interested in the interaction of waves and currents with struc-
tures may be addressed to the two-dimensional model elaborated by Liu and Mei
(1976), which has been implemented on IBM PC at IBW PAN. The wave section
of that model is based on the linear approximation and assumes isobaths parallel
to shoreline. The current patterns about structures are computed from the Navier
Stokes' equation averaged over depth and time, including three components of
radiation stree, bed friction and gravity forces.
Liu and Mei's model was tested against the data measured in a wave tank, Skaja
and Szmytkiewicz (1982). Satisfactory agreement of the computations with the hy-
draulic data has been noted.
In summary, at should be stated that despite numerous studies done hitherto,from
an engineering point of view the most effective and useful models are based on the
one-line theory. This is due to a variety of reasons. First of all, our knowledge of
cross- -shore transport in an n-line forecast of shoreline at structures is insufficiënt.
Secondly, the degree of complexity involved in n-line models is overly high for
sophisticated boundary conditions, even in the numerical implementation.
Next, the single line theory is so successful because despite its simplicity it repre-
sents prototype conditions quite well.
Field observations have shown that dramatic changes in beach profile due to a
severe storm are smoothed out after a relatively short time of the order of a few
days, or weeks at most. The shore profile returns to its pre-storm shape, although
its origin (shoreline) can be displaced. As a result, the shore transformation is a
perïodic phenomenon.
128 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Observations of high stability of shore profiles in -longer terms and rélative insta-
bility of shoreline in shorter scales indicate that the models based on the one-line
theory are particularly useful.
Depending on specific coastal conditions and practical necessities one may recom-
mend the refined model derived by Le Mehaute' and Soldate (1980), together with
a complex system of computational procedures GENESIS presented by Hanson
(1987).

2.7.2 Shore-Parallel Structures

Etnerging Structures
The interaction of the coast and shore-parallel structures becomes complicated
compared with the case of cross-shore structures. A sophisticated system of short-
crested waves arises as a result of interference of progressive and reflected waves.
Strong wave difïraction is noticeable about extremities of a structure. A higher an-
gle of wave incidence a flow along structure is observed which promotes scouring
at the toe.
Any mathematical modelling of the pertinent phenomenon is a complex task. Some
studies, mostly Japanese and American appeared in the seventies to provide a the-
oretical description and forecast of the morphological changes at shore-parallel
structrures.
The study by Madsen and Grant (1976) contains a numerical model of bed evolu-
tion for a shore-parallel detached breakwater.
The basic equation used by Madsen and Grant (1976) is the differential equation of
continuity for sediment transport and bed changes, together with the time-averaged
equation for longshore sediment transport in the direction of the axes x and y:

Qx = ^ fTQx(t)dt (2.31)
1 Jo

Qv = ^J*Qy(t)dt (2.32)

The wave diffraction about the structure is described by the Penny Price algorithm.
Wave reflection has been parametrized with the aid of the reflection coeficient..
Examples of computations have been produced for a shore -parallel impermeable
detached breakwater of length L = 660 m (ie. six wave lengths). Using their
numerical procedures and boundary conditions Madsen and Grant (1976) arrived
at bed evolution behind the breakwater (Fig.2.38).
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 129

en
c
o
-6
i
1
CL)

o
cc
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Dïstance from breakwater tip in wavelengths

Figure 2.38. Bed Changes and Diffiraction Coëfficiënt at One Wavelength Behind Breakwater, Grant
and Madsen (1976).

—i 1 <• " -i 1 1 r-

/ / / / / / / Beach

Wave direction
Current — No change
direction
^ Scour
I | Accreation

Breakwater

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Distance from breakwater tip in wavelengths

Figure 2.39. Three-Dimensional Bed Changes Behind Breakwater, Grant and Madsen (1976).
130 Effectiveness ofcoastal defence measures

It should be noted that a clear-out relationship exists between local maxima and
minima of the diffraction coëfficiënt and the accretion and erosion areas. The
erosion occurs where the diffraction coëfficiënt increases (1.5 to 2.0 wave length
away from the brakwater head). Behind the breakwater head, about one wave
Length awayr the diffraction coëfficiënt diminishes and accretion is observed. The
three-dimensional bed changes due to the variation of sediment transport behind
the breakwater is shown in Fig.2.39.
By inclusion of wave refiection through adding a standing wave, Madsen and Grant
have obtained the three-dimensional bed configuration on the seaward side of the
structures.
It should be noted that Madsen-Grant's model provides a fairly general mathe-
matical description of sediment transport and of erosion and accretion zones for a
shore-parallel structure quite remote from shoreline.
A forecast method for bed transformation at a shore-parallel structure located
closely to shoreline is given by Periin (1979). This study provides a numerical
model for bed evolution in the sheltered area behind a detached breakwater. The
model is based on the one-Iine theory and includes wave refiection and diffraction.
Similar to Grant-Madsen's model, the basic system of equations used by Periin
includes relationships for continuity of sediment mass and longshore transport,
whereas in terms of the one-line theory one has

The model is reported on in more details by PERLIN and DEAN (1978). The
computations were performed for the case when an expanding salient merged with
the breakwater and created a tombolo. Dimensionless parameters for optimum
location and size ot the breakwater have also been given.
A number of further studies appeared in the eighties, mostly in Japan: Kraus
(1983), Mimura, Shimuzu, Horikawa (1983), Kraus, Hanson, Harikai (1984) or
Hanson, Kraus (in press). Much as for the cross-shore structures these studies also
differ from one another by numerical details having however untouched the basic
scheme. The equation for shoreline evolution in all models mentioned reads

in which D » h
q = cross-shore transport or a quantity representing sediment sources and sinks
along shore
Q = longshore transport.
Some differences do appear in the determination of the longshore transport. Kraus
(1983), Kraus, Hanson and Harikai (1984) or Mimura, Shimizu and Horikawa
(1983) and Hanson (1987) introducé the recent formula by Ozasa and Brampton
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 131

(1980), while Matsuoka and Ozawa (1983) and Borah and Balloffet (1983) continue
to use one of the earlier CERC versions
Q — A.Pb.sinab.cosab (2. 35)
in which Pb = wave energy flux due to breaking
A = empirical factor (A = 2.17.104; Savage)
Ozasa and Brampton's formula is to be applied in particular if wave is diffracted
about a breakwater or headland and its height changes along shore, giving rise to
the gradiënt | ^ . The starting points for this method can be found in Komar and
Inman (1970)/
For oblique wave incidence and diffraction around a structure Ozasa and Bramp-
ton's formula reads

Q = ^Kt / ^ ' ^ v i -SKx^2ah- K2^cot(3cosab) (2. 36)

16(ps/p- 1)(1 - p ) dx
in which Kx and K2 are model calibration parameters.
Komar-Inman's formula appears if ^ = 0. The first part of Eq.2. 36 corresponds
to the CERC formula for sediment transport due to an oblique wave without
diffraction. The other term modifies (reduces) the longshore transport due to the
longshore variation of wave height and becomes important if wave is subject to
diffraction, that is in the neighbourhood of the structure.
The coefficients Kr,K2 are not specified clearly. CERC recommends Kx = 0.77,
while some other reports suggest Kx = 0.1...0.6. Model tests have shown that
the quotiënt K2jKx varies trom 0.5 to 1.5, Kraus, Hanson and Harikai (1984).
The two parameters, K\ and K2 to calibrate the numerical model, counterbalance
the action of the two forces due to the oblique wave incidence and the longshore
variation of the wave height.
The practical application of the models consists in the use of the same equation
Eq.2. 34 and Eq.2. 35 or Eq.2. 36, for different boundary conditions. Some
examples are given by Kraus (1983) and Mimura, Shimizu and Horikawa (1983)
who compare the computations of shore evolution with measurements for a single
detached breakwater.
Matsuoka and Ozawa (1983) provide an identical comparison both for a single
breakwater and a group of three shore-parallel detached breakwaters. In all these
studies their authors indicate good agreement of computations with measurements
carried out in hydraulic laboratories.
A contribution by Hanson (1987) provides a gross model referred to as "Genesis",
already referred to, which makes possible the computation of the effect of systems
of structures on the coast. The study contains examples of computations and the
physical and mathematical background.
132 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures
Time Range
Years
Hours Months
(1 storm) (season) 1-5 5-10 10-20

3-D Model
PI
J!
ca> One-line Model
O
"x O
—•»
-•»
w
8 " 5?
o K'acro- •J = : O O
p toess ? » E.
JZ IT jxiel
Multi-lne Model 3 3 5" m
O)
c x
o - f
a>

MSI
L L 1- «
Beach Change Prediction Models
classification by spatial and temporal scales

Figure 2.40. Classification of Shore Evolution Models, Krauss (1983).

In the USSR the shoreline evolution at a detached breakwater was modelled by

Khomicki (1983):

y(x,t) (2. 37)

2\firatt * * * - ^

in which 5 3 = the area between the x axis and shoreline contour at given time t
a = empirical accretion factor.
Testing of Eq.2. 37 has shown considerable effect of the relative structure length
on the formation of coast-accretion forms and their shapes. For normal wave inci-
dence the optimum breakwater distance from shoreline YB should not be greater
than the structure length LB(LB > YB\ while for oblique wave attack <p > 15°, the
breakwater length LB = (1...3)YB.
If the longshore sediment transport is reduced or interrupted the coastal accre-
tion form becomes distorted by flattening along the x axis, proportionally to y/i,
Khomicki (1983).
Kraus (1983) has provided a summary of numerical models and their applicabil-
ity in the forecast of shoreline evolution at structures. The following four groups.
of models have been summarised: one-line models, multiple-line models, three-
dimensional models and macro- -models. The division is shown graphically in
Fig.2.40.
From among the categorised groups the best and most suitable for our tests is the
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphologcal) effects 133

three-dimensional model. It allows for analyses of local phenomena, but it is not

fully applicable due to some theoretical gaps. The integration and averaging of
various components of the three-dimentional model bring it to the multiple line
model or even to a one-line version.
A number of informations and generalization for shorter times can be obtained
with a one-line model. Because of the variety of time scales involved the groups
of models categorised above multually intertwine, Fig.2.40.
The M - line model is an expansion of the one-line model and makes possible
the representation of shoreline evolution with a few lines, together with a cross-
shore sediment transport. This may be exemplified by Bakker's two-line model.
There are many possibilities for search of modified solutions in agreement with
the complexity of an analysed coast.
The one-line model is applied most frequently since it predicts long-term changes
of major coastal properties, and permits multiscale phenomena to be investigated
along with local peculiarities of coastal line with regard to energy and accretion.
This model is the only practical tooi for engineering computations. The fourth
group of models is in contrast to the three-dimensional models because it provides
general trends in coastline evolution for macroscales in time and space. Therefore
models of this group provide rough estimates only. An example is the simplest
one- line model with constant wave fields (without refraction and diffraction) and
for simplified boundary conditions.
The prediction of waves and currents for the sheltered area between the breakwater
and shoreline is provided by the two-line model of Liu and Mei (1976). This model
is adequate for a long breakwater located seawards of the break point and small
uniform bed slopes. Liu and Mei's solution takes into account the wave refraction
and diffraction phenomena but neglects the convection effects and the longitudinal
turbulent diffusion, much as for the cross-shore structures.
Submerged structures
Coast evolution is closely related to transmission of wave energy towards beach.
Upon prediction of wave flux one can indirectly model the eventual bed changes.
Using this type of control one may enforce erosion or accretion. This type of
structures is most common in Japan and the USSR.
The review of studies on shore parallel submerged structures and their effect on
coastal evolution is given by Onoszko, Tarnowska and Zeidler (1980). It embodies
the studies up to 1980 and includes primarily the effect of structures on changes in
regular wave height.
Mei and Black (1969) provide theoretical background, basing on small amplitude
waves and intended for submerged structures having various widths at their top.
One of the most recent studies was published by Baba (1986). It summarises the
134 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

existing computational methods for wave attenuation and coastal defence with a
shore-parallel submerged breakwater. This analysis, basing on laboratory tests, has
shown that Goda's theory is the best among the methods assessed (Lizov 1962,
Goda 1967 and 1969 and Seeling 1980). The analytical background is provided by
the transmission factor Ku as noted earlier in See.2.3.3.
As emphasized, results of the computations of wave attenuation due to a shore
parallel submerged breakwater should be assessed with care. This sterns from the
fact that the available forecast methods are based on laboratory investigations for
regular waves, Mei and Black (1969), Baba (1986). The applicability and clearness
of these models also depend on a number of empirical lump factors, which are
usually selected quite arbitrarily.
Sea Walls
The forecast methods for beach evolution in the vinicity of shore-parallel structures
(sea wall type) should take into account the following principles:
• shoreline must not retreat landwards behind the sea wall frontline
• mass continuity law must be fulfilled

• the direction of littoral sediment drift must agree with nutural tendencies of
local sediment transport.
Like in the case of some other sea defence structures, cross-shore (groynes, jetties
etc) or shore-parallel (detached breakwaters), also in the case of sea walls, the
basic equation for shore evolution assumes the earlier general form:
dy ldQ
- (2 m
(2 3 8 )
dt ~ ' D ^ '
The other equation used in shore evolution models describes the longshore sedi-
ment transport, most often such as earlier equations. The effect of coastal struc-
tures (sea walls) is incorporated in the boundary conditions (Ozasa and Brampton,
1980).
Most forecast methods for shore evolution at sea walls were devised at the end
of the seventies. They all are based on the one-line theory. Some differences
stem from various assumptions imposed on numerical schemes and their boundary
conditions.
Ozasa and Brampton (1980) proposed a mathematical model for the evolution of
sea wall-protected shore by assuming some characteristic boundary conditions for
longshore sediment transport. They assumed that the effect of a structure on the.
longshore sediment transport may be neglected if a sufficiently wide beach berm
is created between the shore line and the sea wall. However, if strong erosion
occurs on beach and the berm is washed out, the longshore sediment transport
rate becomes reduced in the model. This rate decreases to zero for a continuing
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 135

tendency towards shoreline retreat and its eventual merging with the sea wall. By
this means Ozasa and Brampton reach the state of static equilibrium for shore
profile.
Hanson and Krauss (1980) proposed a simple predictive model for which some
conditions were imposed on shoreline changes at the sea wall. If the local sedi-
ment transport on the landward side of the structure appeared then it was assumed
that the shoreline did not retreat behind the sea wall but was identical with the sea
wall frontline.
The studies by Hanson and Krauss on the effect of sea walls on shore evolution
were continued by Krauss, Hanson and Harikai (1984), Hanson and Krauss (1985)
and reeently Hanson (1987).
The first of these studies includes examples of shoreline evolution computations
for a system of sea defence structures i.e. sea walls and some other mesures. The
computations were again based on the one-line theory and the authors conclude
that the results were satisfactory and compared swell with the measurements car-
ried out at the harbour of Oarai in Japan.
Hanson and Krauss (1985) discuss the limitations arising due to the fact that shore-
line must not retreat behind the sea wall. These restrictions should be on the same
level of schematization as the one-line theory. Hence the model can include a num-
ber of simplifications, such as the neglect of wave reflection, local scour, accretion,
flow and undermining. Hanson and Krauss claim that if the shoreline is identi-
cal with the sea wall frontline then the boundary conditions with zero longshore
sediment transport rate are less justified than the transit type of transport. The
direction and volume of the transport are conserved. These assumptions, much as
the method itself cannot be applied if the shore at the sea wall comes to a level
lower than the water level. The synthetical neumerical model referred to as GEN-
ESIS, mentioned above, by which shore evolution at a sea wall can be computed,
being an outcome of longer studies by Hanson and Japanese investigators, deserves
serious attention.
Mc Dougal, Sturtevant and Komar (1987) provide simple equations for the land-
ward encroachment of sea and the size of the eroded area on the downdrift side
of the sea wall. The empirical relationships follow:

r = O.IOIZB (2. 39)

for the maximum reach of erosion r, where LB = structure length; and

s = 0.689LB (2. 40)

for the erosion area (length).

From Equations 2. 39 and 2. 40 it may be seen that the predicted length of the
eroded shoreline on the downdrift side of the structure corresponds to about 70
136 Effectiveness ofcoastal defence measures

% of LB while the maximum scour in the landward direction is about 10 % LB-

In conclusion, it should be stated that shore evolution at sea walls can be predicted
with a satisfactorjy accuracy only in a few field cases under strictly observed con-
ditions, Hanson and Krauss (1985). The maximum shoreline retreat at the very
proxmrity of a sea wall/in the form of an erosiönarembayment, is asséssed as 10%
of the structure length LB in the landward direction and 0.7LB in the downdrift
direction.

2.7.4 Dune Erosion

With reference to numerous parts of this document it is worthwhile to outline fore-
cast methods for dune erosion.
Numerical Modelling of Extreme Shore Events
Since 1954 coastal engineers and scientists have realized that a shore profile main-
tains a certain dynamically stable shape. Bruun (1962) postulated conservation of
volume in shore profile, in the absence of longshore transport rate gradients, as il-
lustrated in Fig.2.41. A similar assumption was made by Pelnard-Considere (1954)
who thereby originated a large family of one-line models, which later expanded to
two-line and m-line verslons, as already discussed.
A somewhat equivalent principle of dune erosion was accepted by Vellinga
(Fig.2.42), who performed extensive large-scale experiments in Delta flume, de-
rived a prediction model and calibrated it against field data (hindcast for 58 shore
profiles for the storm surge of 1976 which caused mean erosion of 30 m3/m with
extremes up to 80 m3/m, and for the storm surge of 1953 that brought about ero-
sion of 100 m3/m). Sargent and Birkemeier (1985) demonstrated that application
of Veilinga's model was justified for U.S.East Coast and the Gulf of Mexico. More-
over, Vellinga's prediction is being currently implemented in the Dutch practice of
(probabilistic) dune design, to which we refer later.
Kriebel and Dean's (1985) study provides an m-line model in which the Bruun
concept is modified with assumptions on power-type shape of shore profile (the
Dean profile), mode of wave energy dissipation, etc. The schematic diagrams in
Fig.2.43 illustrate the idea of m-line theory (a) and the types of shore assumed (b)
and (c). Numerical sensitivity tests of Kriebel and Dean's model have exposed the
following effects:

1. storm surge is more important, for beach retreat, than wave height in the
initial stage of storm

2. fine-sand beach responses more slowly than coarse sand

3. beach response to storm is long so that only 15 ... 30% of potential damage
due to maximum surge is feit in fact.
 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 137

Figure 2.41. Per Bruun's Concept of Equilibrium Profile (top).

Figure 2.42. Veilinga's Model (bottom).

Some results of the testing are presented in Fig.2.44.

Kriebel and Dean fitted their method into a more general scheme of Monte Carlo
simulation of erosion climate which permitted probabilistic evaluation of beach vol-
ume eroded (Fig.2.45) and a guideline curve for design of dune recession (Fig.2.46).
Although the derivation was originally intended for tropical and subtropical storm
surges, the probabilistic aspect incorporated via Monte Carlo simulation seems to
filter out local or geographic effects so that the graphs might be helpful in approx-
imate design of erosion due to severe storms.
In his probabilistic analysis of dune erosion, van der Graaff (1986) claims that the
erosion rate and its prediction depend on the following factors:
• maximum storm surge
• wave height (e.g. significant) in the stage of maximum storm surge
• grain size distribution curve of dune
• initial shore profile
• duration of storm
• wind gusts;
' all of them supplemented by
138 Effecüveness of coastal defence measures
x
mst ,.

Figure 2.43. Kriebel & Dean's m-Line Model.

(a)

Figure 2.44. Testing of Kriebel & Dean's Model.

 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 139

RETURN PCSIOO IN «ARS

25 » CO 200
2 05rT^T°

RETURN PCRICO (T.ort)

2S 50 100 200

/
/
8
u 10

I
>'

J OS 03 0 2 XX 005 J .OS OS 0 2 J0< .006

«WeAauT* OF ESEEDENCE
Pfl06A8lUTY OF DcCEEDENCE

Figure 2.45. Kriebel & Dean's Probabilistic Assessment of Dune Erosion (left).
Figure 2.46. Kriebel & Dean's Design Curve (right).

• accuracy of computations.
Graaff distinguishes three levels of probabilistic dune design, as discussed in our
Chapter One, viz. (III) exact probabilistic methods, (II) approximate methods,
with linearization about thoroughly selected points and (I) engineering methods
employing safety factors. Level III requires multi-dimensional probability den-
sity functions, which are generally unknown and involve tremendous amounts of
computations, so that they are not used in common practice.
At level II one assumes Gaussian distributions of all mutually independent factors.
The exceedance probability of storm surge level is taken by Graff as
Pr(h >h) = aexp(-/3h) (2. 41)
in which
a = 727.86 and j3 = 3.01 for Hook van Holland.
Graaff also assumed that the distribution of significant wave height Hs during storm
surge was Gaussian, with the mean value given for Hook von Holland by
PH. = 4.82 + 0.6/i - 0.0063(7 - ft)3-13 (2. 42)
on the depth of water h extending from 3 to 7 m above MWL.
Wind gusts were supposed to increase the volume of erosion A by
AA = 0.125AAh (2. 43)
140 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

b
z

s
1
1
1
1 MSL
1
*'-<„ ^?>> h
o
X

^ ^ ^ w _

w E„ ""'•
• •

Figure 2.47. Kobayashi's (1987) Model.

500

1
10
tt (i h
hr 15
°t(hr, 1 5

DUNE RECESSION. R-W. ADVANCEMENT OF BREAKER

POINT. E - E 0 . ERODED VOLUME . V e . and DEPOSITED
VOLUME. V d . Kobayashi (1987)

Figure 2.48. Kobayashi's (1987) Results.

 Ch.2: Far-field (morphological) effects 141

in which
Ah is the superelevation of storm surge caused by the gust bumps.
Graaff (1986) took for granted the Vellinga model and carried out computations
at level II. Storm surge, i.e. rise in water level has appeared the most important
factor.
In order to make our review more complete it is appropriate to mention another
analytical method for dune erosion by storms. Kobayashi (1987) refers to Kriebel
and Dean (1984, 1985) and proposes a simplified solution for a rectangular storm
surge hydrograph. The temporal variations of the dune recession and eroded
sediment volume are expressed in terms of the given intial profile, storm surge,
breaker depth, and sediment characteristics. The schematic diagrams in Fig.2.47
clarify the concept. Practical results may be obtained from the analytical findings
summarized in Fig.2.48.
CHAPTER 3

Near-field effects: scour and other failure modes

3.1 SCOUR

3.1.1 General
Scour is a particular mode of instability at the interface of a structure and its envi-
ronment, and not necessarily the structure itself. Described in a very elementary
way, scour is local erosion seen as removal of soil particles from the soil-water
interface. As it occurs at a structure and not entirely inside it, scour must not
be deemed strictly an internal failure mode, in terms of Section 3.2. It depends
heavily on the layout, geometry and dimensions of structures; the controlling hy-
drodynamical factors such as waves and currents; and properties of sea bed. Hence
it seems more appropriate to place the scour phenomena in the category of en-
vironmental near-field phenomena, i.e. in the class of external stability processes.
Nonetheless, as it occupies a very special place among failure modes, scour certainly
deserves this separate section.
Erosion of the sea bed close to or at a sea wall, breakwater, or related structure
constitutes a frequent design problem. Local scour has often occurred on shingle,
sand or clay beaches, but has also affected structures founded on chalk and other
soft rock foundations. Erosion of beach or foundation material constitutes one of
the major causes of the failure of sea walls in the UK, causing 12% of collapses
directly, and being partially responsible for a further 5% . In the USA toe scour
has caused many problems both during and after construction.
In considering the loss of bed material in front of a structure it is convenient to
distinguish between general bed levels changes and local scour.
Predictions of changes to general bed levels requires a comprehensive knowledge
of the beach morphology, and falls outside of the scope of this chapter as it is
treated in Chapter 2. Changes to bed levels close to a structure may frequently
be correlated with the changes to the hydrodynamic regime locally due to the con-
struction of the structure. The two principal effects caused by such a structure

143
144 Effectiveness ofcoastal defence measures

are the increase in wave orbital velocities due to reflections, and concentration
of wave-induced and tidal currents. At shoreline structures the influence of wave
reflections is of paramount importance. The effect of current is of significance if
structures protrude far away from the shoreline.
In the subsequent text we are beginning with the most prominent exhibitiön of
scour that takes place in front of seawalls and offshore b r e a k w a t e r s , and then
continue with prediction of t o e scour at longshore structures. The information
on scour a t cross-shore s t r u c t u r e s is much scarcer. Local erosion at piles,
pipelines and wharfs, although sometimes less important, is more abundant.
As a good introduction, one may examine the general case of a structure situated
in a coastal zone.
When a coastal structure is built on the porous seabed of the shoaling zone, the
structure itself will obvously react with the natural wave train. Most coastal struc-
tures - even flexible rubble mounds - are quite "hard", compared with the highly
mobile natural porous seabed sediments. Except under extreme waves, therefore,
coastal structures tend to reflect a high proportion of the incoming "normal" classes
of waves.
The consequences of this phenomenon are illustrated in Fig.3.1a devised by Smith
(1989). Due to the interaction between incident and reflected waves, the hydraulic
stirring capacity, in front of the structure is enhanced. As a result of this, the re-
flected wave generates its own partial "beach" in front of the structure. This results
in the so-called "scour-hole", but it is in fact a "negative" or offshore sloping local
beach.
When a major storm arrivés however, this quasi-stable wave refiection relationship
becomes destroyed. The larger storm waves rapidly flatten the seabed in front of
the structure —its "bar" effect is eliminated and a larger wave is able to reach
the structure itself. This larger wave then breaks directly on the structure and the
refiection action becomes reduced almost to zero. This storm effect is depicted
in Fig.3.1.b which demonstrates the minimum design wave exposure that could be
applied under these circumstances.
A thin layer of porous sediment may be quite capable of "training" normal
moderate waves, but it may prove completely inadequate, for coping with trains of
very large waves. Then the available sediment capacity may be totally overwhelmed,
and the sediment will be wept off the impermeable seabed and deposited in the
offshore zone, during Nature's efforts to construct a deeper water storm bar.

3.1.2 Scour at seawalls and offshore breakwaters

"Scour" is commonly used as a generic name for a variety of near-field erosion
effects. More strictly, it consists not only of the mode of u n d e r m i n i n g , in front
of structures as discussed above, but also of outflanking as sketched in Fig.1.12.
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and other failure modes 145

(a)
Spout - Interacticn of Incident + Reflected
when in Phase

Seawall Incident Waves

-Structure
-Maximum Sea Level at Shore Hb-Significant Wave Breaking
Wave
Height

,-^-^Trough V^MSL.

^ g ^ - i S ^ ^ i - ^ l j ' ' " Seabed Maximum Storm (linX Slope)

-
^ "'"''"•
"---r.:ï-.-.
"•• • -"-:-.':...-
{• • Seabed Early Storm

D * Total Maximum Water Depth Exposure E * Calculated Barometric Plus Wind Setup
W - Wave Setup - H b / 4 (This Fluctuates) S » Design Scour Depth - 2Hb+ Hb/2 - 2-5Hb
NOTES-. Maximum Potentiol Single Wave Attacking Structure
Hb (Maximum) • D

Figure 3.1. Smith's (1985) Conceptual Outline of Scour Generation & Self-Adjustment.

Undermim'ng

Figure 3.2. Three Modes of Scour at Sea Wall.

146 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

In addition, one may also identify the mode of undecutting, on the back side of a
sea wall (Fig.3.2), or any structure. The latter is caused by water which overfiows,
overtops, bypasses, etc. the structure, and brings about the said removal of soil
from behind the structure. In the following text we will first concentrate on scour,
understood primarily as the frontal erosion effect, and move next to outflanking,
It is clear worldwide that scour endangers the stability and performance of any
coastal structure. For instance, Aminti et al. (1983) tested in laboratory 13 types
of submerged breakwaters (impermeable structures) of trapezoidal cross-section,
with various angles of slopes, elevations and width of structure crest, rubble-mound
structures, shell structures and special armour structures. Those structures were
sited on depths of 2 and 3 m and were exposed to regular waves having heights
H = 1...2 m and periods T = 5...8s. The objective of the tests was stability
of the structure; the investigations have shown that rectangular structures and
shell structures exhibited the most critical behaviour relative to scouring. Strong
erosion appeared at the beach side footing of the barriers, leading in some case
to the collapse of the structure. The shell structures exhibited the most critical
behaviour relative to scouring.
There has been a lot of controversies on the effects of seawalls on the beach, not
only as to their morphological impact and effectiveness in the far field but also
with regard to local erosion in the near field.
The summary provided by Horikawa (1981) yields a succinct outline of the possible
situations (scour types) and magnitudes. Scour in front a structure takes place if
the balance between beach profile and external forces is disturbed locally or over
a wide area due to the presence of the structure. Thus, in most of the previous
experimental studies on scour, an equilibrium profile without the presence of the
structure is established first, and then the beach profile change after the installation
is examined.
The effect on scour as a function of the location of installed structures has been
studied, for example, by Sawaragi and Kawasaki (1960), Sato, Tanaka, and Irie
(1966), Hosori and Arakawa (1967), Chestnutt and Schiller (1971), Noda and
Iwasa (1972), Hattori and Kawamata (1977), Xie (1981), and Saeki et al. (1985).
Pioneering laboratory experiments on the effects of vertical walls on the beach
were performed by Dorland (1940) and Russel and Inglis (1953).
Fig.3.3 illustrates characteristic dimensions of scour: x is the location of the
structure measured from the position of the original shoreline, Xb is the original
location of breaker point before installation of the structure measured from the
position of the original shoreline, h0 is the initial depth at the front of the structure,
and Ah is the scour depth.
Sato et al, (1966, 1968) examined the scour characteristics for a vertical wall
installed at different locations on various beach profiles, as shown in Fig.3.4. The
experiments were carried out both in a medium size wave flume with a wave height,
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and other faïlure modes 147

Vertical wall

Figure 3.3. Scour Definition Sketch, Horikawa (1988).

H0, of 8.7 cm and wave periods, T, from 1.3 s to 3.0 s, and in a large wave fiume
with wave heights from 26.0 cm to 42.4 cm and wave periods from 2.3 s to 5.1
s. The median size of the bed material, d, ranged from 0.21 mm to 0.69 mm. In
Fig.3.4, beach profiles are shown with respect to offshore wave steepness, H0/L0,
and the ratio of offshore wave height to the median size of the bed material, H0/d.
It was found that the scour time history exhibits four distinct types, as shown in
Fig.3.5.
Rapid scour always occurred if breaking waves acted directly on the wall. Three
of the scour types belonged to this situation: if the structure was installed near
the shoreline, the scour hole mostly refilled (Type I); if the structure was installed
landward of the shoreline, no refilling process took place (Type II); and if the
structure was installed between the breaking point and the shoreline, rapid scourmg
occured initially but it became much slower afterwards (Type III). Scour developed
gradually without refilling, if the depth at the front of the wall is great enough to
allow formation of standing waves (Type IV).
Fig.3.6 shows the maximum scour depth at vertical walls installed at different loca-
tions on the beach profiles shown in Fig.3.4. In the drawing, the ratio of maximum
scour depth to offshore wave height, Ahm/H0 is shown with respect to offshore
wave steepness, H0/L0, and the ratio of offshore wave height to median size of bed
material, H0/d. The greatest scour appeared to occur about the wall installed at
the location between the breaking point (x/xb = 1) and the shoreline (x/xb = 0)
at the beginning of the experiment, and the scour history in this case was of Type
III, as shown in Fig.3.6.
When the wall was installed in the surf zone, significant scour occurred, because
the return fiow caused by the reflected waves from the structure transported bed
material seaward. The effects of reflected waves on the scouring process have been
studied by Sawaragi and Kawasaki (1971) and Saeki et al. (1985). Refilling of the
scour hole in front of the structures by changing the characteristics of the incident
148 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

H,/U H./d
0.033 127
— 0.033 227
0.051 2000
— 0.0062 127
— 0.0062 227
0.0065 1235

Figure 3.4. Scale Model Beach Profiles, Sato et al. (1966, 1968).

Time (0

3 _®
ë, ® ^-—
Scour dep

/w

Figure 3.5. Scour Types at Sea Wall.

HJU HJd
_S 0.0062 127
J 0.0062 227
0.0065 1235
9 I type
© II type
O UI type
• W type
H„IU HJd
-- 0.033 127
- 0.033 227
— 0.051 2000

Figure 3.6. Maximum Scour Depth at Sea Wall.

 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and otherfaïlure modes 149

waves has been studied by Hattori and Kawamata (1976) and Hashimoto, Tanaka,
and Tsutsui (1981).
Fig.3.7 gives an example of scour in front of a breakwater in the field. The scour
depth, Ah, was measured at various locations along the breakwater, where the
initial water depth, h0, increases toward the tip of the breakwater. The envelope
in this figure suggests that the maximum scour would occur if the breakwater is
located at h0 = 23ro, which will be located between the shoreline and the breaking
point under an average rough sea condition. The scour depth would decrease both
seaward and landward of the location of maximum scour. Similar results were
found in the small-scale laboratory experiments.
Fig.3.8 provides an example of scour at the toe of a detached breakwater which
was constructed with concrete blocks in water depths of 3 to 4 m, for the purpose
of shore protection (Katayama, Irie, and Kwakami, 1974). Three sections were
above 20 years old since inception of the construction works. The scour depth
depended upon the crest height of the structure; it was less than 2 m when the
crown height was kept from +1.1 m to +3.0 m . However, it was doubled up to
4 m when the crown height became - 2 m due to heavy subsidence. Scour at the
toe resulted in subsidence of the detached breakwater, and concrete blocks had to
be repeatedly supplied for more than twenty years to maintain the necessary crest
height and cross-section. Subsidence of the detached breakwater was investigated
by a side-scan sonar (Nishida, et al., 1985).
Fig.3.9 shows the cross-section of the detached breakwater including the buried
portion, which indicates that almost twice the number of concrete blocks needed
to fill the design cross section were buried due to long-term subsidence. The cause
for the severe subsidence in this case was not only the scour but also the loss of
the underlying material due to piping and wave agitation.
If structures are placed in deeper water, the sea bed on fheir offshore side is sub-
jected to scour by standing waves. Hattori (1969) proposed a relationship describ-
ing the vertical distribution of suspended sediment in the standing wave. Ishida,
Hayashi, and Takahashi (1981) developed a mathematical model for the rate of
bed-load movement in the standing wave, which indicates that accumulation takes
place at the nodes and scour at loops if there is a strong suspension of bed ma-
terial near the sand ripples. Such a phenomenon was first reported by Bijker and
Wichers (1971).
Irie et al. (1984) (see also, Bijer and Wichers, 1971; Xie, 1981) also identified the
existence of two different modes of bed material movement under standing waves:
the first mode in which suspended load is markedly transported in the direction
from nodes to loops (L-type), and the other mode in which bed load is mainly
transported in the direction from loops to nodes (N-type). Resultant bottom pro-
files associated with these modes are illustrated in Fig.3.10. The net direction of
bed. material movement is determined by the relative magnitude of the two modes
 150 Effectiveness ofcoastal defence measures

"""'S.
• •
-3.0 t ^ I-
1 \
N • *• » ^ A-
E \ "Y^A
•s t • \%
s•a __ •_ __• _ V -- -
^--2.0 4
'• V

<U •• \
/ >
• •
\^
bö ; i • • •
c • % \\
• • •„ v
§ -1-0 • i • "

u.i
« •• \
1 • • >«U
» • • « : •
•• > •• "• j
4
0 • •
0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10
Water depth, ha (m)

Figure 3.7. Scour at Kashima Port Breakwater, Horikawa (1988).

Detached breakwater
+ 1.0-+3.0m (crown height)
L.W.L. V
Offsore Onshore
Distance Distance
140 120 100 80 60 40 20m 1 20 .40 60 80m
o 8 8 '
r* :
•• ••

:
m
in
m <
l.U
!
•

r—2.0
• <*
30 ^ •"

«-4.
• 0 4.0' '
o West coast (1967-68)
• East coast (1969)
• East coast when crown height is —2m below L.W.L. due to subsidence

Figure 3.8. Scour at Detached Breakwater.

Section No.1 Offshore

Section No.2 Offshore

^7 /* ^-- V7
0 nmu^j'? V<
~*— ""'
? mum'
•
_, Concrete blocks "~_^>""
-10
*J
- \ ^ *~
Q
?n 1 1 1 r 1 1 l
0 10 20 30 40 50 60(m)
A C
Section No.3 Offshore
„ o 2 SZ.

~ \ C o n c r e t e blocks;

-20 J i i i i '
0 10 20 30 40 50 60(m)
A C

Figure 3.9. Subsidence of Concrete Units at Foot of Detached Breakwater (Original Dashed Line).
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and otherfailure modes 151
1/2- L

Node
Loop
ca Rubble mound

L/i
Figure 3.10. Two "types of Scour at Rubble-Mound due to Standing Waves.

of movement, and it may be represented as a function of two parameters, u0/wo,

and the Ursell parameter, Ur, where u0 is the amplitude of the horizontal water
partiele velocity of the incident waves near the bed, w0 is the fall velocity of the
bed material, and Ur = HL2/h3.

Kadib (1963) established that the depth of scour decreased with increasing grain
diameter and grew for intensive wave reflection, i.e. for increasing wave steepness.
At present, a major research programme is under way at Hydraulics Research Ltd
to study the potential erosion of shingle beaches fronting seawalls,Owen (1989).
The research involves mobile bed model studies in a random wave fïume, in which
the beach profiles in front of the seawall are very carefully monitored for various
designs and positions of seawalls. Vertical seawalls, sloping revetments, and rock
mounds have been examined, at positions varying trom the toe to the crest of the
natural beach. The tests are now almost complete and the results are presently
being analysed.
Scour depth appears as a complex function of the wave steepness and the dimen-
sionless water depth at the location of the seawall for the natural beach. For
seawalls which are located close to or above the still water line the beach level
actually builds up, except during periods of very steep storm waves. However, for
seawalls located below the still water line erosion occurs for most wave conditions.
In reality of course the wave conditions are changing continually, and the net effect
on beach levels will be the summation of all the different erosion and accretion
depths. When the results of all the tests have been analysed it will hopefully be
possible to compare the scour potential of different designs of seawall, and to pre-
dict the exact shape of the beach profile after the seawall is constructed.
The effect of waves and currents about a structure is pronounced as spots of in-
152 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

tensive erosion and accretion. These spots may be sources of damage, failure and
instability, in particular if they occur in the shallow zone. The prevention is sought
in the construction of special protective aprons and, mo&t often, additional revet-
ments.
Investigations on seawalïs at IBW PAN date back to late sixties (Tarnowska, 1970).
Considerable scour was observed at the toe of seawall due to waves of significant
steepness and height. Later on, l o n g s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s have been
tested at IBW PAN since 1984 for identification of the major hydromechanical
factors controlling the sedimentation at the coastal structures, and their impact on
shore evolution. The studies were conducted in two phases: the first, merely for
waves and currents around structures, in the tank with fixed bed and the second,
with movable bed, for complex measurements of wave, currents and topography.
The data for each of the twelve cases studied include stereophotogrammetric maps
of the free surface (yielding both the mean elevation of water, wave parameters
and other geometrie properties of the free surface), velocities of water, and bed
topography. The second phase continued through 1988.
Judging from the measured fields of waves and currents, the longshore structure
located at the berm {XB = 0) does not bring about significant transformations of
shore, as long as it remains in the swash zone. Important transformations take
place for the case 0 < XB < Xb- The agitation of sea bed in the interference area
of short-crested waves on the seaward side of the structure, in combination with
the considerable longshore current promotes erosion and degradation of the shore
profile.
At the same time, the attenuated motion of water in the shadow area gives rise to
the accretion of sediments and perhaps the formation of tombolo type features, as
pointed out in our discussion of the far-field effects in Chapter Three. For the most
distant structures {XB > Xb), no remote transport of sediments is to be expected
seawards of the structure where the seabed is agitated locally but the littoral drift
is too weak to move it awey. Erosion might however be anticipated between the
beach and the structure.
The above sedimentation patterns, as inferred from the hydrodynamical fields, have
been partly supported by the evidence from the mobile-bed wave tank tests. For
wave parameters as those in the fixed-bed tests (H =10 cm, T=l s and H/L =
0.064), upon normal wave attack, there appeared insignificant reflection from the
sea wall at water line {XB = 0). Rip currents were at right angles to the struc-
ture. Scour occurred at the centre of the sea wall, and the eroded material was
accumulated at the tips of the sea wall. These patterns changed for oblique wave
attack. Short-crested waves in the reflection zone were superimposed on longshore -
currents, and the eroded sand was evacuated beyond the sea wall zone, although
partly at the downdrift extremity of the structure. This accretion disappeared when
the waves were stronger (H = 12.5 cm and T = 0.9 s). It can be concluded that
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and other failure modes 153

once scour is generaled in front of a sea wall, the reflection intensifies the ambient
climate, versus the fixed-bed situation.
Hence, one of the most controversial questions relating to beach scour is whether
seawalls lead to sand loss in front of them. The Army Corps of Engineers (1977,
1981) indicates that toe scour can be expected in front of a seawall, and Smith
and Chapman (1982) describe such an effect in front of rip rap walls in Australia.
Observations along the central coast of California have turned up no conclusive
evidence that seawalls caused beaches to become narrower over time at any of the
study sites. However, this effect is difficult to observe using primarily qualitative
data. It might also be quite transitory, only occurring during storms and high tides,
when the greatest wave energy is exerted at the base of the wall. In any case,
rip rap seawalls, because they are so wide relative to vertical structures, can cover
significant portions of sandy beaches, making them less usable for recreation and
somewhat hazardous for public access. The summer beaches at many locations
have not gone away , but may simply build up against the cliffs, under the revet-
ments, as if the rocks were not there.
A comprehensive review of the effects of seawalls is presented in special issue of
Journal of Coastal Research (No 4, 1988); the highlights are emphasized below,
although sometimes it is difficult to split up the far- and near-field effects.
A review by Kraus (1988) of the literature on the effect of seawalls on the beach
covers approximately 100 technical papers on laboratory, field, theoretical and con-
ceptual studies.
Kraus (1988) concludes that the beach change near seawalls, both in magnitude
and variation, is similar to that on beaches without seawalls, if a sediment supply
exists. Sediment volumes eroded by storms at beaches with and without seawalls
are comparable, as are post-storm recovery rates.
In addition, the shape of the beach profile after construction of a seawall is similar
to the preconstruction shape if a sediment supply exists, showing the same number
of bars with approximately the same volumes and relative locations. The form of
the erosional response to storms at seawalls is typically different, however, with
foreshore erosion that occurs on beaches without seawalls manifested as more lo-
calized toe scour and end effects of flanking and impoundment at seawalls. Limited
evidence indicates that the subaqueous nearshore profile on a sediment-deficiënt
coast with seawalls does not steepen indefinitely, but approaches an equilibrium
configuration compatible with the coarser-grained particles comprising the bottom
sediment.

Weggel (1988), too, sees as conjecture the claims that seawalls have caused exclu-
sive erosion. He presents examples of seawalls where the beaches fronting them
have responded in various different ways. In at least one case, at Santa Cruz, Cali-
fornia, a beach formed in front of a seawall where no beach had existed before. In
154 Effectiveness ofcoastal defertce measures

another case a seawall remained buried beneath the beach but became exposed to
provide protection and prevent further erosion during a period of unusually high
waves.
Six types of seawalls are defined. The classification depends on a seawall's location
on the beach and on the water depth at the walFs base. A type-1 wall is located
landward of the limit of storm wave runup. Type-1 walls have negligible influence
on hydraulic and coastal sediment processes. At the other extreme, type-6 walls
are located seaward of the normal breaker line so that they are usually subjected
to the action of non-breaking waves. Seawalls type 2 through 5 lie between and
have an increasing effect on coastal processes as the type number increases.
In passing, similar findings have resulted from a great variety of tests in a wave
tank with movable bed (Pruszak, Tarnowska, Zeidler, 1988).
The longshore structures located at the beach berm have brought the aforemen-
tioned scour and evolution of shore, while those constructed in the surf zone have
sometirnes caused very considerable transformations.
The importance of sand supply in the impact of seawalls is emphasized by Morton
(1988). His field studies at three barier island sites on a microtidal storm-dominated
coast document the effects of seawalls on (a) relatively stable, (b) slightly ero-
sional, and (c) moderately erosional beaches. Analysis of beach dynamics using
aerial photographs and beach profiles indicates that all seawalls reached by storm
waves temporarily increase frontal beach erosion by concentratiing scour at the
seawall base. These deep scour troughs rapidly fill as beach and bar systems re-
turn to equilibrium positions. If an adequate sand supply is available, complete
post-storm beach recovery occurs in four interdependent stages, rapid forebeach
accretion, slower back-beach aggradation, dune reconstruction, and vegetation re-
colonization. Even severely eroded beaches in front of seawalls can experience
forebeach recovery, but seawalls may reduce or prevent the other three stages of
recovery by impending the onshore transport of sand that elevates the backbeach
and builds the dunes.
All the field evidence of Morton's study indicates that seawalls locally increase mag-
nitudes and rates of long-term beach erosion with lateral erosion being greatest
on the downdrift ends of those walls extending onto or seaward of the forebeach.
These protruding structures alter the sediment budget by either intercepting sand
transported by longshore currents or preventing sand from entering the littoral sys-
tem. Beach profiles seaward of seawalls first respond to diminished sand volume
by decreasing elevation while maintaining profile shape. As erosion proceeds, the
profile above man sea level becomes concave upward and the radius of curvature
decreases causing a local steepening of the beach adjacent to the seawall base.'
With continued erosion, the entire profile becomes subaqueous. Longshore bars
adapt to diminished sand volume and increased water depth by migrating landward
and developing a curvature that, in plain view, is convex toward the seawall.
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and other failure modes 155

Wood (1988) has employed empirical eigenfunction analysis to analyze an extensive

Great Lakes beach and nearshore profile data base. He concludes that the primary
region of spatial change (outerbar) is similar of armoured and unarmoured lengths
of shoreline. Correlation of profile response between armoured and unarmoured
lengths of shoreline is strongest for periods of rising lake-level and weaker during
periods of falling lake-level. It appears that lack of an upland sediment source on
extensively armoured shorelines may hinder the reestablishment of the outer-bar
during periods of falling lake level. Analysis of sub-aerial beach response in front
of extensive lengths of seawall indicates that beach width diminishes systematically
from the downdrift to the updrift end. This observed narrowing also appears to be
directly related to a lack of upland sediment source.
Griggs and Tait (1988) report on a one-year study along the central California
coast carried out in an effort to resolve some of the critical questions regarding
the impact of these structures on beaches. Based on precise, biweekly, wading-
depth surveys in the vicinity of four protective structures, a number of consistent
seasonal beach changes were observed. (1) With the arrival of winter waves, the
summer berm in front of the four seawalls was eroded before the berm in front
of the adjacent unprotected beaches. (2) Where sloping permeable revetment is
adjacent to an impermeable vertical seawall, the berm in front of the vertical sea-
wall was eroded sooner. (3) Once the berm on the unprotected beach retreated
landward beyond the seawall, beach face profiles in front of the seawall and ad-
jacent beach were usually indistinguishable. (4) Accelerated erosion occurred at
the downdrift ends of the seawalls and extended as far as 150 m downcoast. This
excess scour is believed to result from a combination of wave reflection and sand
impoundment upcoast. (5) Rebuilding of the nearshore beach profile occurred in
a uniform manne with no obvious differences between seawall backed and adjacent
unprotected beaches.

Pilkey and Wright (1988) argue that active beach degradation due to hard shore-
parallel structures remains a real possibility and point to a number of mechanisms
by which seawalls can accelerate erosion. They have compared the dry beach width
on selected stabilized and unstabilized U.S.East Coast shorelines and note that this
width is consisently and significantly narrower in front of walls. The more dense the
hard stabilization, the narrower the beach. Beach destruction over several decades
can be much more important than that caused by single envents or short-term
changes.
Terchunian (1988) proposes a procedure for calculation of the amount of sand that
would be naturally eroded from the upland versus the amount of increased erosion
caused by a coastal armouring structure. Using this information it is possible to
determine the amount of beach required to mitigate the potential adverse impacts
of coastal armouring structure.
Seawalls and riprap revetments are used on the Oregon coast to protect properties
156 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

threatened during erosion of seacliffs and sand spits Komar and Mc Dougal (1988).
The erosion processes involve the combined effects of swash from storm waves and
embayments cut through the berm by rip currents. Most structures on the Oregon
coast have not been designed by engineers, and therefore commonly do not follow
sound design practices. They often are grossly overbuilt and do not take into con-
sideration the processes of erosion and beach morphology. Particularly difficult is
the protection of high cliffs where the structures can defend only the toe of the
slope. Questions have been raised as to whether the structures might contribute to
erosion of the beach and adjacent unprotected properties. Although such adverse
impacts have been demonstrated in Komar and Mc Dougal's laboratory wave-basin
experiments, the role of rip currents in Oregon-coast erosion produces significant
longshore variability in property losses and tends to mask impacts by structures.
R i p r a p walls certainly reflect a smaller percent of wave energy than do verti-
cal wood or concrete walls. However, during high tides and under certain wave
conditions, reflected waves from rip rap walls have been observed to combine with
incident waves, causing erosion and damage in adjacent areas, especially in small
embayments.
Although a rip rap wall absorbs more wave energy than do relatively smooth, im-
permeable structures, it has a sloping seaward face. Because not all of the wave
energy is absorbed, under high tide and storm wave conditions, waves running up
a rip rap revetment can damage houses or erode the fill behind the rip rap.
Where maintained, rip rap has proven relatively effective in slowing erosion, but
maintenance costs, even for engineered rip rap, are usually quite high. For ex-
ample, the total wight of rock necessary to protect idividual bluff-top lots in the
Santa Cruz area over the last ten to fifteen years ranges from 500 to 2000 tons, or
approximately ten to twenty-five tons per foot of ocean frontage.
(At today's average cost of $35 to $45 or more per ton, these walls may cost perhaps
a third as much as the value of the property they are protecting).
Scour at the t o e of coastal structures is a function of the total hydraulic flow field
existing at that point, which includes both wave and current components, Eckert
(1983). In rubble-mound structures, the toe apron serves primarily to keep scour
from undermining the cover layer armour units. Such scour allows some units to
slump down, opening a breach in the protective armour through which waves may
attack the underlayer. A second function of the toe apron is to prevent the forma-
tion of a scour hole at the toe deep enough to destabilize the embankment structure
by the oversteepening and lengthening of the ocean side slope. In rubble-mound
structures, the toe apron design criteria are generally dominated by the hydraulic
criteria.
The effect of water currents at the toe of coastal structures, both in causing scour
and in accelerating wave-induced scour must be considered in designing scour pro-
tection. Such currents may result from the presence of the coastal structure, i.e.,
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and otherfaüure modes 157

longshore currents caused by the oblique reflection of waves from the structure; or
they may have already existed prior to the structure's construction due to specific
site conditions, i.e., tidal currents which pass over the site of a coastal structure.
While studies indicate that a scour hole in front of a rubblemound structure may
occur anywhere within one-fourth wavelength of the incident wave (Herbich et al.,
1965), the actual area to be protected is not generally that wide. The geotechnical
concerns of slope stability and foundation bearing strength will generally be met if
the bottom sediments are protected within a width of the wall. The construction
of a toe apron to avoid undercutting of its edge, or overbuilding in width to allow
for undercutting is important to the successful functioning of the apron.
We will examine some of these features in the following subsection.

Outflanking & Undercutting

Undercutting about two different types of coastal structures is illustrated in Fig-
ures 3 r ll and 3.12. Undercutting, or generally removal of sand from behind a
palisade-type sea wall, and beneath concrete blodes placed on fascine between two
rows of piles, which occurred at a few locations of Polish coastline, is shown in
Fig.3.13. Outflanking can be classified as either near-field or far-field, depending
on the scale of the structure and phenomena involved. We include some aspects
in this chapter, although comments could also be added at places in Chapter 2.
Outflanking occurs when material to either side of a seawall erodes to a point where
it threatens or damages the wall itself, or property behind it. Along a progressively
eroding coast, all successful, isolated protection structures will be gradually out-
flanked, because the coastline on either side will erode more rapidly than that
behind the wall. This is a relatively predictable process, and should be planned
for in the design of any isolated wall in a rapidly eroding area. Most often, it
is taken into account through the use of "wing walls" running landward from the
ends of the main structure. However, because of high costs and practical difficulties
(particularly along cliffed coasts), such future outflanking is usually ignored until it
causes property damage. In this case, the costs of outflanking must be considered in
the expected maintenance costs and overall lifetime of the structure (Griggs, 1986).

Often, outflanking of one wall leads to the construction of additional walls adjacent
to the first. As the amount of continuously protected coastline increases, outflank-
ing becomes a problem in the unprotected gaps. Nonetheless, both for isolated
walls as for gaps in protected coastline, one question remains: do sea walls increase
the erosion of adjacent areas ?
The answer to this question depends on many factors, such as how far seaward the
wall extends, the type of coastal environment, and the type of wall involved. No
systematic observations have apparently ever been made to support a generalized
answer to this question for the California coast. For two concrete walls in dune
158 Ejfectiveness ofcoastal defence measures

Face Armour
Gröüieö with Concrete

Sand
Secondary Armour
(no filter)
(A)BEFORE STORM

(B) INITIAL OVERTOPPING

AND SCOUR
ToeScour»
Grouted Armour
Arching over Undercut
^InSpace'at Initial Brcok

(C)TOE DROPPED,
WALL UNDERCUT
Toe Boulders
'Dropped'

(D)FINALCOLLAPSE
Extent of Recession Depends on
Period of Wave Attock
-r- r- P-H sr-—v- iGrouted Armour Zone
\ \ ^-—^ \ ^ \ Nearly Impervious
V \ f \ \ . \ \ b u t Finally Break

\ \ \ \ \ >
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ \ MAL
o o - " c?
(E)AFTER STORM°

Figure 3.11. Example of Undercutting Behind Grouted Rubble Revetment.

 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and other failure modes 159

timber lagging
beach
Before storm 'IL %';' '.. _ '11..' 1_. _
Initiai
seawall .-.
failure

remnants
, o.-.-.o-.o
• - of seawall
scourfrom---<?-'."
• -
overtopping /• :
waves -°-

Initial -scour from After storm

wave attack wave ref lection

Figure 3.12. Typical Undecutting of Wooden Sea Wall (Smith & Chapman, 1982).

Figure 3.13. Final Stage of Undercutting (and other failure modes) at Palisade Sea Wall.
160 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures
..2
1 1 1

L 1 >
L
s
le_
ers
— —
JE 10
*v Fl^"^"" \

y^m
2T \
ERO SIO

fie ld data -
1

/^L< = O.IOL,
XCESS

O-O' -
icr'
^~~~~— laboratory
ld / 0 data

m-2 1 1 1
vl ,~3

STRUCTURE LENGTH, L s -(meters)

Figure 3.14. Outflanking by Komar and McDougal (1988).

environments, (Sites No.1 and 3), no accelerated wave- caused erosion along the
flanks of the walls has been documented. Rip rap at one site settled much more
around gaps in the continuous revetment than elsewhere during 1983 storms. How-
ever, this settlement may have .been due to outflanking, or to some other factor.
Rip rap revetments placed within some rocky coves appear to have increased ero-
sion problems along their flanks. This increased erosion may be due to a concen-
tration of wave energy in indentations of the rocky coast, especially during storms
and high tides. During high tides and low sand levels, wave splash in thrown further
inland from these indented areas than from the more linear portions of the bluffs.
This situation may be analogous to that created by indented portions of seawalls,
or gaps between seawalls.
The outflanking on the downdrift side of a longshore structure reflects the along-
coast impact. Komar and Mc Dougal (1988) added their laboratory data to Walton
and Sensabaugh's (1978) field data to postulate on excellent agreement of the ex-
cess erosion (outflanking) r as one-tenth of the seawall's length, Ls, cf. Fig.3.14.
The same data yields s = 0.69LS for the length of the outflanking area s.
Outflanking is enhanced by overtopping water (or generally , by the water intrad-.
ing the landward side of seawall, e.g. through structural joints etc). The most
hazardous situations arise if outflanking erosion features on both sides of seawall
merge, and a strong current along the structure, on its landward side, endangers
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and other failure modes 161

stability and puts in question the effectiveness, durability and lifetime of the seawall
(or other longshore structures).

3.1.3 Prediction of Scour

P r e d i c t i o n m e t h o d s . Predicting the level to which a beach may be scoured, and

the exact wave conditions which will cause scour is difficult, at best. Coastal engi-
neers have used a variety of "scour depths" in designing seawalls. Most of these are
within 3 feet of the Mean Sea Level in the Monterey Bay area (where 0 feet Mean
Sea Level equals approximately + 3 Mean Lower Low Water), Fulton-Bennett and
Griggs (1988). However, rip rap has been observed to settle to depths of five to ten
feet below Mean Sea Level, as it moves seaward under wave attack. Since thre are
no widely accepted formulae for calculating these depths, estimates based on field
observations made during or (more commonly) after storms are used. Because of
the rapid rate at which beaches may be rebuilt after being scoured under severe
storm conditions, observations made days after a high tide period (when the beach
is not inundated by storm waves) may be misleading. In areas where bedrock is
deep, borings are often used to determine the depth of storm lag deposits, con-
sisting of gravel and cobbles. However, several layers are often encountered, and
in the absence of accurate dating methods, the selection of a design or expected
scour depth can be quite uncertain.
The depths to which scour occurs depend heavily on how far landward or seaward
a structure is located on the beach scour and liquefaction should increase rapidly
with increasing distance seaward. Thus, there is a inherent problem in any solution
that involves moving a structure seaward-the amount of energy it receivers and the
scour at its base will be greatly increased. For example, one rip rap revetment
in northern Monterey Bay (Site No.27) was designed for a scour depth of 0 feet
MLLW, and a height of 19 feet MLLW - equal to or greater than those of adjacent
walls. However, because this wall was approximately 100 feet seaward of the other
walls in the area, it suffered much more severe overtopping and undermining dur-
ing 1983, and ultimately failed altogether.
Toe scour may be considered to be the process of localised erosion occurring imme-
diatelly in front of a sea wall, subject to wave and current action. The scour depth
Sd, is therefore the maximum depth of localised erosion, relative to the initial bed
level, resulting trom a given wave/water level event.
Most prediction methods seek simply to express this scour depth as a function of
wave conditions (usually defined by some wave height, H, and wave period, T),
water depth at the structure, hs, and sea wall geometry. Rarely is any account
taken of beach sediment size or composition, or of angled wave attack. As a con-
sequence of this latter omission, the prediction methods are almost all limited to
wave-induced scour with no allowance for longshore current effects.
162 Effectiveness ofcoastal defence measures

The currently available prediction methods for wave induced toe scour may be
divided into four categories:
• Rule-of-thumb approaches as typified by the Shore Protection Manual

• Generalisëd conclusïohs based upoh Japanese research work

• Semi-empirical equations and design graphs derived from hydraulic model
tests

• Simple morphodynamic models

Readers should note however that few, if any, of these prediction methods have
been fully validated against field data.

Sand beaches
Most of the prediction methods suggested for toe scour apply only to sand beaches.
This is somewhat ironie given that it is no sand]y beaches, particularly those with
complex topography and seawall/revetment alignments, that one would expect long-
shore currents to be most influential in determining scour patterns and depths.
Consequently the application of two dimensional prediction methodologies may
considerably under-estimate the complexity of most natural situations. Neverthe-
less the methods are summarised in this subsubsection under the classification
suggested previously.
(A) Rules-of-thumb
In common with many other researchers the SPM suggests that "the maximum
depth of a scour through below the natural bed is about equal to the height of
the maximum unbroken wave that can be supported by the original depth of wa-
ter at the toe of the structure". Subsequent calculations, however, reveal that the
orbital velocities at the bottom of the scour hole are still substantially higher than
they would have been at the original beach level without the wall. This applies no
matter which wave theory is used to perform the calculations, and as such suggests
that this rule-of-thumb may under-estimate the actual scour depths.
Dean proposed that for the 2-dimensional situation, with conditions conducive to
the formation of a longshore bar, the volume of scour immediately fronting a sea
wall will be less than or equal to that volume of material which would have been
provided from behind the wall, had the wall not been present. It should be noted,
however, that this hypothesis is unproven and is difficult to apply not least because
it requires the designer to accurately determine beach profiles for a given mate-,
rial size and incident wave conditions/direction, prior to calculating the volumes
of material eroded and hence the depth of scour. At present the only means of
accurately determining these profiles would be extensive and prolonged field mea-
surements or a physical model.
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and otherfailure modes 163

(B) Generalised findings

Considerable research has been carried out in Japan using both field data and 2-
dimensional physical model tests. Unfortunately the majority of these, and indeed
until recent times the majority of physical model studies carried out throughout
the world, failed to take any account of the need to correctly scale the sediment
response in the modedl. Thus the results are often contradictory. Additionally
many researchers both in Japan and the USA have defined the sea wall location,
and hence the water depth, in terms of its position within a notional surf zone (ie
using a parameter X/Xb, where X is horizontal distance from the shoreline that
would exist without the wall, and Xb is the corresponding surf zone width).
Despite these difficulties a number of general conclusions can be drawn from the
Japanese studies which may be useful for design purposes.
(a) For waves of steepness 0.02 to 0.04 the depth of scouring is approximately equal
to the height of the incident unbroken wave (cf SPM rule-of-thumb).
(b) Maximum scour occurs when the sea wall is located at, or about, the plunge
point of breaking waves or in an initial water depth of 1.5 H.
(c) The depth of scouring is directly proportional to the wave reflection coëfficiënt
for the sea wall (hence rock armoured walls exhibit less scouring than vertical
walls).
(C) Semi-empirical equations
Herbich and Ko (1968) derived an empirical equation, from small scale model tests,
for the prediction of general beach lowering (ie scour averaged over a distance of
15 feet, in the model, seawards of the wall) for both vertical and smooth sloping
sea walls, in which the maximum distance-averaged scour depth is given in terms
of the water depth at the wall, the wave height at the wall (incident plus reflected
wave heights), horizontal velocity within boundary layer, under standing waves, and
some mechanical properties of sediment.
Song and Schiller (1973) obtained a semi-logarithmic regression equation for the
prediction of scour depths at the toe of a vertical wall again based on small scale
model tests

SdIHo = 1.94 + Q.b7IN(X/Xb) + Q.72In(H/L) (3.1)

where
Sd = the depth of toe scour
H0 = depth water wave height
X = horizontal distance from the original shoreline
Xb = horizontal distance from the original shoreline to the breaker point (i.e.
original surf zone width)
H = deep water standing wave height
L — local wave length.
164 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

(D) Sïmple morpho-dynamic models

Steetzel (1987) presents details of a simple morpho-dynamic model for predicting
beach changes near the foot of revetments. Although the model is based on a
relatively limited range of test data it has been evaluated against near full scale
model data and shown to given reasohable predictions of scour deveïopment.

Shingle beaches
Until recently very little work relating to toe scour on shingle beaches appears
to have been undertaken. Some results are however available from a recently
completed set of hydraulic model experiments set up to examine the behaviour of
such beaches in front of vertical, sloping and rubble mound sea walls, for a range
of water depths and wave conditions (Owen, 1989). A series of design graphs are
presented for the prediction of dimensionless scour depth, Sd/Hs, as a function of
wave steepness, Sm, and a dimensionless water depth hw/Hs, where hw is water
depth at the wall. The graph for vertical walls in shown in Fig.3.15. Although
this applies only to scour depths developed at 3000 waves, correction factors have
been derived to enable other wave durations to be considered. For circumstances
leading to the deveïopment of scour conditions in Fig.3.15 these factors are given
as:

, _ ƒ 0.127 In N- 0.03 for hs/Hs < 1.0 + 25sm

dn/ 300 { }
° ~ \ 0.149 In N - 0.21 for hs/Hs > 1.0 + 25Sm

where
N= the number of waves in a storm or record and
Sdn = the scour depth equivalent to that number of waves.

3.1.4 Scour at Groynes and Cross-Shore Structures

Groynes suffer frequent failures and damage, particularly if they are permeable
and constructed of timber piles. Major modes of failure are scouring due to rip
current along groynes, accompanied by different eddies and secondary currents,
concentrated mostly about the head of groyne and at the extremities of a groyne
system. If a strong storm adds to these effects one may encounter partial damage
of a groyne system. All scour modes can combine to remove sand from the vicinity
of groynes and their constituents. An example is provided in Fig.3.16, fairly similar
to that at the piled sea wall illustrated in Fig.3.13. Another example of failure of
timber-pile groynes is given by Bakker et al. (1984). Thirty percent of the piles
were damaged, primarily in the deep water section of the system.
Field observations of Dutch groynes provide the following summary given by
Rakhogst (1984)

1. Erosion prevails over accretion on average coastline protected with groynes

 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and otherfailure modes 165

Figure 3.15. Scour Depth on Shingle Beach, Owen (1989).

^r.*.-—-**---.*...

Figure 3.16. Removal of Sand Beneath Concrete Units Placed Between Two Rows of Groyne Piles,
on Polish Coastline.
166 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

2. Erosion of shoreline after construction of groynes slows down from maximum

6... 16 m/year (prior to construction) to 0...6 m/year (protected coast). It is
noted that the erosion process is not arrested entirely
3. Erosion intensifies at extremites of groyne systems

4. The use of groyne system leaves uncertainties as to whether and how the
groynes affect positively the coastline to be protected, as the protection effects
depend heavily on proper dimensioning of groyne system.

Bakker et al (1984) stipulate that in the case of a groyne system in tidal seas the
first check point should be an evaluation of the risk of washing out of piles by
shoreward motion of tidal channels. One might face situations that even the maxi-
mum practical pile length will not be enough to guarantee constructional stability.
If this risk is acceptable, or if it can be eliminated (for instance by periodical sand
supply), Bakker et al (1984) feel, that the use of pile sereens deserves serious con-
sideration:

'Based on theoretical and experimental evidence positive effects can be

expected; especially in areas with a large tidal range, piles have better
effect during a longer part of the tidal cycle than stone groynes with
flat berms.
Most of the negative experience can be attributed to construction
errors, which in the future can be avoided. For instance, in Oostkapelle
and Europort the piles were too short at the site where the washing-
out occurred, because at these locations no heavy erosion had been
foreseen. It seems to be of much importance that the sereens are
well incorporated in the dunes, in anticipation of a certain temporary
removal of sand. At present, mussles are regularly removed from the
sereens.'

The depth of pile should make allowance for possible washing of soil and scouring,
cf. Sec.4.2.
The effect of coastal structures on the transformation of shore has been studied in
IBW PAN since 1978 (Pruszak & Tarnowska 1982). Mathematical modelling has
been combined with laboratory investigations in a wave tank with movable bed, 60
x 40 x 0.9 m in size. The beach with a uniform slope of 4.5 percent consists of
quartz sand having D50 = 22 mm. The wavefieldsproduced by a regular-wave flap
generator were measured together with water velocities, sediment transport rates
and bed changes. Both parallel and normal (longshore and cross-shore) structures
were testéd (Tarnowska 1985, 1986).
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and otherfailure modes 167

The cross-shore s t r u c t u r e s have been represented by a single impermeable

groyne with vertical walls, situated normally to the parallel (original) isobaths,
and having a length LB which was LB < Xb, or LB > Xb, where Xb stands for the
width of the surf zone. The "deep water" angles of wave incidence were 15°, 30°
or 45°.
It has been found (Tarnowska, 1985) that the length LB is of paramount impor-
tance. Because of the littoral drift generated by breaking waves and of the wave
interference, the erosion on the upwave side of the groyne was located at different
places: at the head of the short structure (LB < Xb), and about the centre or
the deepest section of the long structure (LB > Xb). The material eroded at the
short groynes transported seawards of the groyne head line, while for the longer
structures this material is recaptured somewhere at the heads either on the upwave
or on the downwave side
The laboratory measurements are confirmed by some field observations. Since the
same erosion patterns are to be expected in the laboratory and in the prototype, it
is worthwhile to note that under various wind wave conditions encountered in the
field the relative length -^- varies with a storm climate. Hence, at a certain stage
of a storm the structure recaptures the eroded material if the ratio - ^ is greater
than unity, and subsequently loses in when Ls/Xb falls below unity.
Rip currents are known to appear along groynes and cross-shore structures and
to create erosion problems. These problems become even more serious about the
groyne head where the rip current meets with longshore currents generated by
waves or other coastal factors. Quite often the "live cross-section" of the littoral
drift shrinks considerably due to the seaward protrusion of groynes so that the
scour at the heads may reach alarming proporties.

3.1.5 Local Erosion at Single Piles and Cylinders

The dynamic equilibrium of sea bed is disturbed if piles or any other structural
units appear, so that changes in currents and waves about this unit induce sea bed
changes. The material eroded is deposited somewhere on the downdrift side of
the obstacle. The disturbance gives rise to erosion processes which stabilize after
a certain time, and a new dynamic equilibrium is reached.
The mechanism of scouring about piles has been analysed in many studies but is far
from being uniquely defined. Many controversis arise on the rate and magnitude
of scour due to various hydrodynamic factors. Eadie and Herbich (1986) conclude
that random waves and currents produce some 10 % higher changes than a current
alone. Quite different opinion is represented by Nieroda and Tsuchiya (1988). The
latter investigators assume that the erosion due to combined waves and current is
lower than that generated by permanent currents. Kawata and Tsuchiya attribute
this phenomenon to strong vertical eddies in the vicinity of pile. These eddies lift
168 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

the sea-bed material and bring it in suspension; the suspended grains are removed
from the neighbourhood of pile. Superposition of waves and currents damps down
the eddies and decreases the local scour about pile. Similar opinion is represented
by Breusers (1972) who analysed the laboratory tests of the 60-ties carried out
by Abou-Seida, Palmer and a group of researches in the Delft Laboratory. The
controversy is explained, at least partially, by Bijker and Brujn (1988). The latter
assume that wave breaking is responsible for the phenomena discussed. If non-
breaking waves superimpose on steady current, the scour about pile is smaller than
that caused by current alone. This in agreement with the results of Nieroda and
Dalton or Kawata and Tsuchiya. Combination of breaking waves and currents
increases the local scour, in agreement with Eadie and Herbich.
The magnitude of local scour depends on sediment transport rate and the intensity
of waves and currents. If currents combine with non-breaking waves, the sediment
transport is four times greater than for wave alone, which points to the importance
of currents. The sediment transport due to currents and breaking waves is claimed
ten times greater than that caused by currents, Bijker et al. (1988). Waves prove
most important and they control significantly the local scour about obstacles.
Predïction of local scour may be based on the above studies. Eadie and Herbich
(1986) suppose that the shape of scour hole is circular, symmetrie and with slopes
close to natural friction angle. Maximum scour is encountered on the downdrift
side about 40° to the left or right of the wave ray at the distance about 0.2 D, where
D stands for pile diameter. Kawata and Tsuchiya (1988) localized the incipient
scour on the downstream side, deflected by 45°, thus almost exactly at the place
where subsequent maximum scour occurs.
The local scour is a function of many parameters, among which one may enumerate
depth of water h, significant wave height -ffi/3, velocities of wave- current field u
and v, pile diameter D and sediment and water properties d, ps, p, v.
The effect of these factors is diversified. Breusers (1972) concludes that the effect
of depth h is insignificant for ^ > 2. The depth of local scour increases with u
and v up to a certain time, and depends simultaneously on the ratio of u and v.
The effect of grain diameter d is negligible for Zmm > d > 0.2mm. The depth of
scour ke is shown by Breusers to the proportional to the pile diameter D.
Dimensional analysis of Eadie and Herbich (1986) shows the following general
dependence of the depth of scour ke:
K/h = f(ke/H1/3; ke/D; ke/d50; NRP; u/yfgh; u/JgD; u/y/2keg; Ns) (3.3)
in which

NRP = (3 4)
{kJD){u/keu)v '
u
Ns = (3.5)
• ygdsoips - p)/p
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and otherfaïlure modes 169

1x10°-

r 2 = 0,8S

T^r
+ / m
h £JA* o EADIE D50=.1mm d=.125FT
* ARMBRUST D50=.3mm d=.125FT
• WANG D50=.6mm d=325FT
A
IxlO"1 - y$» • WANG D50=.3mm d=0781 FT
• WANG D50=.3mm d=198 FT
1 1 i i i i i i I i i i i i i ( i1
5
IxlO IxlO IxlO6
{N R P )(N S )

Figure 3.17. Scour at Piles due to current, Eadie & Herbich (1986).

The tests performed for currents and random waves indicate that sedimentation
number Ns and Reynolds number NRP are most important (Fig.3.17). In this case
the above equation reads:
K/h = 1.941 x 10-4[NRPNS]0-654 (3.6)
Scour depth ke depends on NRP, Ns and h. This is in agreement with earlier
findings of Breusers (1972) who concluded that local scour about piles depends
primarily on velocity of water, although originally the effect of h and d was
deemed less important. The examples given by Breusers indicate ke/D — 1.4...6.
Specific values depend primarily on pile diameter and conditions of measurements;
laboratory tests have given ks/D = 1.5...2.
Local scour about piles may also be controlled by adjacent obstacles. If the spacing
of piles in a groyne is smaller than six diameters / < 6d, the depth of scour ke
increases with decreasing l, compared with single pile situation.
The erosion process about pile is unsteady. It is fast in the initial phase and slows
down with time. The scour due to combined waves and currents appears and
evolves faster than that due to current alone. In may cases the erosion generaled
by current or tides achieves 90% of its extremum (equilibrium) after several days
(weeks), Breusers (1972). The shape of the scour hole is similar no matter whether
due to currents or combinations of waves and currents. This statement holds
true for cases with prevailing currents. Differences may appear if wave-induced
velocities are of the same order of magnitude, Eadie and Herbich (1986). The
scour due to waves and currents is depicted in Fig.3.18.
170 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

3.1.6 Local Erosion due to Ship Motion and Screw Race

Motion of vessels in docks and ports, and foremost the operation of ship screws
bring about very negative effects with regard to stability of bottom. Erosion
and scour holes are common features in the vicinity of wharfs or across aproach
channêïs. There are qüite a few studies, amohg which one may ei te Manual (1987),
Fuehrer and Knebel (1988), Verhey (1983) or Robakiewicz (1989). We have used
the latter to extract the following highlights, partly because the publication by
Verhey (Delft Hydraulics No.303, 1983) is readily available to a western reader,
contrary to the cited one.
Local s c o u r caused by screw race is primarily controlled by water velocities.
Two formulae may be proposed as a result of the theory of ideal propellers. For
the configuration shown in Fig.3.19. one has

V=l.6-n-D-y/KT (3.7)

in which

n=screw revolutions (per second)

D=screw diameter (m)
Kx=screw thrust factor.

If the coëfficiënt KT is unknown or diffucult to determine one may assume

V = 0.95 -n-D (3.8)

Average value KT — 0.35 is proposed by Fuehrer and Knebel (1988).

Another formula sterns from the power of vessel's driving engines:

Ph 1 / 3
V = C-[j±] (3.9)
in which

Pd=engine power [kW]

C=empirical factor, which may vary from C = 1.17 for screw races to
C = 1.48 for screw without races.

The average velocity on the axis of race jet may be proposed in the following
experimental form found by Robakiewicz (1966) in his laboratory tests:

Vm = 1.515 • y / V J (m/s) (3.10)

in which

V - velocity computed by Eq.3.8 or Eq.3.9

x - distance from screw to point in question.
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and otherfailure modes 171
k e [ mm ]
150L $=160mm
140
130
120
110
ke[mm]
100
90 0=9Omm 90
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
v[m/s] v [ m /s 3
0 i i ' _i i J L
.10.20.30.40.50 J60 .10 .20.30.40 .50 .50
r
* scour by current v = n = J T Ï
V^S C

. scour by waves & current with

Figure 3.18. Scour at Pile due to waves and current, Eadie & Herbich (1986).

'//////////////sss s/ sss//////?//>ïls////s'sv>y///>ss
II - II
xp- 21

I Region most affected by screwjet action

II Region of potential erosion
Figure 3.19. Propeller-Induced Scour.
172 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

The screw jet reaches bottom at the following closest distance:

Xp = hp • 2.1445 [m] (3.11)

while the horizontal distance between screw and the axis of screw jet reads

Xs = hp • 3.7321; [m] (3.12)

in which
hp - elevation of screw level above bottom in metres.

The area between xp and xs is most vulnerable to the effect of the screw jet.
Maximum velocities generated by screw are obviously most hazardous. These
velocities may be computed by the formula proposed by Fuehrer and Roemisch:

VBmax — VE (m/s) (3.13)

hp'

The velocity V in Eq.3.13 is computed from Eq.3.8. or Eq.3.9. The experimental

factor E reads 0.71 for ships with rudders located centrally with regard to screw
while E = 0.42 is suggested for ships with other rudders or without them at all; E
=0.25 holds for screws in races.
Knowing the water velocities generated by ship screw one may determine the
erosion processes and prevent the negative effects.
Anti-scour concepts may be divided into two groups. The first group of designers
tends to increase the depth of water at walls, while the other group opts for anti-
scour measures in the proper sense. The selection of passive or active measures
must be based on economie and technological factors.
Increasing depth of water at wall decreases maximum velocity at bottom. This
is caused by a higher distance between screw and bottom and by the turbulent
entrainment in the jet. The following reduction of maximum velocity and depth of
scour is estimated due to increase of water depth.

Increase in water depth by 30% 60% 100%

Reduction in maximum velocity 50% 75% 80%
Reduction in depth scour by 30% 60% 80-90%.

In the design of antiscour measures one may determine the minimum depth of
water for which a revetment or blanket will be subject to erosion by a given velocity
of water Vsmax- Robakiewicz (1989) proposes the experimental formulae by Führer
and Römisch:

B2
hm =
9.81 x 1.65 M (3.14)
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and otherfaïlure modes 173

in which
B = 1.25 for ships with central rudder
B = 0.90 for ships with other rudders.
For example, for a municipal ferry the depth of water at wall should be hn = 9 m
in order to mimimize the cost of anti-scour measures. Determination of adequate
depth of water for sea going ferries is more difficult. Therefore it is more
reasonable to provide appropriate bed protection measures in this case.
General principles of bed protection from screw jet are given by Manual 1987. The
length of the protected bottom segment should be equivalent to the section subject
to screw jet. It may read
21 = 2hp(cotl5° - cot25°) S 3.2hp (3.15)
The revetment should have proper size, and must be arranged on a fascine mattress
or geotextile with a filter subgrade. For ships at quays the width of protected section
should be at least equal to the width of ship. The parallel band, having a width
equal to 50% of the protected width, may be weaker than the primary band.

3.1.7 Erosion at onderwater Pipelines

The pipelines in the marine environment are subject to strong waves and currents.
Their safety is endangered not only by the forces induced but also by the scour
generated in their vicinity. We shall not dweil on many aspects of these phenomena
but rather confine ourselves to the problem of scour itself, which may have many
common features with other erosion phenomena in the coastal zone.
One may distinguish the following three types of local scour about pipelines
(Fig.3.20): t u n n e l erosion, lee erosion a n d luff erosion. The first type of
erosion is the primary mode of scour. lts magnitude determines the depth of scour
with regard to the original bottom. The existence of this mode modifies the flow
of water about pipeline and further increases the area of erosion.
Lee erosion occurs on the downdrift side of pipeline. This is associated with
turbulence about pipeline and eddy shedding. The third type of erosion (luff)
erosion occurs on the updrift side, only if tunnel erosion does not appear. If waves
control the phenomenon, and not current, the tunnel erosion is the primary and
exclusive mode of erosion.
We shall now focus attention on the cases of local scour generated by currents,
wave and combination of currents and waves. The following factors control the
phenomenon:
• mean velocity of V

• pipeline diameter D

• elevation pipeline above bed, d0, related to depth of water h

174 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

tunnel erosion iee erosion

fsto
iuff erosion
Figure 3.20. Three Types of Erosion at Pipeline, Leeuwestein (1989).

• grain diameter d
• wave height and period H, T, respectively.
These factors will appear in the subsequent formula for the transporting capacity
of water and velocities about pipeline. In general it is assumed that local scour will
be lower if the ratio-^ becomes negative.
Scour below pipeline will not grow if the ratio ^ reaches -0.5 to -0.7. Maximum
erosion will appear if the pipeline is at the level of natural bed, a0 = 0.
Local scour caused by currents is controlled by the gradiënt of sediment
transport rate in the vicinity of pipeline. It is obvious that ecrosion occurs if the
sediment transport rate of pipeline is lower than its counterpart on the downdrift
side. Equilibrium appears if the sediment transport rates on both sides of pipeline
are equal, Q0 = Qp.
The depth of scour ke is the primary parameter to characterize the magnitude
of scour. There are formulae which determine this parameter as a function of
environmental conditions. One of them has been given by Kieldsen (1974):

ke = 0.972[^V5£>4/5 (3.16)
2#
This formula was used by a group of Dutch investigators who have modified it in
the eigthies:
y2 u.^o
ke = 0.929[-H
2
D°-78d-0M (3.17)
9
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and otherfailwe modes 175

Figure 3.21. Scour Depth at Pipeline, Leeuwestein (1984).

The difference consists basically in inclusion of the grain diameter d. Both formu-
lae show that depth of local scour is more sensitive to pipeline diameter D than
to velocity of current V. The boundary conditions for which equations (20.7) and
(20.8) hold true are summarized in table below.
Boundary conditions of hydraulic model tests given by various authors, Bijker and
Leeuwestein (1984).

d0
Investigator h[m] V[m/s] d[//ra] D[fim]
Kjeldsen(1974) 0.43; 1.43 0.20...0.52 74 60...500 0;-
Ast and de Boer(1973) 0.21; 0.26 0.29...0.65 220 49...88 +;0;-
Jansen(1981) 0.36; 0.38 0.10...0.25 150 40...50 +;0;-
Meerendonk et al(1981) 0.31 0.17...0.25 150 50 +;0;-
Delft HL (1982) 0.38;0.40 0.26...0.58 90; 170 19...75 +;0;-

The plus sign denotes local elevation of pipeline above bed, while the minus sign
corresponds to buried pipeline.
The graphical dependence of the depth of scour he on pipeline diameter D and
velocity V found in Delft is shown in Fig.3.21 borrowed from Leeuwestein (1984).
The straight line ke = D determines the maximum scour below pipeline. The limit
quantities ke = D were obtained in many laboratory studies.
Respective formulae for field conditions are less available. The assessment of local
scour in prototype conditions is usually done by extension of laboratory tests. The
scaling may be done as suggested by Leeuwestein (1984).
The Delft experiments show that the depth of local scour ke given might underes-
timate the real scour under storm conditions.
The duration of scouring about pipeline depends considerably on the type of ero-
sion. In the case of lee erosion its duration, that is the time from incipient erosion
to the state of equilibrium, is long as the intensity of eddies behind popeline is very
high and steady. The tunnel erosion may be described by logarithmic function, Bi-
jker.at al (1984).
176 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

[mm}
0=160 mm

kgjmm]
90 0=9Omm
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 -i 1 1 l Ql i l l l i i
~ ~ 10 20 30 40 50 60

150
* in [ mm ]

Figure 3.22. Leeuwestein's Graph for Erosion at Pipeline.

 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and otherfaïlure modes 177

Local scour d u e t o waves deviates from that for currents. The time scale of
wave-induced velocities is much shorter than that of steady currents. As the veloc-
ities are two-directional, the mechanisms are obviously different. Laboratory tests
have shown that the depth of scour due to waves is greater than that caused by
currents. The maximum erosion occurs beneath the lowermost (central) point of
pipeline and is symmetrie. The depth of scour and stabilization time depend on the
amplitude of orbital velocities at bed, AB and wave period T. If the orbital veloc-
ities about pipeline, u, are greater than the critical scour erosion velocity u > UCT
and if a is greater than x„, the erosion will continue. In the opposite case erosion
will cease. The quantity xCJ. denotes the distance from the centre of pipeline to
the point with the critical velocity u = uCT. Experiments show that the pipeline
diameter is less important than in the case of current-induced scour.
In the case of waves one may propose the following general function for the depth
of scour beneath pipeline:

.ke = f(B,ub,T,d) (3.18)

The analytical form for this general function has not been determined, although it
is intensively studied, mostly in laboratory.
Leeuwestein (1984) proposes a graphical form for Eq.3.18, cf. Fig.3.22. The graph
and adequate selection of scale may determine scour in prototype conditions.
Local scour caused b y a combination of waves a n d c u r r e n t s is the most
frequent case in prototype conditions. Waves may approach at different angles,
and the resultant sediment transport rate will also vary significantly. The Delft
investigations point to increase in depth of scour if strong waves and weak currents
intervene. The opposite superposition, that is weak waves and strong currents bring
about reduction in erosion, compared with the case of sole current. The presence
of waves in strong currents gives rise to erosion of sediment from beneath pipeline
and repeated accretion in the erosional niche.
Laboratory investigations show that the combination of waves and currents for
identical shear stresses r (compared with exclusive currents) brings about smaller
erosion.
In general, combination of waves and currents produces scour depth contained
between the upper value given by currents and lower value given by wave case.
Bijker (1984) assumes that the lower boundary of local scour is about 30% of the
upper limit.
178 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

3.2 FAILURE MODES OF COASTAL STRUCTURES

3.2.1 General
D a m a g e can be defined as a certain change in the state of structures. In turn,
the state of a structure is described by the following three characteristics of the
structure:
(1) external boundaries ;
(2) configuration and cross-sections;
(3) integrity of constituents.
Changes (1) and (2) often correspond to a certain physical loss or displacement of
material of the structure and its surroundings. This in turn may cause a certain
loss of functions. This loss can often be observed or measured easily by setting up
an efficiënt monitoring programme.
In practice there may be a gradual loss of functions with increasing damage. There-
fore failure can be regarded as to correspond to a state of sorne u l t i m a t e degree
of damage, to be reached after a certain time and that can be linked to functional
requirements of strength or serviceability.
Some failure modes can be accepted to occur repeatedly up to a certain limit (eg.
the displacement of an armour stone in mound). For other modes not even a single
occurrence can be accepted (eg. liquefaction of the subsoil under a breakwater).
Once a failure has occurred, repeated failure becomes likely. Respective occur-
rence of one mechanism leads to increasing damage (e.g.loss of filter material in a
revetment). The frequency of repetition determines the evolution of damage. In
general, the degree of damage increases with the loading level.
For the sake of clarity one should discern a failure m o d e from a failure fac-
tor. The former is understood as a certain manner in which a structure transforms
mechanically (i.e. passes from one state to another) while the latter is a physical,
chemical, biological, or any other phenomenon leading to the above transforma-
tion. In addition, failure mechanism will be a notion used for description of tran-
sient processes while failure mode will denote the ultimate transition to a clear-cut
state of damaged structure.
An important question is whether, at a certain constant loading level, the rate of
damage will decrease or increase with time or whether the failure frequency will
decrease or increase. In the first case a practical (asymptotic) limiting damage
level can often be defined, which can be accounted for in the design process. The
same may still hold for the second case, but often these cases serve extra atten-
tion. These are also cases with progressive d a m a g e development. For most-
structures this cannot be accepted when uninterrupted functioning is needed.
Progressive damage is usually considered to indicate failure. When a sudden, clear-
cut increase in damage cannot be observed, the point of failure is taken arbitrarily,
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and other f allure modes 179

for a particular set of conditions denoting, by a certain definition, the critical de-
gree of damage.
Progressive damage due to a partial failure mechanism may finally lead to the ini-
tiation of other partial failure mechanisms or to total failure.
In the structural design, a respective probability must be determined for each fail-
ure mechanism. By using the failure tree and the probabilities of the various
subsystems the ultimate probability of failure for the entire system can be found.
One should note in passing that temporary failure is not always a detrimental
property but instead can be turned into success. This is well illustrated by the
berm breakwater concept (Meer, van der, 1987). The berm breakwater is an
unconventional 1 design, in which displacement of armour stones in the first stage
of its lifetime is accepted (and indeed intended). The original cross-section of a
berm breakwater consists of a lower slope, a horizontal berm (just above high wa-
ter) and an upper slope. After the displacement of blocks in the stage of profile
formation the revetment becomes more or less statically stable.
In the wake of the above categorization of the state of coastal structures and
measures, one can put failure m o d e s in three distinct classes referring to and
encompassing

1. near-field n e i g h b o u r h o o d of structure

2. structure as a whole

3. interior and constituents of structure.

The first class includes, by and large, local erosion in the immediate vicinity of
the structure, or local deformations of the interface of the structure and its am-
bient environment. One can distiguish the phenomena of scour, u n d e r m i n ï n g ,
outflanking, surface run-off erosion, local sliding, etc.
One often puts among failure modes particular states of 'boundary conditions', that
is the behaviour of water and the environment surrounding the structure. These
regimes include overtopping by waves and surges, ice i m p a c t , ship collision,
s u r c h a r g e loads, dredging effects, etc. Such an approach, although justified to
a certain extent in view of the analogy to deformations of soil (cf. scour etc), is
nevertheless rejected in this document. It is our feeling that, for instance, overtop-
ping is not a failure mode proper but instead an e x t e r n a l failure factor which
1
The idea of unconventional design is also strongly built into Khomitskiy's (1983) concept
of analog structures. The latter are coastal engineering measures which simulate as close
as possible the natural response of beach and shore to the dynamic action of the nearshore
environment. The measures incorporate natural features as "nuclei of shore protection" which are
harnessed to intensify the defense characteristics. Hence a submerged breakwater as a counterpart
of natural underwater bar or reef, etc. The concept is illustrated more fully in subsequent chapters,
partïcularly in Chapter 6 for other methods of unconventional design
180 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

might bring about damage or eventual failure of structure through any type of
failure mechanism, e.g. surface run-off erosion.

Scour and local erosion are discussed in Section 3.1. As noted elsewhere, some-
times it is diffieult to make elear distinction between near-field and far-field phe-
nomena. We hereby regard local erosion a phenomenon caused undoubtedly by
a structure in an area measured in characteristic dimensions of the structure. If
this area is larger one speaks of far-field erosion, or accretion. The far-field phe-
nomena have been covered in Chapter 2, although a certain overlapping with this
chapter has appeared unavoidable.
The second class consists of macroscopic movements of structures, such as over-
all linear a n d a n g u l a r deformations, including o v e r t u r n i n g or tilting, slid-
ing, s e t t l e m e n t , heave, etc. The structure is deemed one entity subject to the
same mode of failure in all parts. Local sliding, etc. caused by similar mechanisms
are not considered within this class.
The t h i r d class includes internal failure mechanisms, primarily microscopic, which
control the behaviour of constituents or units of structures, and not entire struc-
tures. The stability of these components depends on resisting the iniluence of local
loads (or failure factors in our terms). Local stability problems may ultimately give
rise to the failure of the structure as a whole.
Strictly speaking, the number of local failure modes is limited to local linear and
angular deformations, by analogy to the second class. However, since the variety of
'local' zones and their combinations is infinite, a strict categorization of local fail-
ure modes is neither practical nor even possible. One may nonetheless distinguish
numerous failure mechanisms which determine the internal states of structures.
The examples of geotechnical failure mechanisms are:
local sliding, local b e a r i n g failure, piping, m i g r a t i o n , liquefaction,
p u m p i n g , s e t t l e m e n t (with subclasses of consolidation, compression,
m i g r a t i o n , shrinkage, loss of a p p a r e n t cohesion), heave, suffosion, con-
solidation a n d cyclic c o m p a c t i o n , seepage a n d g r o u n d w a t e r flow .
The latter two can also be placed among hydraulic failure mechanisms, together
with uplift, m o v e m e n t of a r m o u r u n i t s (including t u r n i n g , lifting and
removal) etc.
The earlier remark that one failure mechanism can bring about both overall and
local failure mode becomes obvious in the ligth of the above examples.
The above categorisation of failure modes and factors is outlined in Fig.3.23.

3.2.2 Outline of Failure Modes

Some failure modes are typical of all types of structures, while some other create
particular problems in certain specific coastal defence measures. We begin with a
 Ch.3: Near-field ejfects; scour and other failure modes 181

FAILURE MODE
^ ^ ^ of structure

Near field
1
Entire structure Structural component

Scour Tilting Removal

undermining sliding lifting
outflanking settlement crushing
sliding heave sliding
etc N. etc etc

X /
Sediment transport
^
Liquefaction
Consolidation FAILURE FACTOR
Piping etc Load
FAILURE MECHANISM overtoppi ng
ice, ship, etc

Figure 3.23. Schematisation of Failure Modes and Factors

r~\

/ ^ = - ' scour hole

s e d . transport squeezing pore water
SLi ïLEKENT du» Co coniolld»tIon
SCOUX in Cront o£ ttruccux» of luntoil
du» to w»v«» *nd/or currtnn

/ ^ - ^ ^ ' N X b e f o r e sliding final stage

ÏÏquefied5oUaftersUdin9 initial slope
LIQUtrACTIOH du« to « X C I I I por» COKPACTION <Ju t o »«^« Ispacr
v*t*r prtiiurti

pipe
pipe transport

nternal transport
through filter sand layer jnternal
. _ fitlow
IKTÜUdL TUJtSFQItT a( ttn* u t l l l l l PI?IHG und»ra*«th th#. itruccur»
chrouarü voids of eoars«r »ac*rl*ls du« co o » « r - « l l hydriullc gradl«nc

Figure 3.24. Subsoil Failure Modes.

182 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

rough qualitative overview of some general damage phenomena.

Geotechnical Failure Modes
Examples of failure mechanisms are illustrated in Fig.3.24.
Bank or slope stability ean beeonsidered irr terms of
a. overall stability - the stability of the bank as a whole
b. local stability - the stability of elements of the structure in resisting the
infiuence of local, hydraulic or other factors; local stability problems may
ultimately lead to failure of the bank as a whole.
(a) Overal Stability Failure Mechanisms
Slip circles and deep sliding- this is a conventional soil mechanics stability problem:
infiuence of rapid draw-down should be eonsidered. Pre-existing slip planes within
the soil, or lenses and bands of weaker material can have a significant effect on
bank stability. Side investigations should be planned to enable such situations to
be identified.
(b) Local Stability Failure Mechanisms
Local sliding - local shear failure parallel to the slope within the soil mass or at
the soil-structure interface.
Local hearing failure - local shear failure in the soil in planes not parallel to the
slope.
Scour - removal of soil particles trom the soil-water interface by current or wave
induced shear forces within the coastal environment: possibly in combination with
hydraulic gradiënt forces or by rainfall run-off above the water line.
Piping - a form of concentrated seepage through a section of soil which is either
more permeable than its surrounding or is subject to a particularly high hydraulic
gradiënt. Concentration of flow may lead to transport of soil particles and loss
by regressive erosion. Once transport is established, the hydraulic gradiënt will
increase and transport more particles resulting in an erosion pipe.
Migration - transport of material within the soil mass beneath the structure.
Migration may be parallel to the shore causing slumping and an S-profile or
through the structure in which case material is lost from the shore. A special
case is suffusion, which is the transport of the finest particles from between a soil
skeleton fromed by coarser material.
Liquefaction - complete loss of gram to grain contact by an increase in pore water
pressure or by shock loading of a loosely compacted granular soil. Consequent loss
of effective stress results in a zero shear strength and the soil behaving as a liquid.
Pumping - extrusion of particles under shock loading or impact in connection with
liquefaction at an interface.
 Ck.3: Near-field effects; scour and otherfailure modes 183

Settlement - deformation due to reduction in volume of soil. settlement may be

caused by the following mechanisms:

• Consolidation -squeezing out of pore water from a cohesive soil

• Compression - more dense packing of particles due to extra loading

• Migration etc. - loss of material from (within) the bank

• Shrinkage - drying out of saturated cohesive soil

• Loss of apparent cohesion - some sandy soils exhibit apparent cohesion when
dry( when saturated, this cohesion is lost, which results in settlement).

JTeave - deformation due to increase in volume of soil. Heave may be caused

by:

• Frost - expansion of ice crystals within the soil mass on freezing

• Swelling - certain soils take up moisture and swell after removal of confining
pressures.

Fig.3.25 illustrates various failure mechanisms.

Many of the local stability failure mechanisms can be overcome by good construc-
tion methods: proper compaction of the subsoil can considerably reduce the risks
of piping, migration and liquefaction.

Upiift
If the filter and cover layer of a revetment are of relatively low permeability com-
pared with the subsoil, they will be subjected to uplift forces caused by the outflow-
ing water. If the uplift forces are not fully counteracted by the selfweight of the
filter and cover layer then the consequences of uplift pressures are severe. Firstly
the effective weight of the cover layer is reduced, reducing friction between it and
the underlying layer, so the sliding of the cover layer becomes possible.
Secondly, although the effective normal stresses within the filter layers and subsoil
are reduced, the shear stresses (due to self weight) remain the same hence causing
the possibility of S-shaped deformations of the embankement as shown in Fig.3.26.
The determination of uplift pressure is therefore an important part of the design
procedure for structure stability.
The following parameters are relevant to the uplift pressure:
H = wave height
T = wave period
Kub — permeability of sublayer
kc = permeability of cover layer
184 Ejfectiveness ofcoastal defence measures

lïft dueto
normalpressufes
UPLirT of covtr l«y«r «l«««ntj
du« co v«v« nto«ct

\ r. 0 Q growth

'sliding through transport through

Uquefied soil face
locil SLICTNG du* co w«v« t « p * e t LTKDCtMrNIKC at co»«r l«T«r lituntt
du« co locsl hrdnulic ;rtdi<oci

Figure 3.25. Examples of Various Failure Mechanisms.

Reference Profile

Top of Filter Layer

Accretion Zone

Damage Profile
Layer
Armor

Figure 3.26: S-shaped Failure Profile of Embankment.

 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and otherfailure modes 185

D = thickness of cover layer

a slope angle of embankement with respect to the horizontal
R = elevation of phreatic line in the sublayer beneath the revetment due to wave
run up.
Determination of uplift pressures is rather difficult in view of the number of pa-
rameters which are involved [15]. As a guideline no uplift pressure will ocur if the
permeability of each layer beneath and including the coverlayer is 20 to 50 times
greater than the permeability of the underlayers (including the subsoil). If uplift
pressures are to be further assessed it may be necessary to perform model tests or
construct test embankments.

3.2.3 Failure Factors versus Failure Modes

Only few of the failure m o d e s and m e c h a n i s m s described above can be ex-
pressed well in terms of the failure factors, which give rise to damage, Here we
will analyse some examples in which the term loading is used as a synonim for
failure factor and the term response denotes damage or failure.
It should be remembered that failure mechanisms are often dependent on each
other. The performance of one mechanism may initiate, either directly or indi-
rectly, another mechanism.
Loading: weight.
Loading parameters (principal): specific density of materials.
Loading parameters (secondary): pore (water) pressures, time.
System characteristics: soil compressibility and -permeability, thickness of com-
pressible layers.
Response: lowering of structure crest and horizontal deformations.
The weight of a structure causes an increase of the total soil stress of the subsoil.
The subsoil responds both directly, through compaction of its structure (initial or
primary settlement) and indirectly (secondary settlement). The latter is mainly
caused by consolidation. The rate of this secondary settlement is therefore de-
pendent on the drainage of the low-permeability layers in the subsoil. Settlement
decreases the structures capability of withstanding high water levels and uprushing
waves. For a revetment, differences in settlement lead to an uneven revetment
surface. This makes the stones of the armour layer more susceptible to hydraulic
loading.
The way in which the loadings act on the rock structure can best be described in
the general schematization given in Fig.1.33. In this schematization there are five
basic elements:

• boundary conditions;

• external transfer functions;

186 Ejfectiveness of coastal defence measures

destruction (tqplayer)or lifting up of protective units

Figure 3.27. Failure Modes and Mechanisms in Revetments.

• loadings (forces, pressures);

• internal or system transfer functions;

• response of system (displacements).

This schematization or response model applies to the three categories of loading
and to each element (e.g. stones and sublayers of revetment) or to the structure as
a whole. In this model failure occurs if, beyond the failure load S F the response
increases rapidly at increasing loading. Beyond this failure point usually another
system becomes dominating. An example is the plastic deformation of a steel wire
due to a tensile force after that the linear elastic strain rate has been exceeded.
Reaching of the elastic limit can be considered as the point of failure and the large
plastic deformation then determines the failure mechanisms or failure mode.
In general, failure mechanisms are named after their consequent displacements
or movements. Failure modes or failure mechanisms are thus characterized by a
relatively large increase of response due to a minor increase in loading.
For revetments there exist many failure mechanisms each corresponding to a loading
from one of the loading categories mentioned above. An overview of some
principal failure mechanisms for revetments, together with the responsible loading
is given in Fig.3.27 and in the subsequent description.
Failure Mode : Movement of armour units
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and other f allure modes 187

Loading: waves, currents.

Loading parameters (principal): wave height/-period, velocity.
Loading parameters (secondary): time, angle of incidence.
System characteristics: stone diaraeter/-density, permeability.
Response: rocking, sliding, lifting, rolling.
Waves and currents determine the lift and drag forces acting on the stones of the
cover layer of a revetment. The inertial forces are also determined by the stone
characteristics. The stone weight, but also forces due to friction and interlocking
with other stones, are the stabilizing forces. The dynamic (loss of) balance of all
these forces may result in a great variety of the above mentioned stone movements.
These responses may be accounted for in the design, but may as well initiate other
failure modes. Most evident is damage of the filter layer.
Failure M o d e : Migration of sublayer - or core material
Loading: hydraulic gradients, internal flow.
Loading parameters (principal): water pressures/-velocities.
Loading parameters (secondary):
System characteristics: layer permeabilities/-thicknesses, grain size.
Response: material transport out of structure.
Due to a difference in water level or due to local (generation of) excess pore
water pressure an internal flow may be established. When a certain critical
hydraulic gradiënt and the corresponding flow velocities occur, the finer grains are
transported out from the inner layers through the coarser material of the upper
layers. Often this transport can also easily pass the cover layer resulting in a loss
of material from the filter layer and/or from the core.
Failure M e c h a n i s m : Piping
Loading: hydraulic gradiënt.
Loading parameters (principal): water velocities/-pressures.
Loading parameters (secondary):
System characteristics: grain size, "pipe" length.
Response: material transport out of structure.
Piping is convergent migration of material through internal channels or "pipes".
Deposition of material can often be observed if these internal channels reach a
surface, which is exposed to the air. Typical values for the critical gradiënt can
be expressed in terms of the quotiënt of a difference in water level or head and a
characteristic length of a (part of) the structure.
Failure M o d e : Sliding of structure
Loading: weight of structure.
Loading parameters (principal): density of building materials.
Loading parameters (secondary): pore water pressures, slope angle.
System characteristics: soil friction angle (cohesion)
Response: sliding of (a significant part of) structure including subsoil, collapse.
188 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

From the combination of loading (weight of cover layer and core material) and
geometry of the cross section (slope angles) a distribution of the total soil stress
results. Together with the actual pore water pressures these soil stresses determine
the effective grain sgtresses in the core of the structure and in the subsoil. By
using the interna! friction factor the grain shear stressen are obtained. For the
given loading and geometry of the structure the sliding surface is determined by
the surface with the minimum value of the safety ratio.
The safety ratio is defined as the ratio between the moments of the resulting shear
forces along a possible sliding surface and the resulting loading forces respectively.
Failure M o d e : Sliding of cover layer
Loading: weight, waves
Loading parameters (principal): stone size/-density
Loading parameters (secondary): wave height/-period, slope angle, pore pres-
sures
System characteristics: friction angles of cover-/filter layer, permaebility of
cover-/filter layer
Response: sliding of cover layer along the slope.
For the sliding of the cover layer in principle the same procedure should be
applied as for the entire structure . However, a simplified analysis can be used
by considering only the sliding surface determined by the interface between the
cover - and the filter layers.
Due to the wave impact excess pore water pressures are generated just under the
cover layer.
These excess pore water pressures reduce the effective grain stresses and shear
stresses. Sliding of the cover layer occurs if the shear component of the weight
of the cover layer along the slope can not be compensated by the effective grain
shear in the filter layer.
Failure M o d e : Scour
Loading : waves, currents
Loading parameters (principal): orbital-/current velocity, turbulence intensity
Loading parameters (secondary): wave period, angle of incidence
System characteristics: sediment grain size, structure slope, stone size
Response: degradation of seabed in front of structure.
Waves and currents cause resulting water movements near the seabed, which may
generate a sediment transport. Interactions with the structure (wave reflection,
generation of turbulence) may affect the natural sediment transports. Relative
to the natural sediments most structures can be considered rigid and inerodable,
although some may be permeable to sediment. These properties impose the
structure boundary conditions to the transport processes.
Failure Mechanism: Liquefaction
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and other failure modes 189

Loading: pore water pressures, waves, earthquakes

Loading parameters (principal): pore water pressure, wave height/- period,
(relative) shear amplitude, acceleration, frequency
Loading parameters (secondary): number of waves/loading cycles
System characteristics: thickness of compressible layers
Response: serious deformation of structure, collapse.

Liquefaction is caused when excess pore pressures are generated to such a degree
that the effective grain stress and consequently also the effective shear resistance
vanish. Under these circumstances the smallest external loading will be able to
cause sliding or even a total collapse of the structure, which derived its stability
from this soil. Pore water pressures are generated by cyclic loading of which some
evident examples have been listed. The common element of these loadings are
cyclic shear stresses, which, through changes in compaction, in fact generate the
pore pressures. Additional dissipation of pore pressures is enabled by drainage.
In the design process, one is most interested in the ultimate limit state (U.L.S.) of
a failure mechanism. This state is reached when the acting extreme loads are just
balanced by the strength of the structure. If the ultimate limit state is exceeded,
the structure will collapse or fail. The concept of the ultimate limit state is known
from the elementary theory of the strength of materials 2 .
In many cases, the variety of the processes involved cannot be described as yet.
Therefore a "black box" approach is foliowed in which the relation between
critical strength parameters, structural characteristics and hydraulic parameters are
obtained empirically.

3.2.4 Examples of Failure Modes

Rubble-Mound Breakwaters
These modes of failure are instructive for both coastal and ocean engineers. Heavy
damage often occurs when the armour is completely soaked or fiuidised in wave
uprush. The breakdown pattern therefore may be disastrous and capable of moving
large masses.
Common reasons for breakdown of rubble mound breakwaters, whether the mound
is composed of natural or artificial blocks, include (Bruun & Kjelstrup, 1983):

2
This description is restricted to the stability of the front slope of revetment. Moreover, the
instability as a result of hydrodynamical processes is taken into account only. Starting with the
hydraulic input data (waves, water levels) and the description of the structure, external pressures
on the seaward slope can be determined. Together with the internal characteristics of the structure
(porosity of revetment and secondary layers) these pressures result in an internal flow field with
respective internal pressures. The resulting load on the revetment has to be compared with the
structural strength, which can be mobilized to resist these loads. If this strength is inadequate the
revetment will deform and may ultimately fail
190 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

1. 'Knock-outs by plunging waves when

ƒ TT
£b = tanaJ-A < 2.0 & > 0.5 (3.19)
V -ko
2. Liftouts (by uprush-downrush) usually resulting from combinations
of uprush and downrush and toe velocities in an arriving plunging wave.
3. Slides of the armour as a whole. This happens in particular at steep
slopes, which are subjected to high waves of periods close to resonance
(i.e. uprush-downrush period is close to wave period).'
The failure is caused by combinations of buoyancy, inertia and drag forces sup-
ported by the effect of hydrostatic pressure from the core of the breakwater. These
forces all seem to reach their maximum value for lowest downrush which occurs at
resonance or for:

(3.20)

Experience, however, has shown that large single or doublé waves. 6.30) may be
particularly dangerous. This has been observed directly in the field and some of
the large failures of multilegged blocks may be attributed to the occurence of such
waves or groups of waves.
4. 'Gradual breakdown or failure due to "fatigue". Fatigue starts with
smaller movements of the blocks, which steadily increase, and by which
the blocks are gradually moved out of intimate contact with neighboring
units or from the first sublayer, and perhaps simultaneously suffer from
tear and wear due to their rocking or bouncing around, thus impacting
other blocks and causing damage. This process is particularly important
for multilegged blocks, when such damage may be directly observed
or "heard". Occurrence of resonance making the uprush/downrush
per particular effects due to the constant rocking motion with specifïc
friction and interknitting between blocks, and partly some other effects,
cause structural ruptures due to bending stresses and other fatique
forces.'
Other types of wave trains e.g. wave series with deep troughs , causing deep
rundown, and therefore high downrush velocities as well as higher hydrostatic
pressures from the water table in the core, are very dangerous. Natural rock is
a compact mass and its resistance against movement is based on its weight and
friction against other blocks. When useful weight is decreased due to buoyancy
the resistance decreases to about half. The wave situation depicted therefore is
very dangerous, because the slope meets wave No. 2 in submerged condition. It
is the most dangerous of wave trains, hydrodynamically speaking, that determines
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and other failure modes 191

F™ " ^ ±19.01*
Pi lines 1/ 1
^ ^ ^ r t r N c 2 " ton stone
Select tot mat'l - ~ - ~ _ & : * - T 1 K ^ C S S ^ ^ 2 ton dotos „ ,
__. . ;?J3r-~- ^ N r S ^ 0.0datum
3-6 ton stone > x ^ = ^ ^ k > C 5 s ^ 3 - 6 ton stone
T-^S l^s^OSS5ï/*"20 ^^ St0ne

y"^ ^^*%\/»sr>^9:20 ton Damaged

X Tot(core)material X^&~5l ^"2-6 ton „ ^.p rftfi | P
Xh Toe f a t e r J T ^ ^ S , ~ 25
Bed rock

Figure 3.28. Sines (Portugal) Breakwater.

the stability or failure

Kjelstorp and Bruun (1983) provide three examples of serious destruction of rubble-
mound breakwaters experienced after 1970 for the following breakwaters: one of
rock (Akranes, Iceland), one of tetrapods (Arzew el Djedid, Algeria) and one of
dolos (Sines, Portugal).
Profile of the Sines breakwater before the massive destruction is shown in Fig.3.28.
In 1978-1979 winter season the breakwater experienced 3 storms with the following
wave heights and periods Hb & 8...10 m and Ts & 16 - 19 sec.

This was foliowed in February 1978: Hb m 9 m and Ts ^ 19 s

in December 1978: Hb ~ 8 — 8.5 m and Ts « 16 s
in Febrary 1979: Hb ~ 9 m and Ts « 19 s.

These storms, and particularly the February 1978 one caused extensive damages.
The main failures took place in what may be termed "mass slides" or "mass
departures" spreading debris over a large section of the offshore bottom. The
debris was heavily damaged.
The mode and character of the failure seems to indicate that the failure was mainly
the result of a massive lift, movement and bouncing of the 42-ton armour blocks.
Blocks however may have been damaged before the storm due to insufficiënt
strength but as the armour layer probably became "a live mass" considerable
damage undoubtedly happened during the storm and at the breakdown. The blocks
apparently were too small and structurally speaking too weak. The toe structure
probably was insufficiënt too, being very small. When the armour failed the massive
wave screen on the top became exposed directly to wave attack which by reflection
eroded the base of the screen so that it tumbled over.
Hence the following reasons of the failure seem to have combined:
192 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

a) Inadequate wave data and inadequate studies (as a consequence)

b) Blocks too light for slope
c) Blocks too weak, in structural terms
d) The mamoth wave screen proved to be impractical.

Barends, Kogel et al. (1983) also analysed the Sines case and concluded:

- The geotechnical stability of a breakwater under extreme wave loading

conditions is strongly affected by the combined effect of wave seepage
and wave impact forces both of a typical dynamic nature.
- In most cases instability will not occur as sudden instantaneous
complete slope failure, but rather by a progressive deformation along
the slopes, the rate of which depends on the magnitude and duration
of the storm.
- The in-situ initial state (actual material properties, stress state and
V1VOO UVVLlV/lllU g V V / i U V U j i AÏ3 V^A- Ü t d l l U J V Ü l l L 1II11/V/1 L U 1 1 W ï-%_f U 1 V lUllVLlVltlllg

of the structure under design storm conditions. Built-in devices to

detect the initial state are recommended.

Another example of damaged mound is provided by the Akranes breakwater (Ice-

land) made of natural rock, and not of dolos.
It is often claimed that rock mound structures fail in a more "graceful way" than
concrete block structures. The wording refers to the fact that failure of rock struc-
tures is a rather slow process by which the mound gradually loses blocks, normally
by outwashes on the outer slope. Massive failures are not common with rock
mound structures unless failures take places by heavy overwashes which rapidly
flatten out the mound carrying crown blocks down on the outer slope and over on
the inside of the mound. Another type of massive failure takes place when the
mound structure is capped with a large screen in the form of a high vertical wall,
perhaps sticking up several meters above the rock slope in fornt of it. So heavy
uprushes cause erosion of the mound in front, perhaps lowering it considerably,
thereby increasing the reflection from the wall, Kjelstrup and Bruun (1983), and
in the case of the Akranes breakwater in Iceland the wave screen did not collapse
because it was built on the top of a caisson but the mound in front suffered severe
damages.
The Akranes breakwater is located in a relatively protected area, where storm
waves occasionally may reach about 4-m Hs and Ts = 14.... 16 sec. A severe storm
in December 1980 caused damages in an area where wave action concentrated. A
movie taken when the storm was at its peak demonstrates the pressure of large
"mountain waves", which swamped the breakwater entirely in massive uprushes.
In the following deep downrushes large water masses under high pressure from
water inside the breakwater poured out of the mound with detrimental effects on
the stability already weakened by the collision between the uprush and the wave
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and otherfailure modes 193

possibly a fiU

O / J / ) J i J / -/ / i / J } ) i ) / /jtuJ-Cl^/ f > >> > > r > > >' > t > ' > > >
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /RDTTnM // / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / '

Figure 3.29. Failure Modes of Rubble Breakwaters, Bruun & Kjelstrup (1983).

screen causing massive outwashes of blocks in front of the wall. The experience
clearly defeated preocuppation with any concept of 'Design Wave' as related to a
spectral wave of a certain height and period. The main daraage was clearly caused
by a sollitary type, which apparently first lifted the armour blocks by buoyancy and
momentum, next washed them down by downrush combined with a large outflow
of water from mound. It is in this respect of no importance whether the mound is
built of rock or of concrete blocks.
This most severe storm was peculiar in the way that the wave action was composed
of 2 different kinds of wave action: a swell of about 2 m/10 sec and a wind wave
of about 3m/6 sec.
Heavy damages took place to the outer of the breakwater. The fill was carried
down on the outer slope levelling the crown 6 m down to about M.S.L.
The reason for the very extensive damage may be sought in the above mentioned
combination of wave actions. The swell caused high uprushes and deep down-
rushes which is often detrimental to stability. The shorter wind waves probably
contributed to the damage by "pounding effects" shaking blocks loose of bonds
with other blocks and weakening the structure. Combinations of the two gener-
ated "mammoth" peaks as well as troughs, equally dengerous to stability. It is
possible that a weak toe structure contributed to the rapid downfall.
The breakwater has been rebuilt with 1 : 2 slope, heavier rock and a more sub-
stantial toe structure, Kjelstrup and Bruun (1983).
The variety of failure modes of rubble-mound breakwaters is depicted in Fig.3.29.
The statistics of breakwater damage has been outlined in Fig.3.30. One of the fail-
ure modes, settlement, is depicted in Fig.3.31. The damage of rubble, with reference
194 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

to both breakwaters and the forthcoming revetments, is illustrated in Fig.3.32.

Revetments
As described elsewhere in this study report, a block revetment consists of three
major layers: tep layer, filter layer, and base. Den Boer et ai (1983) analysed the
wave-induced pressures on a slope and distinguished eight types of resultant loads,
during one wave cycle, which can lead to failure of the top layer. Later investi-
gations by Delft Hydraulics (Burger 1983, 1984) have clearly shown that the most
critical failure mode of the top layer is the uplifting and subsequent ejection of
individual blocks as a result of combined high water pressures in the filter layer
(internal load) and low water pressures outside slope (external load). This failure
mechanism has been shown to occur only if the relative percentage of openings
between the blocks is smaller than approximately 10 % of the top surface of the
block. The design method proposed by Burger et al.(1988) is therefore confined
to revetments with relatively closed top layers.
Bakker and Meijrs (1988) identify the following three major modes of failure mech-
anisms which must be considered in design of flexible revetments, viz:
i) — uplifting of blocks
ii) — sliding of revetment
iii) — instability of sublayers.
They focus attention on sliding of revetment, in particular over a filter layer.
Failure mechanisms in flexible revetments are paid a lot of attention in the design
guidelines being prepared within WG 21 under PIANC auspices. The extensive
experience of Dutch investigators, reflected in these guidelines, are highlithed in
this document.
In general, the following three principal failure modes can be distinguished for
(placed block) slope revetments:
1. Unacceptable motion or displacement of an individual element from the toplayer
of a revetment. This can be either an artificial concrete block or a natural rock.
It will be clear that this failure mechanism will lead to instant damage of the
revetment.
2. Unacceptable internal transport of grains in a slope revetment's sublayer, from
one fine sublayer to a coarser sublayer, or from a sublayer through the toplayer.
Through undermining this leads indirectly to failure of the toplayer.
3. Unacceptacble sliding or liquefaction of one of the sublayers, leading to
unacceptable deformation of the toplayer.
If the load on the toplayer exceeds a certain critical value this will lead to the
following possible failure modes for the toplayer:
• Motion of an individual loose block.
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and other jailure modes

400r
total
40 " a -o
5 300- H scottered
30 28 l"
200
c?20 _ 20i^
ai
3= 10-
12 12 12 11 L. 100
O "7 7 X)
o
co E
0 z>
-1 * 3 4 5 6 8 10 12- -1.0 1.1 12 13 1.4 1.5-
bottom slope (tanfl-10 2 ) actuai weight/calcutated weight

°: AO 3Q.8
«30*
Si 30I- •
e 2M
24 24 o>20
20 c 16,2 15,5
c •c
•c 15 a> 13.1
<u 12 11 10- 8,0
7 y 5,5
o 3.1.
co
0
- 20 40 60 80 103120160200- 1.0 1.1 1.2 13 1,4 1J5-
Offshore distance (m) actual weight/calculated weight

Figure 3.30. Damage Ratio of Breakwaters, for Different Mechanisms, Seiji et al.(1987).

21 36 sites

Foundation type

I | No settlement
K\\1 Unclear
Eül Settlement

Structurai type

Figure 3.31. Settlement of Detached Breakwaters, Watanabe & Horikawa (1983).

196 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

z
=>
., — . ,, . Q
DESTRO oCD*4m ÜJ
O
YED CD*O
• m <
_)
ti-
j/l
SERIOUS Q

MUCH
MODE-
RATE y°
LITTLE
SLK3HT K / >•
S
HARDLY N/^*"
5 10 15 20~"HstmJ 5 10 ' '15" " 2 0 — H s tml
INFLUENCE OF TCE ON STABILITY OF b) EFFECT OF GROUPINESS
BROKEN DOLOSSE
i-

15
Hglm)
(1%damage)
X <*
10-

5- A OUTER PORTION (SLOPE 1:4)

oEMERGENCY REPAIR (SLOPE 1=2)

10 15 20 25 Ï5 " 2• 0 — H s tm]
~Tpls)
c ) INFLUENCE PEAK PERIOD ON d ) INFLUENCE DAMAGED UNITS
STABILITY ON STABILITY

The damage was -classitied a s follows

hardly : 0-1°/ o of the units removed: no gaps
slight : 1-2°/ » of the units removed no gaps
little .' 2-3 c /o of the units removed gaps of 0 - 5 units
moderate : 3 - 5 % of the units removed gaps of 5-10 units
much : large gaps in top layer of primary armour
serious : secondary armour visible trough small gaps in the primary armour
destroyed : secondary armour affected core visible

Figure 3.32. Rubble Stability, Mol et al.(1983).

 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and otherfailure modes 197

• Uplifting of an individual lose block.

• Sliding of the entire toplayer (or at least a significant part of it) from the
system of sublayers.

• "Breathing" of the toplayer (the periodical upward and downward raotion of

part of the toplayer) in case of a more or less coherent toplayer, where the
movement of an individual block is limited by the neighboring blocks.

The former three failure modes are possible for placed block revetments with loose
blocks, the latter two can occur for revetments with some kind of interlocking
between the blocks.
It shows that the resultant loads on the toplayer, together with the composition of
the toplayer can lead to the following two modes of transport of granular material
that may lead to damage of the revetment:

• Erosion from granular filter material through the joints between the blocks
or holes in the blocks from the toplayer.

• Erosion of the fill material from the joints between the blocks or holes in the
blocks from the toplayer.

In case the holes in the toplayer are larger than the grains in the underlying
filter layer, this sublayer may be washed out through these holes. Two different
mechanisms can be distinguished:
1. Erosion by outflowing water through the holes by the flow perpendicular to the
toplayer
2. Erosion by the external water flow up and down the slope by wave impact, runup
and rundown.
The first mechanism will take place during the moment of maximum rundown; the
pressure gradiënt over the slope induces an outgoing water flow that may be able
to transport the individual grains of the filter layer.
The second mechanism can occur during or just after the moment of wave impact
or during the running down of water on the slope. This downrush generates eddies
in the holes in the toplayer, by which the individual grains are eroded from the
sublayer. Of course, a combination of both mechanisms is also possible.
For larger holes the velocity of the outflowing water decreases as a result of the
large cross-section and the reduction of the gradiënt over the toplayer. In this case
mechanism 1° is unlikely to occur, while mechanism 2°, as a result of the larger
hole diameter is more probable.
Together with the composition of the sublayer under consideration one can witness
the three different transport phenomena of granular material:
198 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

• Piping or hydraulic transport downward along the slope of granular material

through initially small holes or channels in the granular sublayer at the
interface with the toplayer or a geotextile

• Instability of interfaces between different sublayers; which in practice means

that the finer (deeper) sublayer is washed out by the hydraulic ftow through
the voids in the coarser (higher) sublayer

• Internal instability of one of the sublayers, because of discontinuities in the

grain size distribution of a wide graded granular material.

Internal instability of sublayers is another point of importance. A granular filter

is called internally stable when the fine fraction of the filter cannot be washed out
between the larger grains. The mechanism of internal instability is often referred
to as suffosion or internal erosion.
Internal instability can only occur within materials with a very wide gradation
(gentle sieve curve). This type of material is used more and more in slope
protections, where industrial waste materials (slags, silex, minestone) become a
cheap alternative for natural granular materials.
Internal instability is a dangerous failure mode of slope revetments. A gradual
increase of the permeability of the filter layer leads to:
- higher internal pressures in the filter layer, endangering the stability of the
toplayer
- Instability of the interface between filter layer and base material, which can lead
to undermining of the entire structure.
Therefore internal instability should be avoided or the consequences should be
taken into account in the design.
The internal hydraulic loads together with the composition of the sublayers can
lead to the following soil mechanical failure modes:

• Flow sliding of insufficiently packed sand layers.

• Sliding along slip circles for slopes that are too steep for soil mechanical
stability.

• Temporary periodical fludization directly underneath a "breathing" block

from the toplayer.

The soil mechanical failure modes mentioned above only refer to direct failure of
the revetment under excessive hydraulic loads, but not to general soil mechanical
processes that involve the entire flexible protection structure and that not directly
related to hydraulic loads, for example consolidation.
For each of the failure modes adequate methods of calculation must be given. It
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and other failure modes 199

should also be realized that there is always an interaction between different failure
modes, which makes the entire design process considerably more difficult.
Fulton-Bennet and Griggs (1988) provide the following summary as to the perfor-
mance of revetments.a Although rip rap is undoubtably the most common form of
coastal protection in the region studied, many of its alleged benefits may not hold
during severe storm conditions:
(1) Rip rap revetments do not always exhibit the coherent "flexibility" portrayed
in some engineering publications. Instead of settling as a cohesive unit, individual
stones tend to separate as they rotate and/or settle, often moving seaward in the
process. This causes the upper part of the wall to become less stable.
(2) Rip rap walls may fail quite rapidly, often leaving behind gaps of arcuate
landslide-like scarps of oversteepened rip rap or exposed fill. Because many walls
are designed as low as possible to minimize costs, even minor settling can allow
significant overtopping, erosion, and damage behind the wall.
(3) Rip rap revetments built over steep, loosely Consolidated materials require
carefully planned drainage systems to avoid erosion of material behind the rock.
Numerous rip rap walls were outflanked or parüally failed because of erosion of
material behind the rock. Some parüally failed because of erosion from uncon-
trolled street or building runoff flowing behind or around them. Filter cloth is not
always a practical solution to this problem, especially on slopes steeper than 2:1.
Through-the-wall drainage pipes or conduits are often damaged as large rocks shift
or settle.
(4) Although, at most times, placing new rocks on top of old, settled ones is rela-
tively simple, repairing a rip rap wall while it is being overwashed by storm waves
is extremely difficult, and at many locations, beach access is impossible under such
conditions.
(5) Rip rap walls certainly reflect a smaller percent of wave energy than do ver-
tical wood or concrete walls. However, during high tides and under certain wave
conditions, reflected waves from rip rap walls have been observed to combine with
incident waves, causing erosion and damage in adjacent areas, especially in small
embayments.

Dykes
For the dyke as a whole, instability may occur due to failure of subsoil, front or
rear slope. Each of these failure modes may be induced by geotechnical or hydro-
dynamical phenomena.
A brief overview of the failure mechanisms of dykes, dams or banks is given below.
Micro-instability of the soil material at the inner slope may be caused by seepage
and a high phreatic plane.
200 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

A slip circle at inner slope can be due, inter alia by a high phreatic plane in a
dyke. This will be the case when the duration of the high water level is long or
permanent.
A slip circle in the outer slope may occur when a low water follows an extreme
high water (or sudden draw-down). The body of the dyke is heavy with water and
slides down.
A slip circle in the waterway bank may obstruct the fairway. This instability can be
caused by a rapid draw-down of the water table in the waterway or the presence
of weaker or impermeable layers in the subsoil.
A local shear failure (sliding of a revetment) parallel to the slope may also be
the consequence of a rapid draw-down or hydraulic gradients perpendicular to the
slope.
Erosion (removal of particles) of the dyke/bank protection or the bed may be
caused by wave or current induced shear forces sometimes assisted by hydraulic
gradiënt forces.
Piping (internal erosion) may occur i.e. the gradual formation of a material en-
training flow under an impermeable revetment or through a local concentration
of permeable material in the dyke body/foundation. When the "pipe" enventually
reaches the high waterside the process of internal erosion will accelerate.
Migration indicates the transport of material behind the revetment. The transport
may be parallel to the bank causing local slumping of the revetment or vertical re-
sulting in the aforementioned S-shaped profile. Material may also be lost through
the revetment when filter requirements are not met.
A liquefaction may occur in loosely packed sands under influence of a shock or a
sudden draw-down. In this case the sudden increase or pore pressure reduces the
shear strength practically to zero and the soil behaves as a liquid.
Pumping is seen when the revetment bends under external pressure and thus gen-
erates a flow of water underneath. The flow entrains particles of the soil.
Settlement is due to consolidation, compression, migration, oxidation of organic
material (i.e. peat layers).
Horizontal sliding or tilting is mostly unlikely for a dyke or an earth dam, however,
for rigid structures it is of paramount importance.
Ice may severely attack the revetment during winter time.
Heave of the soil may be caused by the formation of ice crystals within the grain
skeleton of the soil during the winter.
Ship collision against the dyke/bank may cause considerable damage.
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and other failure modes 201

siaewaiK
drain
fe

1'7" square beach line

pedestal piling
24'6" long

extreme high tide

mean sea leve!

pedestal

Figure 3.33. O'Shaughnessy Sea Wall in san Francisco.

Sea Walls
U S. Army Corps of Engineers (1975) lists the following as typical causes of failure
for concrete sea walls fronting the Great Lakes:
(a) loss of foundation support
(b) inadequate penetration
(c) scour at toe
(d) outflanking
^ t e ^ r s ' ^ t h a , these causes of fai.ure are also W i c a , for the U.S. West
Co" t W X F U I ton-Bennett * Griggs, 198.). Loss offillbehind walls due to p.ptng
^ u b s ü r f a c e remova, of loose sedrment, sol,, or Hl due to water fiowtnj; hro
voids or holes), gullying, and/or undermimng ;,« . 1 » p r e v a „ t^ Al ough th
Store Protection Manual (US Army Corps of Engineers, 1977) states tnat ta.iure
of rrid sea wa™ „ m o s , Hke.y to be catas.rophic, many walls in the s.udy reg.on
we è endangered by a gradua removal of fill over several days or storm penods.
s Z T ^ Z wans survived undermining or ,oss of Bil because l » W ^
had the time and money to add new fill and toe proteefon, preventmg structural
failure.
The O'Shaughnessy Seawall in San Francisco (Fig.3.33), compieted in 1929 at a
S of $ 575 MO is the single most successful protective structure wt.h.n the
tudy egion Ths maS sive concrete „11 has survived the test of urne because
202 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

it incorporates design and construction elements that prevent each of the typical
causes of failure.
Erosion of materials above and behind sea walls is one of the most widespread
problems observed, perhaps because it can be caused by greenwater, wave splash,
and even spray. The effect of very large volumes of runoff water on coastal
structures has often been underestimated and should always be considered in
designing those structures.
Erosion behind sea walls is a complex process, combining direct wave action, falling
splash and spray, subsurface piping, and gullying by surface runoff. Saturation of
soils may play a major part in the last two processes.
Frequent inundation of soils and sand by wave splash and spray (and often rain)
can create temporarily saturated conditions within the upper layers of soil, resulting
in ponding behind sea walls. This occurred behind virtually every vertical sea wall
observed during the storms of 1983, even those with filter cloth and other "through
the wall" drainage systems. If ponding is severe, water will begin spilling over the
side or front of a sea wall, in some cases causing loss of fill or outflanking. Once
saturated, soil becomes increasingly susceptible to gullying and piping. Both these
processes tend to follow path of least resistance, gullying being most likely around
the fianks and low portions of sea walls, and piping occuring at minute cracks,
joints, tears in filter cloth, or other regions of concentrated flow.
Where water cannot exit directly, it may flow behind a sea wall, parallel to shore,
for hundreds of feet, before finding a weakness or gap in the barrier (Site No. 25,
1983). To counter this problem, the O'Shaughnessy sea wall incorporates a series
of deep cutoff walls at right angles to the wall, at one hundred-foot intervals, so
that if the section of the wall failed or was undermined, it would be less dlikely to
affect adjacent sections.
Undermining of sea walls occurs when foundation material (usually sand, fill, or
rock) is removed by waves. This may take place not only when beach sand is
scoured or fluidized, but also where bedrock erodes rapidly during storms. In
either case, the result of undermining is often rapid loss of fill from behind a wall,
and in some cases, structural failure. Undermining of rigid walls can be difficult to
recognize, since it may remove subsurface material, while leaving visible portions
of a wall and paved surfaces behind the wall intact. Undermining of rip rap walls
is more obvious, since these "flexible" structures will settle into the undermined
area.

3.2.5 Some Other Failure Mechanisms

Dykes and similar defense structure can consist of cohesive soil. This is the case
studied at IBW PAN (Polish Academy of Sciences; Stepkowska, 1987), in which soil
of the dykes was generally weak (mud, sometimes peat and organic soil) or medium
 Ch.3: Near-field effects; scour and other f allure modes 203

cohesive (homogeneous mud, some 10... 15% of organic soil), with pronounced
properties of swelling and shrinking (the strength of unconsolidated dyke being
7... 15 kPa, versus the consolidated one of 30 kPa, for the 500-kPa modulus of
compressibility at o = 10... 50 kPa.
The following failure modes have been observed:

a. excessive permeability, accompanied by downstream piping

b. considerable and diversified settlement of the dyke crest (up to 50 cm)

c. loss of stability in case of overfill, accompanied by seepage outflows on the
downstream side

d. mechanical erosion by waves.

The following strata of the dykes can be identified:

I. Upper stratum of granular soil, with large aggregates and coarse gravel.
Cohesion is minor, permeability k exceeds 0.01 cm/s.

II. Central stratum of mud, with open cracks and considerable permeability
(close to 0.01 cm/s). The thickness of this stratum is 2 m (below dyke crest,
or 1.5—1.6 m at the minimum).

III. Lower stratum of primary consolidated mud (10~8 cm/s).

The failure m e c h a n i s m s or arch-factors include primarily alternate d r y i n g and

freezing (mostly for stratum I), ageing of soil and gradual aggregation (mostly
for stratum II) and swelling.
D r y i n g and freezing enhance the generation, existence and intensification of in-
ternal bonds between soil particles in a primary aggregate (referred to as 'domain'),
between domains in the aggregate of aggregates (denoted by 'cluster') and, gen-
erally, between lower-order aggregates in higher-order aggregates of cohesive soil.
IBW PAN tests (St^pkowska 1987) have shown that the size of aggregates grows
during dry storage. Mud samples taken from the Northern Harbour of Gdansk
and stored for one year had aggregates by 20 to 40% larger than initially. Another
Baltic mud doubled its aggregates upon tencycles of freezing and thawing. Hence,
a soil having a moderate cohesion, subject to cyclic drying and freezing, can behave
as a granular medium; this was indeed observed in the upper stratum of the dykes
studied.
Ageing of the system water-clay is most probably respondible for cracking in
stratum II. This is linked to gradual aggregation of clayey minerals, i.e. transi-
tion from microaggregates to higher and higher-order aggregates. The older the
soil the larger the size of the high-order aggregates, and the more vulnerable the
soil to cracking and enhanced seepage. It is interesting to note that the process
204 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

of aggregation can be impeded by controlled use of 'impurities', such as coarser

grains, which would prevent smooth aggregation, much as admixtures impede the
analogous process of crystallization. - Another method of preventing aggregation
consists in homogenization of the aggregate structures.
Swelling of clay is caused by exchangëable cations, which in all colloids constitute
a diffusion layer about particles. The thickness of this layer depends on many fac-
tors, first of all water content. If the latter is much lower than the liquid limit, the
adjacent diffusion layers push out, by analogy to osmotic pressure. The repulsion
is in balance with the negative pore pressure.
If there is free inflow of water, the soil system swells by increasing its wave content.
If swelling can continue over a longer time span, the average size of particles can
decrease, the so-called delamination occurs, accompanied by the growth of the wa-
ter content and system volume. Delamination has been observed in bentonite, with
reduction of partiele size to one-half of the initial value. Similar behaviour, with
the reduction to one-third, was recorded for Grimmen clay. Upon consolidation
and shearing the mean size of the clay partiele returned to its original magnitude
(StQpkowska, 1987).
Failure-prevention methods for cohesive soil in dykes may be based on the
tests reported by St^pkowska (1987). The measures that can be used are described
briefly in Chapter 5.
Adel, Bakker and Breteler (1988) discuss internal stability of filter layers used in
protection slopes along banks and dykes employing waste materials. In some mate-
rials, such as minestone wastes, their wide grain size distribution favours was hing
out of fine grains through the skeleton of coarse grains, which is one of
the failure m o d e discussed, this time enhanced for particularly fine particles.
Two effects prevent direct application of the concept of boundary instability to the
problem of internal instability. Firstly, transport of base material into a filter layer
occurs only at the boundary layer between base and filter. In contrast, in the case
of internal stability, fine grains in the filter itself can be removed everywhere, thus
increasing the mass of the transported material. Secondly, the capacity of water
to contain material is limited. When water is saturated, no further erosion can
occur downstream. Since the water accumulates the material collected, less and
less material can be removed downstream, due to the saturation of water. This
feature leads to a characteristic erosion length.
Mechanics of piping in dykes is analysed extensively by Sellmeijer (1988).
The design measures aimed at preventing the failure modes presented in this Chap-
ter are discussed in Section 4.2 and are illustrated in Chapter Five.
CHAPTER4

Geometrical and structural design

4.1 GEOMETRICAL DESIGN (Morphological Dimensioning)

of COASTAL STRUCTURES

4.1.1 General
As already mentioned in the foregoing sections, the design procedures for coastal
structures should include geometrical design and s t r u c t u r a l design reflecting
respectively the far-field and near-field requirements imposed on structures. The
description of the far-field effects is contained in Chapter 2 while the near-field
mechanisms are dealt with in Chapter 3. This corresponds to our division of design
procedures into two basic groups concentrating on

• overall layout and configuration of a structure as a whole, and its interaction

with the coastal environment to produce desirable sedimentation patterns
and coastal management effects

• stability and reliability of the structure and its components, hence dimen-
sioning of structural constituents, associated with possible unavoidable and
undesirable hazards due to the loadings exerted by the coastal environment

In other words, the first group involves design parameters producing the best
environmental effectiveness of a structure in 'ideal' conditions, i.e. upon negligence
of possible 'harmful by-effects', such as different modes of failures and instabilities,
both overall and internal. The second group is concerned about these 'by-effects'
and provides the tools which secure the integrity and proper operation of the
structure and its components.
Accordmgly, this Section 4.1 is devoted to the geometrical design while Section
4.2 provides quidelines on structural design of structures and their constituents.
Both are supplemented by Section 4.3. placing emphasis on forces and stability,
primarily with regard to structural constituents.

205
206 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

4.1.2 Cross-shore structures (groynes)

Types of Groynes and Their Paremeters

The groynes encountered most frequently have vertical walls and are rectilinear,
normal to the shoreline. Their Standard shapë is often supplemented by additïonal
elements which enforce wave diffraction and thereby increase accretion or diminish
erosion around the structure. In plan view groynes have the shape of the letters
L, Z or T.
Groynes are made from different materials. Timber, steel, concrete, natural rub-
blemound, precast elements or even sandy bituminous revetments are used in the
USA (SPM 1977) on an experimental basis. In Great Britain groynes used tradi-
tionally are vertical-wall, rectilinear structures made of concrete, steel or timber
(Brampton and Motyka 1983). Some other volutions are sometimes seen in the
form of the letter T or F, which is implemented through adding structural ele-
ments situated parallel to shoreline, The rubble-mound groynes are constructed
from stone or concrete elements, but due to their higher cost they are more seldom.
Permeable groynes are also encountered, e.g. two timber groynes in Bournmounth
or tubular steel groynes on the East Anglian coast having 40% clearance and being
zig-zag in plan view, Tomlison (1980). Groyne lengths vary from 30 m on gravel
beaches to 300 m along sandy beaches. The groyne spacings are different and vary
from 1 : 1 to 1 : 4, after Tomlinson (1980).
In the Netherlands one often uses rubble; groynes are low and streamlined, while
their seaward tips are sometimes strengthened with bituminous materials. In Ger-
many the most frequent groynes are rectilinear and normal to shoreline. Sometimes
rubble groynes are made of natural stone. The joints are filled with bituminous
materials and the surfaces are made smooth. The crowns of the groynes on the
land side are slightly higher than those on beach. Slightly inclined groynes project
ca 0.75 m above the beach datum while the strongly inclined ones emerge ca 0.5 m.
The ordinates of groyne heads are about 0.50 m above mean water level, and the
slope of the groynes corresponds to the mean slope of the beach profile.

The groynes constructed in Poland are timber or reinforced-concrete palisade struc-

tures, along with few groynes made of steel sheet (cf. Table 14 in Appendix 2-1,
Basinski 1963). These structures are basically impervious but sometimes permeable
configurations are used. The length of Polish groynes is 90 m on the average, their
spacing being about 60 m (cf. Table 15 in Appendix 2-1).
Groynes are one of the most controversial coastal defence measures. In many in-
stances they are successful but equally well they might be situations with detrimental
environmental effects. These effects are due to local conditions of the coastal en-
vironment, design characteristics of sediment transport, and general variability of
many factors. Groynes are usually applied if the longshore sediment transport
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 207

p r e d o m i n a t e s . One must be aware of the erosion on the down-drift side of a

group of groynes. Such erosion may require additional artificial beach nourish-
ment at places particularly vulnerable to damage. Accretion can be encountered
on the up-drift side of a groyne system. The temporal changes include variation of
geometrie characteristics of groynes, their relative length in the surf zone etc.
Basic dimensions of each groyne are its length, height and width. The length and
height of groyne depend on coast morphology and long-shore sediment transport
rate. The width of groyne also depends on the wave forces, so that a groyne is
usually designed as narrow as possible.
Further quantities include permeability of groyne and groyne orientation with re-
gard to shoreline. As groyne systems prevail in practice, and not single groynes,
one must also specify parameters of the system configuration, primarily spacing of
groynes.
The diversification of recommendations on different groyne parameters, in various
parts of the world, is well exemplified in Appendix 2-1, from which the ranges of
design groyne parameters can be consulted whereas given below are some most
commonly advisable quantities.

Dimensioning of Groynes
Our analysis of characteristic parameters for groynes permits the following conclu-
sions.
Groyne Length
It is not defined in a unique way. More precisely, one should consider the following
basic composition of a groyne:
a horizontal shore section

b intermediate sloped section

c outer section
This will be done in the following subsubsection where data on groyne length are
combined with groyne height.
The total groyne length i.e. the distance measured from the groyne head to
the point of the maximum runup, should be basically the w i d t h of t h e active
longshore t r a n s p o r t zone. Different estimates are given in literature for this
quantity, and they are determined in various ways depending on the choice of
the level of reference (on the sea side this level being above or below the low
water level while on the land side it is counted from the berm or from the crown
of the protecting structure, e.g. a seawall located behind the zone of beach
transformation).
The protrusion of groynes in the seaward direction should depend on the quantity
208 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Table 4.1. Recommended length of subaqueous segment of groyne, in metres.

Type of sea bed and sediment slope sea bed
Grain diameter < 1 :25 medium > 1 : 25
fine 30m 24 m 18 m
medium 26 m 20 m 16 m
coarse 22 m 16 m 12 m

of sediment to be entrapped.
In tideless seas most of the longshore transport takes place in the surf zone,
shoreward of the breaker line. The most common practice for tidal seas is that
the boundary for the maximum sediment transport across the beach profile is
determined by tidal oscillations. The studies of the Wallingford Laboratory for
regular waves have shown that up to 90% of sediment transport occurs in the zone
landward of the ebb-line.
The following recommendations are additionally contained in the Polish guidelines
(Engineering Tables, Szopowski 1956).
If renovation and reconstruction of already constructed groynes are intended the
above recommendations must not be observed.
The tests conducted in hydraulic laboratories by Nagai (1956) and Nagai and Kubo
(1958) have resulted in the conclusion that the optimum length of the groynes that
entrap the longshore moving sediments is 40% of the width of the surf zone lim-
ited on the seaward side by the plunging breakers. This recommendation does not
entirely agree with other guidelines.
Groyne Height
The elevation of groynes controls the quantity of sediments entrapped from its
longshore portion. It is generally recognized that the higher the groyne the more
sediments are entrapped by the groyne system. However in practice it appears that
wave reflection also increases with increasing groyne height. More flow perturba-
tions enhance local scour and thus bring about lower bed levels in the vicinity of
groynes. For sandy beaches groynes are constructed as relatively low features. The
recommended heights are 0.5 to 1.0 m above the bed level. For shingle beaches the
opinions are divided since some investigations recommend the usage of structures
similar to those which are intended for sandy beaches, but on the other hand some
others recommend high groynes because wave reflection is likely to be correlated
with lower erosion.
Some structural solutions make possible fitting groyne heights to the changes in
bed profiles during the periods of storms and relatively calm weather. One also
diversifies the groyne height in different sections.
Horizontal shore section. This portion of the groyne extends landward from
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 209

the desired location of the beach berm. It serves to anchor the groyne and to
prevent outflanking. The minimum, and most economical, height for this part of
the groyne will be the height of the desired berm plus the height of normal wave
uprush. When constructing stone groynes, an additional foot is sometimes added
to decrease movement of sand between large capstones. The length of this section
will vary but it must extend landward of the desired berm crest to the point of
wave uprush, and prefarably beyond if economically feasible. This section may
be horizontal or it can slope slightly seaward to parallel either the existing beach
profile or the desired profile if a wider beach is desired.
I n t e r m e d i a t e slope section. This portion of the groyne should parallel the
slope of the foreshore the groyne is expected to maintain. lts length will depend
on the amount of material the groyne must retain to create the desired beach. The
height of this section is similarly determined.
O u t e r section. This part of the groyne extends seaward from the intermediate
section. For reasons of economy and safety, height of the outer section should be
minimized. The proper length of this section is controversial. Some recommend
extension to the outer edge of the zone defined by the breaking point of normal
waves. Others suggest shorter extensions. The best choice will depend on the vol-
ume of fill required and on the wave charcteristics. The outer section of groynes
may be modified at their ends into curves, hooks, angles, T- or L-letter, in the hope
that downdrift recession will be reduced. Such modifications are ill advised since
they only shift the zone of maximum recession and invite excessive scour.
Groyne Width
Groynes are generally narrow. Their width is nearly always dependent on the wave
forces they must sustain and the strength of materials used. The narrowest groynes
are of steel or timber and the widest of rock rubble, synthetic bags of sand or rock-
filled gabions.
Additional important elements of groyne design are permeability and orientation
with regard to shoreline.

Permeability of Groynes
It is a measure of the extent to which the structure will pass littoral drift material.
A permeable structure may alleviate the downdrift recession associated with im-
permeable groynes. Balsillie and Berg (1972) find that the relationships between
littoral forces, permeability and resulting shore behaviour have not yet been quan-
tified adequately. However, it is generally supposed that permeable groynes should
be used only in systems and that permeable groynes need a large amount of littoral
drifft to be effective.
Permeable groynes can be constructed in a wide variety of materials. Any form of
construction that will allow sand to pass through the structure is suitable, provid-
210 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

ing structural integrity is secured. Rock and precast concrete units can t>e used to
construct groynes with varying, and usually unpredictable, degrees of permeabïliry.
Permeability of groynes constructed trom these materials depends on core design,
size and packing of the components, and width of the structure. Structures with
Httle or no eore of smaller stone are more permeable, since sand can pass easiry
through the interstices of the larger components. Likewise, large rocks and shapes,
loose packing and narrow width result in greater permeability. Permeability can
only be approximated and will decrease with time due to fouling organisms and
debris.
Permeable groynes may also be constructed from wood, steel and aluminium sheet-
pile. These structures appear as bulkheads constructed perpendicular to the shore,
possessing 'windows' or openings at regular intervals through which sand passes.
In this way permeability can be controlled by varying the size and location of win-
dows. Designing permeability into structures is less than an exact science and is
best accomplished by on-site experimentation or past experience at sites with sim-
ilar conditioris.
Permeability of groynes in a system considerably reduces cost of coastal defence.
Compared with stone filled impermeable groynes, the cost of permeable groynes
with timber piles is up to 10 to 25% lower, Bakker et al. (1984).
Permeable groynes are also recommended if one intends to reduce a tendency to-
wards recurrence, possible scouring at groyne head, and negative effects on the
down-drift sides of a groyne system.
Local waves and currents, sediment transport rate, and other coastal factors deter-
mine the spacing between individual piles in a groyne.

Groyne Spacing
It is generally given in terms of the ratio of the distance between two neighbouring
groynes and their average length. The experimental studies on the relationship
between the groyne length, spacing and location with respect to the shoreline,
including the angle of wave incidence, have been carried out in a wide range of
parameters since the fifties. The tests conducted in hydraulic laboratories by Nagai
(1956) and Nagai and Kubo (1958) have suggested that the groyne spacing depends
on the angle of wave incidence.
Groyne spacing for a particular site depends on the wave climate, the angle of wave
attack, the steepness of the beach profile, the gram size of the beach material and
the economie factors related to construction costs and land use. Proper spacing
is necessary for an effective groyne system. Groynes spaced too widely produce
excessive recession on the downdrift sides. Groins spaced too closely produce a
net offshore transport of sand thus increasing erosion. Correct spacing accretes
material on the updrift side of each groyne which extends to the base of the next
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 211

updrift groyne. The selection of the correct spacing for a site depends on a study
of the site. When an adequate study cannot be made before a system is built, it is
recommended that the groynes be spaced too widely rather than too closely. It is
easier to build intermediate groynes in a widely spaced system, should that prove
necessary, than it is to remove groynes from a closely spaced system.
An overly high spacing brings about considerable energy fluxes towards the shore
and thus causes high sediment losses along the protected coastal sections. On the
other hand, if the spacing is too small it makes impossible for sediment to enter
the bays between groynes and stimulates the transport of sediments along shore
seaward of the groyne head-line.
Nagai and Kubo suggest that the location and spacing of groynes should be taken
according to Table 12 in Appendix 2-1.
Basing on his studies in a wave flume with sediments having different densities
(such as bakelite, pumice and natural sand) Barcelo (1968) gives the optimum
spacings of groynes, depending on the angle of wave incidence summarised in Ta-
ble 13, Appendix 2-1.

It should be pointed out that there is no unique definition of groyne length and this
gives rise to different recommendations by various authors as to the relationships
between the groyne length and spacing. Brampton and Motyka (1982), basing on
their hydraulic tests and field investigations emphasize the diversification of condi-
tions for which the conclusions were drawn. They indicate that the optimum groyne
spacing should be linked directly to the angle of wave incidence. The more normal
the wave ray the lower the effective groyne length and thus the lower the groyne
capacity to entrap sediments. Therefore in order to reach the desired efficiency
of sediment entrapment the groyne spacing should be the lower the greater the
angle of wave incidence. Under natural conditions on beaches subjected to waves
from different directions it is necessary to determine the shoreline configuration
for each direction of wave incidence. This requires deep-water wave forecast bas-
ing on wind data and then determination of shallow - water wave parameters by
inclusion of refraction and diffraction with various numerical methods (cf. Section
3.5).
The dimensionless groyne spacing being accepted practically hithero varies in wide
intervals. Tomlinson (1980) idicates that this quantity can vary from 1 : 1 up to 1 :
10, cf. Tables 2 and 8 in Appendix 2-1. The recommended relative groyne spacing
for sandy beaches varies from 1 : 1 to to 1 : 4, while those for shingle beaches are
about 1 : 1 .
Brampton and Motyka suggest that due to high costs groyne groups should be
constructed with wider spacing. For example, on shingle beaches they recommend
initial spacing of 1: 2, which can be changed to 1 : 1 by inclusion of additional
shorter groynes in between the existing ones, if it turns out necessary. The initial
212 Effectiveness ofcoastal defence measures
300, . , 1 , . , , . . , r
(m)

+ Noord Holland x Texel o Vlieland

Figure 4.1. Groyne Spacing (x-axis) vs. Length (y-axis) in the Netherlands, Rakhorst (1984).

spacing for sandy beaches should be 1 : 4, which can be changed to 1 : 2 subse-

quently, with groynes of full length.
An overly high groyne spacing on shingle beaches can bring about zig-zag shoreline
configuration and an asymmetrie bed topography in the vicinity of groynes. This
phenomenon is not clear-cut on sandy beaches.
Small spacing of groynes (eg. smaller than 1 : 1 ) can cause worse operation of a
group of groynes (Tomlinson 1980). After having filled up the first bay between
groynes, sediments move along shore either through overtopping the groynes or by
passing the groyne head. Observations have shown that small spacing of groynes
have little chance for the sediments to accumulate in subsequent fields due to the
tendency to remove the sediments seaward of the groyne head line.
In most cases a single groyne cannot provide adequate protection and a system
of groynes must be constructed to protect longer sections of shoreline. The basic
processes of accretion and recession characteristic of single groynes also charac-
terize groyne system. In addition to its ability to protect any length of shoreline, a
groyne system derives an advantage from the interaction of the individual groynes.
The downdrift side of each groyne benefits from accretion on the updrift side of
the adjacent downdrift groyne. This often widens the beach.
A groyne system may be built in two ways. One may build the groynes and wait
for the natural sand movement to bring the coastline to its stable configuration or,
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 213

Table 4.2.
Bed Material Nearshore current
Grain Size Insignificant (up to 0.2m/s) (Strong)
Fine 1.5 3/4
medium 2.0 1.0
coarse 3.0 1.5

once the groynes are in place, one can import sand to bring the beach to its final
state at once. The second method increases the cost of the system but minimizes
downdrift recession. To shorten the time between groyne construction and final
fill, it is customary to construct all the groynes of the system simultaneously.

M o s t investigations r e c o m m e n d spacing ratios of 1:2 to 1:3.

Basing on many years observation of Dutch coastlines Rakhorst (1984) concludes
that the optimum spacing of groynes, rated to their length, is a crucial issue in view
of effectiveness of a groyne system.
Depending on local conditions this relative spacing may vary from 2 to 3, if the
absolute spacing a is in the range from 120 to 500 m, Fig.4.1. Hence this agrees
with the above guidelines contained in Technologies... (1982) and shore Protection
Manual (1977). The relative spacing recommended in Poland is given below.

The spacing is suggested as a multiple of the subaqueous part of groyne, that is

the central segment, measured from the shoreline.
Orientation of Groynes
Relative to the average shore line, it is usually normal (perpendicular). It has
received fairly little investigation and is presently controversial. Generally, it is be-
lieved that the depositional characters of groynes is related to angle of wave attack
on the structure, there being some optimum angle for sand retention. Evidence
exists that groynes oriented slightly updrift from normal to the shore-line are most
effective (as well as the least costly). However, more research is needed before re-
liable recommendations concerning orientation can be made because, on the other
hand, physical tests have indicated positive effect of groynes if they are inclined in
the downwave direction, although variability of wave under natural conditions can
bring about some detrimental effects in many cases (local erosion).

Practical Remarks
Dutch groynes are usually constructed of timber, 0.25... 0.30 m in diameter, Bakker
et al (1984). Groyne height depends on waves and tides and is defficult to define
in a unique way. Overall length of piles must be designed with the account for
natural sea bed changes due to morphological transformations. It is generally as-
214 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

sumed that 60% of total pile length is driven into bed, Bakker et al. (1984).
Polish guidelines of 1956 (Engineering Tables, Vol.IV) stipulate that groynes are to
be constructed if soil permits driving of piles. One row of groynes is applied, with
piles being spaced at less than 5 cm. One usually employs timber piles, but steel or
rëïnforced concrete is also acceptable. The diameter of timber piles should exceed
20 cm. Piles are free standing, without connecting units.
The guidelines recommend 6-m length of the subaeral segment of groyne. The
downdrift side of a groyne system should be made gradually shorter so that a
smooth transition to natural unprotected beach is attained. There should be at
least two shortened groynes within this transition section. The accurate angle of
groyne head line, with respect to natural beach should not exceed 2°.
If groynes prove successful with regard to morphological effects and entrapment of
sediment, so that groynes themselves are buried in sand, it is recommended that
they be extended.
Permanent morphological effects of groynes can be concluded from at least
25 months of operation, upon elimination of seasonal changes in beach transfor-
mation. Both subaeral and subaqueous areas should be considered in the analysis.
If a longer coastal segment is to protected with groynes one is advised to enlarge
the spacing and fil it in afterwards with additional groynes. Thus probability of
driving additional piles must be inherent in the original design.
Further remarks with regard to durability of groynes are provided in Section 4.2,
in addition to those offered in Section 3.1.4.

4.1.3 Offshore breakwaters

The functioning of offshore breakwaters depends on their geometrical proportions
and local environmental conditions.
Offshore breakwaters are often constructed as rubble-mound breakwaters of trape-
zoidal cross-section, having different slope angles on the seaward and shoreward
sides.
Distinction is made between low and high, i.e. s u b m e r g e d and e m e r g i n g break-
waters. It is assumed that the former have a height of less than 40% of the water
depth and relative submersion (d - hB)/hB > 0.5
For details from which the following quidelines are derived, the reader is referred
to Section 2.3. In particular, the following points of interest are suggested

• Select transmission properti.es of the breakwater to compromise on the func-

tions of sheltering and sedimentation control

• Decide on tombolo or salient, depending on the quantity of sediment to be

entrapped or passed by. Use can be made of Figs 2.9, 2.11, 2.14, 2.15;
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 215

• Decide on more intensive control of hydrodynamics and sedimentation (off-

shore breakwater in closer proximity of shore line) or allow for weaker in-
teraction (the distance YB greater, but not beyond the surf zone, stretching
to Yb);

• For different configurations of breakwater(s) in plan view, try Spataru's design

chart in Fig.2.16.

The following suggestions may prove helpful.

Emerging Breakwaters
Taking into account the stability espects and cost of structures Franco (1985)
recommends the seaward slopes of 1:1 to 1:3 for an offshore breakwater. The
overall stability of the structure also depends on the landward slope, which should
counteract the erosive effects of the overtopping water; the l a n d w a r d slope 1:1
is recommended most frequently. Other investigators suggest rather flatter slopes.
Crest w i d t h and elevation above mean water level are also important parameters
affecting dissipation of waves. Crest width is generally about 3 m, which can be
increased to 5 m at exposed places, and even more if stronger energy dissipation
is required. C r e s t d a t u m is generally 0.5 m to 1.5 m above still water level.
Breakwaters with higher crest dissipated more energy but must resist higher forces
and bring about higher reflection. The design of structure often determines the
elevation of crest, for instance in rubble-mounds field from front side it is necessary
to maintain a certain datum above SWL. One should remember that the crest
datum is generally subsiding during operation of a structure.
L e n g t h of offshore b r e a k w a t e r is generally 100... 200 m) which corresponds
to 2...6 mean wave lengths). In the case of segmented breakwaves operating in a
system of detached breakwaters one also assumes 3...10 mean wave lengths for a
single detached breakwater.
Gap width between segments of detached breakwaters in a system is usually taken
as one wave length, which becomes 25...30 m.
T h e d i s t a n c e from original shoreline is usually 20...100 m. An additional
condition arises if one has to provide adequate diffraction upon angular incidence
of waves, which occurs if the distance from the shoreline exceeds doublé width
between breakwater (gap width), that is at least 60...70 m. Offshore breakwaters
should be situated in parallel to the crest line of predominant waves, which most
generally means shore parallel configuration.
Submerged Breakwaters
Laboratory tests and field investigations in a variety of conditions for a sandy coast
of Japan and pebble coasts of the Caucasus have exposed the following features.
Depth of siting of submerged breakwaters is generally from 2 to 5 m, but an
216 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

optimum depth must be determined eachtime for a given coastal segment.

T h e d ï s t a n c e of s u b m e r g e d b r é a k w a t e r from shoreline depends critically
on the depth of foundation and slope of sea bed. The most frequent solutions
incorporate distances from several tens to a few hundreds meters. Submerged
breakwaters located in the region of breakingwavés and in the surf zone caüse
higher scour if their height is higher. The submerged breakwaters situated on the
seaward side of the breaking line cause higher erosion if their crest is lower.
C r e s t d a t u m was generally 0.5 tol.0 m below SWL in the practise applied till
1963. Adequate altenvation of waves was belived to achieve if the elevation of
submerged bréakwater exeede 0.7 depth of water. Steep waves usually exposed
lower effect of submerged bréakwater.
C r e s t w i d t h is found in all investigations as a factor improving wave dissipation
for increasing crest width. Economie assessment must determine selection of this
parameter. The minimum crest width (perhaps made dimensionless with respect
to wave height or wave length, or both) is an important factor of wave breaking,
energy dissipation, and overall interaction mechanisms. The optimization should
aim at minimum cost (volume) of bréakwater and maximum possible dissipation.
No clear-cut guidelines are known so far. Some hints can be found in PIANC
WG21 (1992), where i.a. Fig.4.21 shows the distribution of energy in the vicinity
of a reef bréakwater.
Cross-section shape of submerged breakwaters may be selected in a variety
of ways, but it is generally assumed that trapezoidal cross-section is better than
the rectangular one. The best morphological effects, pronounced as acretion of
sediment between the submerged breakwaters and shoreline, have been reached
for the slope of the seaward wall ranging form 1:2 t o 1:3. Better dissipation of
waves, lower reflection, and easier transport of sediment over the structure were
observed for these slopes. Lower erosion at the foot of the structure was also
noticeable.
The investigations carried out in Poland and the Soviet Union, in the fifties and
sixties, identified the following favourable shapes of cross-section: trapezoidal
(Fig.4.2.A; f...h), rectangular with a vertical landward wall (Fig.4.2.A; i,j,k),
trapezoidal with a concave arch on the seaward wall (Fig.4.2.A; t) and hollow
elliptic (Fig.4.2.B; f). Various design techniques to minimize downdrift effects as
well as maximize the resulting shoreline protection are discussed by Fulford (1985),
who claims that in most situations a combination of coastal defence measures
is generally the best solution. The following quidelines are offered for offshore
breakwaters.

• Bréakwater Length Vs Location With Respect To The Shoreline

Tombolo formation can usually be prevented if the structure length is less
than the distance offshore, (SPM, 1984).
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 217

Figure 4.2.A. Cross-sections Tested in Odessa, Basinski (1963).

Figure 4.2.B. Cross-sections Tested in Poland, Basinski (1963).

218 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

When the structure length becomes greater than the distance offshore, the
chance of tombolo formation increases. Locating the breakwater shoreward
of the normal breakwater zone can also be conducive to tombolo formation.
However, if this location is sufficiently shoreward of the breaker zone, a
significant percentage of the total longshore transport will pass bayward of
the structure, and the effect on the downdrift shoreline will be reduced. This
shoreward location is also advantageous due to the lower quantity of stone
required due to the shallower depth. Construction of the breakwater in this
location using land based equipment is also possible, particularly if sand is
placed in the nearshore zone to facilitate the movement of the equipment.
Allowing this sand to remain in the area after construction helps develop the
leeward beach planform. Adding additional sand to the area in the lee of
the breakwater further minimizes any adverse downdrift effects.

• Wave Overtopping
m& ua&K, HJW-CIC&ICU ucaign u i u i c i c c i type DicaiCWaici a n u w s p a i l u i uid
incident wave energy to be transmitted by overtopping. Wave overtopping
is beneficial in preventing the cuspate spit from attaching to the breakwater
and forming a tombolo. As a result, interruption of the longshore sediment
transport system is minimized.

• Breakwater Permeability
Another technique to limit the bayward growth of the cuspate spit and the
resulting tombolo formation is to make the structure permeable. Part of the
wave energy is then passed through the breakwater and limits the advacement
of the spit. Eliminating the multilayer design incorporating a core section,
used in typical breakwater design, increases the permeability of the structure.

Hueckel (1975) cites results of Russian investigations from which it follows that
submerged breakwater should be sited at small distances from shore-line, parallel
to it, on a depth of 1.5 to 2.5 m. They used to be rubble-mound structures of
trapezoidal cross-section, with smooth flat seaward slopes of 1:3 and steeper on
the landward side (1:2).
The surface layer of rubble-mound should consists of large hard rock or con-
crete blocks which would protect the structure from surf waves and erosion. The
mound should be tightly connected to deeper layers. From the present experience,
reflected in the subsequent parts of this report, it may be seen that the eariier
practices have been incorporated into the thesaurus of contemporary coastal engi-
neering.

B e r m Breakwater
The berm breakwater can be regarded unconventional design, dealt with in our
Chapter 6 but at the same time it has features in common with "ordinary" break-
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 219

25 -

S.W.L.

initial slope

X profile after storm

S l

Figure 4.3. Geometrical Dimensioning of Berm Breakwater.

waters; hence it is briefly mentioned here although an example of design, both

geometrical and structural seems more appropriate in Chapter Five, to which the
reader is addressed.
At this point it is sufficiënt to emphasize the chief geometrical features. Displace-
ment of armour stones in the first stage of its life time is accepted. After this
displacement (profile formation) the structure will be more or less statically stable.
The cross-section of a berm breakwater consists of a lower slope l:m, a horizontal
berm with a length b just above high water, and an upper slope l:n (Fig.4.3). The
lower slope is often steep and close to the natural angle of repose of the armour.
This means that m is roughly between 1 and 2.
During the design of a berm breakwater the following aspects should be consid-
ered: - Optimum dimensions of the structure: m, n, b and crest height, obtained
for chosen design conditions - Influence of water depth - Influence of stone class
- Influence of wave climate - Stability after first storms.
The development of a computational model on dynamic stability has been summa-
rized by van der Meer (1987). This model was used to design a berm breakwater.
The optimum dimensions of the breakwater were calculated with respect to the
minimum amount of stone required for construction. The 50-year return period
design conditions were used for this procedure. Effects of water depth, stome class,
and wave climate were investigated. Finally, the transition from dynamic to static
stability was studied in more detail, cf. Ch.5.
220 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Sills and Perched Beaches

Perched beach is a stepped beach. A beach sill, constructed parallel to the shoreline
entraps sand brought in by wave action to form a gradual slope near the shoreline.
Some design considerations are presented in a Canadian handbook for coastline
property owners and authorities, Ministry...Ontario (1987). The key elements that
must be considered in the design are illustrated on the accompanying figure.
The location of the proposed shoreline will be chosen to reflect the width of beach
required for recreational purposes, however, consideration of the anticipated limit
of wave uprush should also be made. Waves, during design conditions, should not
overrun the beach. Furthermore, the shoreline should not be located such that the
design high water level (DHWL) exceeds two metres at the sill structure.
Once the desired location of the shoreline has been determined, the sill should
be located thirty times the difference between the DHWL and the mean summer
water level (MSWL) plus 10 metres lakeward of the proposed shoreline (i.e. 30
x (DHWL-MSWL) + 10). Where the natural slope of the beach is significantly
steeper than 1:30 (vertical to horizontal distance) this distance can be reduced.
The t o p elevation of t h e sill should be approximately 0.3 m less than the MSWL
or where the sill is located elsewhere than given by the guidelines given above, the
top elevation should be equal to the DHWL minus the distance from the proposed
shoreline to the sill divided by thirty (i.e., DHWL-(Distance from shoreline to sill)
: 30).
A further consideration is fMing of t h e perched beach. The beach shoreward of
the sill can be allowed to accrete naturally, however, this would deplete downdrift
areas of littoral drift. In addition, a stagnant pool of water could be created
behind the sill as accretion process continues. The preferable way to create the
beach would be to fill the area between the sill and the existing shoreline with
imported beach fill (see beach nourishment in respective sections).
Beach sills will accelerate the beach filling process and are particularly valuable
for steep beaches where extensive filling would be required in the nearshore prior
to achieving significant results above the waterline. The cost of sill construction
must be weighed against the extra measure of protection and recreation that will
be derived from the new beach.

4.1.4 Dykes, sea watts and revetments

D y k e s (see Pilarczyk, 1990)

Dike height
The height of a dike was for many centuries based on the highest known flood level
that could be remembered. It is evident that in this way the real risk of damage
 Ch.4: Geomettical and structural design 221

or the probability of flooding were unknown. Little was known about the relation
between the cost to prevent flooding and the cost of the damage that might result
from flooding.
In the 20th century it was found that the occurrence of extremely high water levels
and wave heights could be described adequately in terms of frequency resulting
from probabilistic computations. However, the curves of extreme values, based
on a relatively short period of observations, mostly have to be extrapolated into
regions far beyond the field of observations with the risk for some uncertainties.
After the 1953 disaster, the frequency of the risk of flooding was studied in the
Netherlands in relation to the economie aspects. It was eventually decided to
base the design of all sea dikes fundamentally on a water level with a probability
of exceedance of 10~4 per annum. In the Netherlands the storm-surge is mostly
incorporated in the estimated water level. If it is not a case, the storm-surge should
be calculated separately and added to design water level. Aside from the design
flood level, several other elements also play role in determining the design crest
level of a dike, viz.

• Wave run-up (2% of exceedance is applied in the Netherlands) depending on

wave height and period, angle of approach, roughness and permeability of
the slope, and profile shape,
• An extra margin to the dike height to take into account seiches (oscillations)
and gust bumps (single waves resulting rom a sudden violent rush a wind),
• A change in chart datum (NAP) or a rise in the mean sea level,
• Settlement of the subsoil and the dike-body during its lifetime.
The combination of all these factors defines the freeboard of the dike. The
recommended minimum freeboard is 0.5 m.
Dyke shape
The common Dutch practice is to apply the slope 1 on 3 on the inner slope and
between 1 on 3 and 1 on 5 on the outer (seaward) slope. The minimum crest width
is 2 m.
The water-side berm is a common element in the Dutch dike construction. It
could in the past lead to a reduction in the expenditure on stone revetments (on a
very gently sloping berm a good grass-mat can be maintained) and it produced an
appreciable reduction in wave run-up.
The present practice aimed at a substantial reduction in wave run-up is to place the
outer berm about the design storm water level. If the berm lies much below, the
highest waves would not break on the berm and the run-up will be inadequately
affected, the grass mat on the upper slope will be too heavily loaded by waves,
leading to erosion.
222 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

For the storm flood berms at high design levels as in the Netherlands (having
recurrence frequency of 10~4) there are in general no problems with the growth
of grass on the berm and the upper slope. However , there can be circumstances
which also require the application of a hard revetment on the berm and even on
a part of the upper slope i.e. when higher frequency of water level is assumed,
leading to more frequent overwashing of the upper part by salt water due to the
run-up or wave spray (a common grass mat can survive only a few salty events a
year).
An important function of the berm can be its use as an access road for dike
maintenance.
In general care should be taken to prevent erosion of the grass-mat at the junction
with the revetment. The abrupt change in roughness may lead to increase of surface
turbulence and more local erosion. It is advisable to create a transition zone by
applying cell blocks, geogrids or other systems allowing vegetation.
Sea Walls
Section 2.4 provides details of the far-field effects of sea walls. Section 4.2 discusses
structural design of sea walls.
A sea wall is usually meant a shore protection measure with essentially a vertical
face (denoting either seawall proper or bulkhead). Sea walls may be employed to
protect the eroding bluffs by retaining soil at the toe and by protecting the toe
from erosion and undercutting.
The location of the proposed structure must be chosen to balance a number of
concerns. Wave forces will be minimized if the shorewall is built as far landward
as possible. Where a high steep slope exists on the shore, it will be desirable
to construct the structure as far lakeward as practical as as this will improve the
stability of the entire slope. In either case, a relatively flat area (five to seven
metres wide) should be provided landward of the wall.
Ideally, the top elevation of the wall should correspond to the upper limit of wave
uprush (see revetments for design chart). The construction of a wall to a lesser
elevation will necessitate the design of the splash pad to withstand the wave action.
Cantilevered structures must penetrate the lakebed to a depth that will prevent
overturning of the wall. The rule of thumb is to provide a penetration of 2 to 3 times
the free standing height plus the anticipated scour depth (about one wave height
below the existing lakebed) where no scour protection is required or provided for
any reason whatsoever.
Goda (1985) provides some design principles, which are briefly summarised as
follows.
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 223

(1) Determination of Crest Elevation

The planning of a sea wall requires comparative designs of several structural types
of sea walls. For each design, the crest elevation must be determined according
to the wave runup or overtopping characteristics. The crest elevation should be
specified in order to give a height above the design storm tide sufficiënt to prevent
wave overtopping during the attack of design storm waves.
The crest elevation of a sea wall is determined by one of the following two
principles. One is to take the wave runup height as the reference and to set
the crest of the sea wall higher than the runup height so that no wave ovetopping
will occur. The other is to take the wave overtopping amount as the reference and
to set the crest of the sea wall at such a height as to keep the overtopping below
some maximum tolerable quantity.
Until recently, the estimation method for the overtopping rate of random sea
waves had not been acknowledged by design engineers in general, in part due to
insufficiënt design data. Thus the number of overtopping-based sea wall designs
seems to have remained low in comparison to runup-based sea wall designs.
However, it is expected that the principle of overtopping-based design will become
popular in the determination of crest elevations of sea walls, by making use of
hydraulic model tests with irregular waves (Goda, 1985).
(2) Tolerable Rate of Wave Overtopping
The amount of wave overtopping tolerable with regard to the structural integrity
of a sea wall is greater than the tolerable amount for the protection of the land
behind the sea wall. Even a seavall constructed with utmost care cannot escape
the danger of structural failure if it is exposed to heavy wave overtopping for many
hours. The mode of failure may be loss of earth-fill from the core of the sea wall by
leakage, cracks and breakage of the armoring surfaces of the crown and back slope,
or total collapse. The structurally tolerable limit of wave overtopping depends on
the type of sea wall structure.
Goda (1985) analysed about thirty cases of coastal dykes and revetments damaged
in the aftermath of typhoons, estimating the wave overtopping rate for each sea
wall. This yielded an estimate of the maximum tolerable limit of wave overtopping
rate as listed in Table 4.3.
From the viewpoint of structural safety, the limits given in Table 4.3 are applicable
to sea walls built along embayments and exposed to storm waves a few metres high
which continue for a few hours only, since most of the sea walls examined belong
to this category. It is believed that the tolerable limit should be lowered for sea
walls facing the ocean and exposed to the attack of large waves, or for sea' walls
subject to many hours of storm wave action.
224 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Table 43. ToLerabLe limit of wave overtopping rate from the viewpoint of structural safety.
Type Surface armoring Overtopping rate
(m 3 /m-s)
Coastal dyke Concrete on front slope, with less than 0.005
soil on crown and back slope
Concrete on front slope and 0.02
crown, with soil on back slope
Concrete on front slope, crown 0.05
and back slope
Revetment No pavement on ground 0.05
Pavement on ground 0.2

Relative Water Deplh, hl Ha

Figure 4.4. Crest elevation of vertical revetment for the condition of overtopping rate not greater
than 0.01 m3/m.s, Goda (1985).

Relative Water Depth./i/Hi

Figure 4.5. Crest elevation of block mound sea wall for the condition of overtopping rate not greater
than 0.0lm3/m.s, Goda (1985).
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 225

(3) Determination of Crest Elevation of a Sea Wall

Examples will be given of the decision process for the crest elevation as determined
by the criterion of tolerable overtopping rate. By arbitrarily setting the tolerable
limit at q — 0.01m3/m.s, the required crest elevation for a vertical wall is illustrated
in the following drawings.
The effect of the crown width of a block mound sea wall upon the overtopping
rate has been tested by Goda (1985).
Fig.4.8 compares sea walls having front slope of 1:2 with vertical revetments. The
model sea walls were set near the shoreline and the wave overtopping rate was
measured for several crest elevations. From the resultant data on the overtopping
rate, the design crest elevations of both types of sea wall for a given tolerable
overtopping rate were estimated and compared. Although Saville (1956) has
reported no effect of the front slope of a sea wall upon the runup height when
the sea wall is located at the shoreline or on land, the effect of the front slope
appears in the amount of overtopping of sea walls which have crests lower than
the maximum runup height. As seen in Fig.4.8, a sloped sea wall requires a higher
crest elevation than a vertical revetment for a given tolerable overtopping rate.
The replacement of a smooth slope with a stepped one can reduce the required
crest elevation to the extent that the crest elevation will be only 10 to 20 % greater
than that of a vertical revetment, if the height of each step is about 30 cm for an
incident significant wave height of about 5 m.
In the practical design of a sea wall, the crest elevation as calculated from the
above considerations of wave runup and overtopping is usually given a small
amount of additional rise to allow for unknown factors. If some ground settlement
or subsidence is expected owing to the foundation characteristics, the estimated
amount of settlement must be taken into account in the determination of the final
crest elevation.1
Revetments
With reference to the possible adverse erosional effects of revetments discussed
in Chapter Two, Dean (1986) argues that those effects could be mitigated. The
mitigation would be the annual addition of sand to volumetrically compensate for
that volume denied at the adjacent shorelines by the armouring.
This concept is illustrated in Fig.4.9, where installation of armouring without any
mitigative sand placement will result in adverse effects to the shoreline, but with

1
With regard to the structural stability in terms of the near-field phenomena treated in Chapter
Three, inter alia the perspective of vulnerability to wave attack, precautions should bé taken
against scouring of the seabed in front of a sea wall and leakage of filling materal in the core of a
sloped wall or in the rear of a vertical revetment.
In the design of sea walls, the drainage system for the overtopped water should be well planned,
because the overtopping amount by storm waves is quite large.
226 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

1.2 i i i i I i n i [ i i i i | i i i
Hi/La = 0.012 Sea Bottom Slope
1.0 : 1/10

Same Overtopping Rate

0.5

_^r~- Blocks
r RevetmenT^Two Rows of Blocks on Crown
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Relative Water Depth./i/ƒ/,'.

Figure 4.6. Ratio of crest elevations of block mounds to vertical revetments for the same overtopping
rate (sea bottom slope of 1/10), Goda (1985).

l.U 1 1 1 1 | 1 1 1 1 | 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
\ ^ Hi,'U= 0.012-0.036 Sea Bottom Slope : 1/30 ~

0.5 Same Overtopping Rate —

Vertical"Wl
Kevetment.
Tl w
^ète=Blocks
o R o w s of Blocks on Crown —
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Relative Water Depth, h/llii

Figure 4.7. Ratio of crest elevations of block mounds to vertical revetments for the same overtopping
rate (sea bottom slope of 1/30), Goda (1985).

1-8 i— AVtfo=0.1
//o/i.o=0:037 ==• 1.
<
1.6 -\
* 1 4 (n<-)o-
_==>«o
™
w
I 1.2
u
U
•ö 1.0 _L _L _L _L J
) 10 20 30 40 50 60
Height of Step in Prototype.* (cm)

Figure 4.8. Ratio of crest elevations of sloped sea wall to vertical revetment, Goda (1985).
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 227

Beneficiol Impact

VOLUME OF MITIGATIVE SAND PLACEMENT

ON AN ANNUAL BASIS

Figure 4.9. Effect of Annual Mitigative Sand Placement, Dean (1986).

increasing annual volumes of sand added, the combination of armouring placed

plus mitigative sand added become a benefit. One should indentify the "neutral"
point where the annual mitigative sand placement just offsets any adverse effects
of the armouring. Two effects are considered by Dean (1986) (1) the reduction
in sand supply through prevention of erosion, and (2) the blockage of sediment
transport by a projecting revetment.
For the first case illustrated in Fig.4.10, the required annual mitigative sand
placement, V, to achieve a neutral effect is

Vx = (Zu - Z{){R){1) (4.1)

For the second case Dean )1986) considers the profile in the storage area to be
the same as that along the unperturbed beach. It is assumed that the updrift
impoundment planform is linear and aligned with the incoming waves, see Fig.4.11.
The additional annual volumetric storage ra te, V2a, can be shown to be

v!o = il±MbR (4.2)

tanfc)
in which
B = berm height,
K = profile closure depth,
R = long-term erosion rate,
b = projection of armouring beyond unperturbed shoreline,
6 = angle of the wave crest approach relative to the unperturbed beach.
Lacking specific information, a value of tan 6 = 0.1 appears reasonable. It is noted
that the projection distance b increases with time in accordance with b = b0 + Rt,
228 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

R - N a t u r a l Shorallne Erosion
Rato Ovor Armorod Eiavation

Elovatlon Z u

Eiavation Z R

Figure 4.10. Principle of Armouring Mitigation by Prevention of Upland Supply by Erosion.

. l/nperturbed Shoreline ot
Time t|
Unperturbed Shoreline at
"Time t2

Oirection of Net
Longshore Sediment
Transport

Increosed Sand
StOfOtje Between -
Times t, oraS I,
(shaded o r e a ]

b '
Coastol Armorinq -

Oa < Qu

^.Unperlurbed Shoreline ot
Time t (

.JJnperturbed Shoreline ot
Time t 2

Figure 4.11. Sand Storage by Coastal Armouring, Dean (1986).

 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 229

in which b0 is the projection at the initial time and t is the number of years into
the future.
In another method Dean assumes that the profile modifications extend only out
to the solid oblique line shown in Fig.4.11, which shows profiles of the unaffected
and assumed affected profiles for the second method. Clearly, the second method
represents and underestimate of the impounded volume whereas the first method
is an overestimate. The equation for the annual rate of increased volume storage,
V26, is

in which h' is the depth that would be present at the toe of the sea wall if the
sea wall were not present. The above equation incorporates the assumption of
an equilibrium profile of the form h = Ax2/3, in which h is the water depth at a
distance x offshore and A is a scale parameter determined for the natural profile of
inteerèst. The parameter a has dimensions of {length)x/3 and for fine to medium
sands is on the order of 0.ïm1/3(Q.15ft1/3). Alternatively, h' can be estimated at a
distance b along an unperturbed shoreline. As noted before, recognizing that the
first and second method for estimating V2 are too large and too small respectively,
it recommended that an average of the two be used, i.e.

w 1 /s i w s Rb rTn /i* + -sh'

V2=2(V,.+V2l)=—1B+-^M (4.4)

4.1.5 Headland control

Silvester's (1980) general recommendations on the coast stabilization by use of
headlands include the following:

• in designing headlands one should aim at providing the shortest possible

shore-parallel (frontline) breakwaters (Toyoshima, 1974)

• the distance between headlands must not be too small, the optimum spacing
of headlands being 10 lengths of the headland structure. Such spacing allows
for the formation of an adequate crenulate shaped bay (cf. Ch.2)

• the distance from the headland structures to the existing shoreline should
stimulate the prescribed coast evolution with headland control incorporated
therein

• headland control should enforce bay stabilization without causing erosion

outside the headland system. Coast stabilization by headland control provides
means for forecasting extremum bay indentation, even in the absence of
sediment supply.
230 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

It must be stressed that the concept of headland control cannot serve a universal
remedy for any coastal erosion (accretion) problem. In the writers' opinion
Silvester neglects at least a few factors that might raodify significantly the headland
control concept. For instance, bed evolution in the cross-shore direction cannot be
considered at length. Transformations of the cross-shore profiles ean be assoeiated
with local erosion and eventual net loss of seaward moving material. In plan view,
constant wave obliquity may often prove an unrealistic assumption for natural
environments with a wide two-dimensional (frequency- -direction) spectrum of
incident waves. The variety of wave climates encountered under natural conditions
is quite likely to bring about widening indentation of the curved coastline and
eventual undermining of the headland structure if detached from shore.
In his inspiration by Nature, Silvester attributes all coastline curvilinearities to the
interaction of headlands, coast and more or less regular waves (or swells). Many
other factors, such as edge waves, are also feit to be responsible for the creation
of crenulate forms.
Silvester (1984) agrees that substantial losses of beaches, in view of the erosion
caused by handland downcoast of them, must be allowed for, and are in fact
inherently built in the scheme. This voluntary retreat can barely be considered
an advantage of the method.
The failure of a headland system due to outflanking, undermining and other modes
of scouring at headland structures remains a potential hazard.

4.1.6 Artificial beach nounshment

The technology of artificial beach nourishment provides a viable and flexible coast
management alternative (CUR, 1987). However, the transformation of shore
and beach controlled by beach fills is very difficult to forecast in view of the
variety of coastal factors involved. Therefore we shall confine ourselves to some
general practical recommendations and address a more advanced reader to special
modelling tools if site-specific problems must be solved. In addition to the general
overview given in Chapter 2, provided below is a short review by d'Angremond, de
Jong and van Oorschot (1988).
One drawback to the application of beach nourishment has often been the risk of
underestimating or misinterpreting the quantities of sand to be transported. This
poses a potential threat to the economics of the project, particularly in areas where
dredging equipment is not readily avaüable.
An answer to this is provided by the probabilistic approah to beach erosion
problems.
Numerical morphological modelling and probabilistic calculations have greatly
improved risk evaluation for artificial beach nourishment. Sensitivity analysis of the
relevant parameters and simulation of various implementation scenarios provide
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural desigp. 231

Initial volum* 1000 m3/m1

G r a ï n s J z e d 5 0 Cum)

Figure 4.12. Effect of Grain Size on Volume and Erosion Losses, d'Angremond et al. (1988).

reliable tools for initial and maintenance costs.

Planning
In the design of beach nourishment projects, three different types of works may be
distinguished:
• direct placement of the sand where it is needed,
• a stockpile of sand,
• continuous nourishment.
The three actually differ only in the design of the fill area. With regard to most
other design elements they can be treated in the same manner.

Beach profile and fill material.

Once the layout and planning of the works have been done, the borrow area has
to be selected. The most important parameter for the selection of the fill material
is the grain size. No matter what the slope is directly after disposal, the sand will
inevitably be repositioned by the waves according to the equilibrium profile. The
relation between grain size and equilibrium beach profile is provide in a variety of
models. If a certain width of dry beach is to be obtained, for either protection or
recreational reasons, the total volume of sand that is initially required will strongly
depend on grain size. Fig.4.12 shows the infiuence of this factor for an arbitrary
but realistic beach profile. After disposal, loss of sand will occur due to sand-
-transport phenomena. From consideration of the variations in grain size in the
different formulae, it may be roughly concluded that the transport rate decreases
more or less proportionally with an increase in grain size.
Other parameters which may play a role in the selection of a borrow area are the
232 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

density and shape of the material. The density is clearly important, but seldom
varies. The shape has only a minor infiuence on resistance to erosion forces.
Rounded grains may have a lower internal friction angle: on the other hand they
will settle more easily and the drag forces will be smaller.
Preferably, to avoid rapid erosion of the new material the grain size of the fill
material should be equal to or larger than that of the native sand. Yet, in order
to avoid the development of unacceptably steep slopes and erosion of the down-
-drift beach as a result of the decreased mobility of the coarse sand, the difference
should not be too large.
A borrow area should meet a number of requirements. The main one is that the
area can supply sufficiënt quantities of sand of suitable quality. At the same time
the sand has to be transported to the fill area economically. Therefore, the location
and size of the borrow area must be decided on the basis of a soil investigation
and on environmental aspects.
To avoid jeopardizing the coastal profile, the borrow area should not be too close
to the shore. On the other hand, the price of the fill material will of course increase
with distance from the reclamation area.
Reclamation area
When one considers reclamation on the beach, three important aspects emerge:
• the slopes of the reclamation,
• separation of the fill material,
• the accessibility of the reclamation site.
All three aspects are directly related to the amount of fines (< 63/xm) in the fill
material. In the first place, the amount of fines depends, of course, on the nature
of the material in the borrow area, but it also depends on the dredging method.
Direct pumping causes a higher percentage of fines in the dump area than does
transportation with a hopper dredger, where the fines will flow overboard during
loading of the hopper in the borrow area. The separation mainly depends on the
execution of the works and the arrangement of the dumping area is particularly
important.
In an open fill area, the further from the discharge point the smaller will be the
mean grain size of the settled grains. While moving forward with the discharge
point a layer of coarse material will cover the fine material. A part of the fines
will flow into the sea. In a closed fill area a larger percentage of the fines can be
caught at the low and far end of the reclamation. normally in the foreshore zone.
This can result in particular areas which are most sensitive to erosion in the most
exposed places. Generally the disposal slopes given in Table 4.4 may be expected.
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 233

Table 4.4. Disposal Slopes.

Grain size Above water Below water Below water
smooth sea rough sea
Fine (60//m - 200//m) 1 : 50...1 : 100 1 : 6 . . . 1 : 8 1 : 1 5 . . . 1 : 3 0
Medium (200/xm — 600/j.m) 1 : 25...1 : 50 1 : 5 . . . 1 : 8 1 : 10...1 : 15
Coarse (600//m - 2000/j.m) 1 : 10...1 : 25 1 : 3...1 : 4 1 :4...1 : 10
Gravel ( > 2000/zm) 1 : 5 . . . 1 : 10 1 :2 1 :3...6

I n v e n t o r y of sand resources
The construction method will be greatly affected by the location and nature of the
source of the sand. The basic possibilities are given schematically as:

• source offshore at considerable distance,

• source offshore at short distance,

• source on land,

• source in sheltered water (often inshore).

Inventory of e q u i p m e n t available
To cope with the particular conditions at a project site, including the borrow area
and the reclamation area, an inventory is made of available dredging equipment
with its specific capabilities and restrictions:
Work scenarios
When confronted with an actual beach nourishment project, one has to combine
all data and site conditions in order to evaluate which combinations of equipment
will lead to an optimal solution with respect to cost and risk. The availabity of
sand sources combines with the particular properties of dredging equipment; this
leads to a number of work scenarios, viz.
(a) Hopper (direct method).
(b) Hopper (rehandle method).
(c) Stationary dredger pumping directly ashore
(d) Stationary dredger loading barges
(e) Portable dredgers
Measurement
One of the most evident risks involved in beach nourishment is the volume of
work involved. If the volume of work is uncertain, any contractor will allow a
provision for this risk in his offer, however depressed the market. But determining
the volume of work may be rather complicated.
In p'rinciple, there are several possibilities. A single "best" choice cannot be given
234 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

as the optimum will largely depend on local conditions, but the main options are:
- through survey of the borrow area,
- through survey of the beach,
- measurement in barge,
- measurement in pipeline.
In most cases, the use of a trailing suction hopper dredger leads to the most
economie solution for beach replenishment. Only if the borrow area is at a very
short distance from the fill area, or if the borrow area is inaccessible to trailing
hopper dredgers, may stationary equipment pumping ashore directly or loading
barges become competitive.
The unit rate of a beach restoration operation varies only slightly with the total
quantity involved. Only if volumes fall below 4...5 milion m 3 does the cost of
mobilisation play a considerable role. In both cases (coarse sand and/or large
pumping distance) the use of a booster station is very cost effective.
When using a trailing suction hopper dredger the unit costs are lowest for medium-
sized sand (approximately 25G>m), but if the effects of erosion losses and required
initial volume, both as functions of grain size, are also considered, the optimum
shifts towards larger grain sizes (in the example described, from 250fj,m to 800//m).
It can be shown that artificial beach replenishment is a technically and economically
sound solution for beach protection. The initial capital requirements are lower than
for appropriate fixed structures, which makes it a parlicularly attractive alternative
for developing countries.

4.1.7 Unconventional design

Coastal structures are often constructed in combinations of different protection
measures. Some of them are dealt with in our Chapter 6, from which more
conclusions on the morhological dimensioning of single structural systems treated
herein can be Iearned.

4.2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN (Dimensioning)

of COASTAL STRUCTURES

4.2.1 GENERAL
Structural design should be een tred about the following issues

• overall stability of structure

• stability of s t r u c t u r a l constituents within the structure

• s t r e n g t h of structural constituents
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 235

Figure 4.13. Joint Distribution of Loading and Strength.

The stabüity of entire structure and its individual constituents is endangered by

the néar-field failure modes discussed in Chapter Three. Accordingly, we are
referring to pertinent subsections of that chapter in the present examination of
design guidelines arising from those hazards, wherever appropriate and instructive.
Forces, s t a b ü i t y and strength (to a lesser degree) are discussed concisely in
Section 4.3. The reader is advised to consult it when embarking on structural
design after preliminary assessment of near-field hazards dealt with in Chapter
Three (and pinpointed in this section).
E x a m p l e s of particular design features for different types of coastal defence
measures are presented in Chapter Five.
Hence the designer, or a coastal manager, is recommended to proceed in the
following steps
1. geometrical dimensioning based on evaluation of the far-field phenomena
(examined in Chapter Two and summarised in Section 4.1)

2. corrective geometrical dimensioning, and structural modifications due to the

near-field failure hazards (as in Chapter Three and Section 4.2)
3. structural design with regard to forces, stabüity and strength, as stipulated in
Section 4.3.
In this section, in addition to the geometrical design in Section 4.1 we are adding
quidelines on s t r u c t u r a l d i m e n s i o n i n g , reflecting the near-field require-
ments imposed on entire structures and their constituents.
It is worthwhile to assume the following configuration of this Section:
1. Extension of Probabilistic Design

2. Peculiar Features of Coastal Structures

236 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Figure 4.14. Isolines of ƒ # 5 and Partial Distribution Functions.

foliowed by

3. Forces and Stability of Structures and their Components

in Section 4.3.
This layout seems logical as many types of coastal measures have common proper-
ties, such as vertical walls, etc. which can be discussed jointly, while on the other
hand, some individual features of particular structures and measures may require
separate treatment. However, a certain overlapping in items (2) and (3) is hard to
avoid. For instance, rock and armour units are widespread in a variety of struc-
tures, both logshore and cross-shore.
Accordingly the forces and general stability of such units are dealt separately in
Section 4.3. On the other hand, the factors of gravity, interlocking, seepage, suffo-
sion, and many other internal-stability type intertwine in a very special blend if the
units are placed in e.g. fiexible revetments. Hence it is appropriate to tackle these
units and their controlling factors in more detail, which is done under item (2).
Therefore the reader is advised to cross-reference rather than to confine himself
to a single subsection.

4.2.2 More on PROBABILISTIC DESIGN

With reference to the background on deterministic and probabilistic design pre-
sented in Section 1.5 we are now adding more details, cf. Leeuwestein (1989), PIr
ANC (1992). In extension of the probabilistic method the two-dimensional or joint
probability density function of strength and loading can be used, viz. /R.S(R, S).
As a result a probability is obtained for any combination of strength and loading
(Fig.4.13). This function forms a more or less undulating surface above the two-
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 237

dimensional domain, determined by the S and R along the coordinate axes in the
horizontal.

The partial probability densiry functions JR and fs are shown in the planes 5 = 0,
respectively. In general, S and R together contain n basic variables, resulting in
an n-dimensional joint distribution function of these variables (Xi...Xn). It is only
for n = 2 that fR.s(R, S) can be transformed into f(xi,x2), a 2-dimensional joint
distribution function of basic variables xi and x2.
In Fig.4.14 the contour Unes of the joint probability density of S and R are given
together with the partial distribution functions.
By defining the reliability function Z as:

Z =R - S (4.5)

the state of failure of the structure under concern is determined by:

Z =0 (4.6)
In Fig.4.14 this failure condition appears as the plane R= S, having a 45-degrees
intersection line in the horizontal plane.
The line Z = 0 forms the separation between the "safe" and the "unsafe" space
determined by (R, S, JRS) '•

Z > 0; safe (4.7)

Z = 0; failure (4.8)

Z < 0; unsafe, structure has failed. (4.9)

As such the line Z — 0 corresponds to the limit state of failure.

Because of R = R(X1,X2...Xm) and S = S(Xm...Xn), Z is a function of the
strength variables (X1,X2...Xm) as well as a function of the loading variables
(-Xm+i---^n) : Z — Z{Xi,X2..Xm.Xm+i,...Xn))
Stability of a rock slop e
The above considerations can be illustrated for the empirical damage relation for
loose rock, exposed to breaking waves. The strength and loading can be written
respectively as:

R = 6.2S0d-2(g/2TL)-°-25p0Mcot0Jia AD (4.10)
• S = ijO-75 T 0. 5iV -0.1 (4 U )
238 Ejfectiveness of coastal defence measures

in which
Sd = dimensionless cross sectional damage
P = porosity parameter
D = stone diameter (usually nominal)
A •= relative density
H = wave height (usually 1% wave)
T = wave period (usually reciprocal of peak frequency)
N = cumulative number of waves.
The static stabihty criterion is obtained by S — R, thereby replacing Sd = 2, which
has been found to correspond to incipient of damage. Consequently, the failure
function for a rock slope can be written as:

Z = 6.2S°d2(g/2Ii)-°-25p018cot0-5aAD - H
0 75
- T°-5N01 (4.12)
Stability of a block revetment
The stability of blocks in a revetment is a matter of wave- induced uplift pressures
(loading) and block weight (strength). For simplicity, friction has been neglected
in this approach. According to the theoretical solution, the strength and loading
(in water head) can be written respectively as:

i? = ADcosa (4.13)
S
= ITT. 1 ai1 ~ exP[~tan a tan
Pfa/M + A /2]t 1 - exp(-2z1/A)](4.14)
Z tan a tan p
where
A = relative density of blocks
D - height of blocks
a — slope angle
/? = steepness of wave front
A = leakage length (permeability ratio of filter - and cover layer/blocks)
<j>b = height of wave front ( height of impinging wave)
zi = internal phreatic water level relative to still water level in front of revetment.
Level III methods
It has been mentioned before that the most extensive probabilistic methods (level
III) employ the exact probability density functions of load and strength. The
determination of the joint probability density function (j.p-d-f) IR.S for R and S
is ultimately based upon the partial probability density functions (p.p.d.f.) of the
basic variables XitoXn . This is schematically shown in Fig.4.15.
If the loading (S) and the strength (R) are independent (which is often a reasonable
assumption) the joint probability density function (j.p.d.f) for R and S can be
determined from the partial probability density functions (p.p.d.f.) of R and S:
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 239

strength -> <- loading

f 1 (Xl ) f.(x«> f a » 1 (X«t l ) fn (Xa )

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
f* fs

1
f*.s

Figure 4.15. Determination of Joint Probability Density Function.

fR.s(R,S) = fR.fs (4.15)

The probability of failure of a structure is expressed by the content determined by
the surface of the j.p.d.f. and the horizontal plane, under the condition Z < 0.
The latter means that the plane Z = 0 cuts the part where Z > 0 off the "volume"
contained by the j.p.d.f. and the horizontal plane. This can be written as:

f / fR>s(R,S)dR'dS' (4.16)
Jz<oJ
or, when the assumption mentioned above is allowed (cases where the basic
variables are not independent but correlated are discussed at the end of this
section):

/ f fR(R') • fs(S')dR'dS' (4.17)

On the strength of R = R(XUX2, ....Xm) and S = S(Xm+1...Xn)

the p.p.dX fR and fs are determined by the basic p.p.d.f for the variables
Xx.X2...Xm (strength) and Xm+1...Xn (loading).
Ultimately, the resulting probability of failure can be determined from the corre-
sponding n-dimensional probability density function as:

Jz<J---jfi(x'1)---fn(x'n)dx'1dx'2---dx'n (4.18)

Although some casses may allow for simplications of this integral, in general, the
function Z(Xi,X2,..XmXm+1....Xn) will have a rather complicated form, thus
causing practical problems through the condition Z < 0 in the above given
integration (eg. the given functions, applying to stability of rock and block
revetments).
Besides, often the p.p.di. fx to ƒ„ are not known to a satisfactory degree. This
has led to a number of alternative simplified methods, which will be introduced
240 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

below. Simplification of the computations involved with Eq.4.14 can be obtained

by schematizations of either the p.p.d.f. (ƒ# and fs or /i to ƒ„) or the function
Z, or both. These possibilities are known under the methods that will be treated
below.

Level II methods
The principal methods that are used to overcome the problems in the group of
Level III methods can be employed in the category of Level II. The simplifications
inherent in these methods make them quite attractive . Three major level II
methods are used
• first order mean value approach (f.o.m.v.);
• first order design point approach (f.o.d.p);
• approximate full distribution method (a.f.d);
First order mean value approach
In this method the reliability function Z is approximated by means of linearization
around the expected mean values of the basic variables xi to Xn. This is done by
using Taylor-series expansion thereby neglecting all but the linear terms. Under
the assumption of mutually independent variables Xi to Xn the approximation for
Z is written as:
n Q
x
z(xi,...xn) = z(/ixU...fiXn) + Y^[( i -/^i)-»—(^0^))] ( 4 - 19 )
For Guassian-distrubuted variables Xx the linearized Z has also a Guassian distri-
bution, which can be decrribed by a mean value and a Standard deviation, written
respectively as:
fiz = Z(fiXlt...fiXn) (4.20)

With the mean value and the Standard deviation of the function Z the reliability
index f3 can be defined as:

P = H*l°, (4.22)
This is a the relative distance from \iz to the limit state or Z = 0. Using.
the normalised Guassian density function of Zjoz, the probability of failure,
Pj = PrZ < 0, can be found as the normalized distribution function <&/v(—ƒ?),
from Standard tables. In the case of a strong nonlinear reliability function (Z) the
errors in the computed probability PZ < 0 can be significant. This is due to the
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 241

unreliability of the value found for oz. In such cases the use of a level III method
will result in a better approximation than by the other alternatives.
First order design point approach
In this method the function Z is approximated by the same principle, however
here the expansion of the Taylor-series is made arount the design point. The de-
sign point is defined as the point on the failure envelope (Z=0) where the j.p.d.
has its maximum (see Fig.1.36.
This method requires an interative procedure in the case of the failure envelope.
Z(X1,X2,...Xm,Xm+1...Xn) = 0, is a nonlinear function (this will, unfortunately,
often be the case).
Approximate full distribution method
Also in this method the design point is used for an expansion of the function Z,
but additionally simplified descriptions are used for the p.p.d.f. The latter imply
the approximation by equivalent normal distribution functions around the design
point. These functions are defined by a mean value corresponding to the design
point and Standard deviation.
Some examples are elaborated by Leeuwestein (1989) using the probabilistic meth-
ods treated in this section; additionally the problem of correlated variables is also
dealt with.
Correlated strength and loading variables
When the basic variables are correlated, additional and elaborative procedures have
been developed. For a detailed discussion one is referred to Fiessler (1979). Within
the first order mean value approach the correlated variables can be treated when
the various correlations are contained in the correlation matrix Cx. By transforma-
tion of the variables X{ into y, a corresponding reliability function Zr, derivatives
SZT/SYI and Standard deviations at/i are obtained. The following transformation
is carried out: yx = a(xx — fxz)/b. The transformation parameters a and b are
eigenxvalues of the transponed matrix Cj) and the square of the eigenvalue of Cx,
respectively. The gradients 6ZT/SYI are related to the original gradiënt as
SZTI8YX = a.b.SZ/Sxi.
Risk analysis
No structure is built without consideration of the costs and benefits of the proposed
alternatives. A popular method to compare alternatives is a cost-benefit analysis.
After the generation of alternative structures, a decision has to be made on which
structure is to be prefered. Apart from the investment, various structure-releated
risks may be a particularly important cost factor. This transfers the cost-benefits
analysis into a risk-benefit balance to be made for the alternatives. This necessi-
tates the determination of risk-related costs. In this subsection, therefore, a short
introduction will be given on the determination of the risk level. According to a
242 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Top level Total failure

Top 1 level Partial failure Partial failure

Sublevei f1 f2 B f4 failure 5 failure 6 failure 7

Basic level 5 S > R5 S6 > Rn S7 > R7
i = l
Figure 4.16. Failure Systems.

very useful definition, risk is the product of failure probability (pf) and the conse-
quences of failure (Cf). Only when the consequences (Cf) can be capitalised, the
risk can also be capitalised as an expected risk (Rc) during the lifetime (N years)
of a structure:

(4 23)
*-£F& - -
In this equation r represents the real interest rate. Comparison of the assessed
risk level to the acceptable risk can be used as a criterion to select the best design
from a number of concepts.
First, a value for the acceptable risk should be adjusted. Social and ethic aspects
play a major role in the adjustment of this risk level so therefore only some general
remarks can be made.
Acceptable risk
The first factor of the risk, the probability of failure (pf), can be defined rather
objectively for a designed structure by means of a failure tree. An objective
quantatitive definition of the consequences (Cf), however is not so easy. The
consequences may vary by dimension (eg. dollars, in the above equation) and
may be difficult to relate explicitly to the structure in concern. Also a generally
agreed assignment of a quantitative measure to consequences may be impossible.
Examples of possible dimensions are:
- cost of repair;
- loss of human life;
- human injuries;
- loss of property;
- loss of investments;
- loss of (expected) future income;
- loss of natural environmental values.
Usually an acceptable risk level is proposed by the project manager or by the
society. In practice, adjustment of an acceptable risk level is made on social and
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 243

political grounds, often mixed with ethical considerations. Any optional structure
should thus answer that risk level. The most common practice is to express the risk
as a capitalized cost during the lifetime of the structure. The way imponderabilia
such as loss of human life and environmental impact can be treated as a special
problem. Some rather controversial solutions to this problem have been found.
Risk due to environmental impact can, to a certain extent, be found by using the
principle of "substitution project cost". Accounting for human life by using the
value of the national product rate, however, is a far less agreed solution.
Risk level assessment
A systematic method to include a likely failure mechanisms into one value for
the failure probability (p/) is the use of a failure tree. In Chapter 1 the fault
tree concept has been introduced. Using the results of a fault tree analysis, a
risk assessment can be carried out, which subsequently may enable a risk (cost) -
benefit evaluation of the design. All possible failure mechanisms are covered by
the fault tree. The top of the tree is the event of total failure of the structure,
whereas on the lower levels partial failure events and minor failure events are
ranged (see Fig.4.16) At the base of the tree (the roots) one fïnds all possible initial
failure mechanisms. These initial or basic mechanisms derive their occurrence from
fundamental failures, that are determined from relations of the type R < S. The
total risk is defined as the product of the probability of total failure (pt) and the
(economie) consequences of total failure (Ct):

rt = PtCt (4.24)

Similarly, the risks corresponding to the head (on level i), of a k-th partial tree
with m different submechanisms (on level i-1), can be expressed as:
m
Ti.k =^2pi.k.mCi.k.m (4-25)
i

In general, risks will accumulate with the level. However, loss of functions, not
being directly accounted for by the mechanisms considered, will entail an extra
risk. Two obvious examples of these indirect risks relate to loss of serviceability
and environmental damage, Leeuwestein (1989).
In such cases risk will increase more than due to simple accumulation of direct
risks.
An (imaginary) example of risk assessment using a fault tree has been elaborated
in Fig.4.17. The semicircular symbol defines an "or" gate, which means that the
subordinate systems exclude one another and ranges indicated with "p.m." have
ben acknowledged but have further been disregarded.
The example concerns the failure of the front slope of a sea wall.
Consequences (costs, indicated in $) have been assigned to any of the failure events.
244 Effectiveness ofcoastal defence measures
failure
a revetment

over-all
2.2
5
locat
100

snip-bank
jnstabüty instability collisions
8 10'*l90

s
IK 10'* I 1

PM
pipmg sliding ftov slide failure part of failure transition
3 protection
«HM 810"' 150 10- 1 10

AJT g p I
PM

lilt
1
unstable sliding protection jpliftir
ing pip ing mstabittty instability
start srotection liquefaction elements elements
geometry coverlayer filterlayer
1D-* 8 10J 10-»
I i .-J

"f
10-'
1
weight 1
subsoil I
scour-hole "I
surcharge para- in front of weight friction weight gradients subsoil parameters PM
geometry surcharge geometry filter gradation
meter protection
3
per-
8
O 10"
IU oeabSity

groundvater
«cess pressures
currents subsoil hydrautic I k e hrandalisn freeze
waves parameters loads load
• s
16 10' Btr IW 10-

r _=nz
currents geometry
waxes permeability
snip loads stone parameters
groundwater
Figure 4.17. Risk Level Assessment of a Seawall Front.

In general the consequences are relatively small for the basic events increase rapidly
with higher failure level1.

4.23 Some STRUCTURAL DESIGN Guidelines

General
For the sake of clarity we are repeating a few lines identifying the general layout
of design, and of our proposals in this document. Structural design should be
centred about the following issues
• overall stability of structure
• stability of structural constituents within the structure
• strength of structural constituents
The stability of entire structure and its individual constituents is endangered by the
near-field failure modes discussed in Chapter Three. Accordingly, we are refer-
x
Cost of repair and/or replacement of (parts) of the rock slope protection system should be
accounted for in the consequences. When the probability is expressed in [y _1 ] the total risk of
failure for the protection system amounts to 1.10-1.100 = 10 [ % - 1 ] .
Partial failures have a risk of 0.540 (piping), 0.005 (sliding), 0.250 ( instability of armour stones)
and 0.20 (failure of transitions) respectively (all in [Sj/ -1 ]. Thus a (preliminary) estimate can be
made of the cost-sensitive of design aspects
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 245

ring to pertinent subsections of that chapter in the present examination of design

guidelines arising from those hazards, wherever appropriate and instructive.
Forces, stability and strength (to a lesser degree) are discussed concisely in Sec-
tion 4 3 . The reader is advised to consult it when embarking on structural design
after preliminary assessment of near-field hazards dealt with in Chapter Three (and
pinpointed in this section).
E x a m p l e s of particular design features for different types of coastal defence mea-
sures are presented in Chapter Five.
For instance, erosion processes undermine the stability and integrity of a groyne
or breakwater. Therefore we endeavour to provide in this section some tips how
to eliminate or alleviate the adverse effects.
CROSS-SHORE STRUCTURES: GROYNES...
In this subsection we propose a few general guidelines concerning cross-shore as
well as shore-parallel structures, and resulting from the near-field requirements
elucidated in Chapter Three. By and large, a structure as a whole, and not its par-
ticular constituents, is dealt with. As already mentioned, more details on particular
design features of all types of structures are given in Chapter Five.
G r o y n e s suffer from frequent failures and damage, particularly if they are perme-
able and constructed of timber piles.
Bakker et al (1984) stipulate that in the case of a groyne system in tidal seas the
first check point should be an evaluation of the risk of washing out of piles by
shoreward motion of tidal channels.
One might face situations that even the maximum practical pile length will not be
enough to guarantee constructional stability.
Hence the depth of pile should make allowance for possible washing of soil and
scouring. The allowance should be 1 m in the subaeral part, 1.5 m in the central
part and 1 m at heads. The total depth of pile at head is 5 m below sea bed 2 .
It is worthwhile to repeat the quotation from Bakker et al (1984)

2
Bakker et al. claim that the top of pile in the central part of groyne should be elevated by
not more than 0.20 m above mean sea level. To improve visibility one may elevate single piles
some 0.60 m above SWL, with spacing of 10-15 m. The top of the most remote (extreme seaward)
pile should be 0.8 m below SWL. The transition to the central part of groyne is done with slope
1:6. The sub-aeral section of groyne is recommended to create a straight line, 1:25 at top, with
elevation above beach below 0.2 m. It must be however stressed that numerous investigations on
the operation of the groynes have exposed unfavourable effects of the subaeral part due to beach
erosion during stroms. Accordingly this segment is abandoned in recent projects.
One may also design uniform slope of 1:25 all over entire length of groyne. This line must start at
the extreme seaward pile (-0.8 m below SWL); no pile must protrude by more than 0.2 m above
SWL in the central segment or above natural beach.
246 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Based on theoretical and experimental evidence positive effects can be

expected; especially in areas with a large tidal range, piles have better
effect during a longer part of the tidal cycle than stone groynes with
fiat berms.
Most of the negative experience can be attributed to constructional fail-
ures, which in the future can be avoided. For instance, in Oostkapelle
and Europort the piles were too short at the site where the washing-
out occurred, because at these locations no heavy erosion had been
foreseen. It seems to be of much importance that the sereens are well
incorporated in the dunes, implying some temporary removeal of sand.
At present, mussles are regularly removed from the sereens.

Although an objective financial balance of the use of pile sereens is

hard to make (as the effects are not clear and a financial value can
hardly be assigned\ the feeling exists, that this balance is positive and
that, for instance, it has been a wise decision to protect the Schouwen
area with pile screen instead of impermeable groynes.

Pile sereens form a much moreflexibleconstruction than stone groynes:

piles can be added, lifted or removed, and in the case of very heavy
erosion one can make - if absolutely necessary- stone berms in a later
stage, thus postponing the expense. Furthermore a combination of pile
screen and sand supply is feasible.

LONGSHORE STRUCTURES: OFFSHORE BREAKWATERS, SEA WALLS...

Breakwaters
Along the lines of this subsection, scour appears as one of the most important
factors of geometrical and structural design, cf. Sec.3.1. Reference to other failure
modes and their design implications is made in Sec.4.3. Some side issues are noted
below.
Bibliographical sources give very reliable information as regards design, but in most
cases they only deal with effects connected with wave motion: transmission, reflec-
tion and breaking.
Breaking kinematics are very different in the two cases of submerged and emerging
breakwaters: for low submerged barriers (i.e. height from the sea bottom less than
about 1/3 of the water depth) one usually faces spilling breakers, while for the
higher ones one has plunging breakers. Instead, in the case of emerging break-,
waters, it is well known that breaking very often occurs with a 'surging' pattern,
confirmed in many laboratory tests. The least stable zone of a submerged rubble
mound breakwater is always the edge between the top face and the face sloping
towards shore.
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 247

The behaviour of the foundation is much less explored. Hence a lot of effort should
be put in examination of all possible failure mechanisms, and design ofrespective
counter-measures.
Tremendous diversity of armour units have been devised. Their applicability is dis-
cussed, in terms of stability, in Sec.4.3. It is clear that the usual formulae must be
checked and adapted to the case of submerged or emerging breakwater designed.
It must also be remembered that not only wave height but also breakwater sub-
mergence plays an essential role in the type of breaking. When the breakwater is
made of non-interlocking armour units, the usual stability formulae proposed for
the case of emerging breakwaters seem to cause overevaluation of the weight of
the armour units for submerged breakwaters.
Perched Beaches/Sills
S t r u c t u r a l design of t h e sill should follow procedures set out for revetments
using the water depth at the seaward side of the sill in the design.
The sill structure must be designed to retain sand shoreward of the sill. Where the
structure is porous, it will be necessary to incorporate proper filters. Even with a
non-porous structure, filters may be required beneath the scour pad. Typically, a
synthetic filter cloth is used for this purpose. One should consult suppliers for the
most appropriate material for the particular application.
T h e s t r u c t u r a l design of t h e scour p a d should follow guidelines set out for
revetments. The design should, however, use the shallowest slope (i.e. 1:5) pos-
sible or economically feasible. As a guideline, the width of the scour pads should
be equal to the design wave height used in structural design of the sill. It should,
however, be no less than one metre in width.
The beach sill must be designed to withstand both wave and ice action. A variety
of materials can be used to construct this sill including wood piling with lagging,
steel sheet piling, armour stone or concrete-filled fabric bags.
Gabion baskets are not recommended for beach sill structures as the wire mesh
of the baskets are easily damaged by ice and abrasion. Unseen in the water, these
wires pose a hazard to beach users.
Sill structures will be subjected to significant ice forces, cf. Sec.4.3. Rock struc-
tures will withstand ice forces better than steel piles and other slim structures. In
addition, vertical walls will tend to create more reflection than rougher, sloped
concrete or stone structures. Increased reflection will increase the potential for
scour at the sill structure.
Sea walls
As noted at many places of this document, sea walls may be employed to protect
the eroding bluffs by retaining soil at the toe and by protecting the toe from erosion
and undercutting.
A sea wall may be either a thin structure penetrating deep into the ground (i.e.
248 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

sheet piling) or a gravity strueture resting on the surface (i.e. armour stone wall).
The thin structures depend on ground penetration to retain the soil behind the
wall whereas gravity structures depend on the weight of the strueture itself to re-
sist movement of the soil behind the bulkheads.
The location of the proposed strueture must be ehosen to balanee a number of
concerns. Wave forces will be minimized if the sea wall is built as far landward
as possible. Where a high steep slope exists on the shore, it will be desirable to
construct the strueture as far seaward (or lakeward) as practical since this will im-
prove the stability of the entire slope. In either case, a relatively flat area (five to
seven metres wide) should be provided landward of the wall.
Ideally, the top elevation of the wall should correspond to the upper limit of wave
uprush (see revetments for design chart). The construction of a wall to a lesser
elevation will necessitate the design of the splash pad to withstand the wave action.
Cantilevered structures must penetrate the sea bed to a depth that will prevent
overturning of the wall. The rule of thumb is to provide a penetration of 2 to 3
times the free standing height plus the anticipated scour depth (about one wave
height below the existing lakebed) where no scour protection is provided.
Anchored or braced sea walls use an embedded anchor to withstand overturning
forces. In this case, penetration should normally be 1.5 to 2 times the free standing
height above the anticipated scour depth. The anchors for such a wall usually con-
sist of a row of piles or line of heavy constituents with large surface areas placed a
distance behind the wall. This distance should be at least 1.5 metres greater than
1.7 times the total height of the strueture (i.e. free standing height plus penetra-
tion); cf. Ministry...Ontario (1987). Where practical, the anchor should be located
in native, undisturbed soil. The anchor should be placed so that its base is a least
two metres below the top level of the wall. The connection between the wall and
the anchors must be made of a corrosive resistant materials.
The wall itself must be structurally designed to withstand the full force of waves
breaking against it. In addition, it must be designed to resist sliding and over-
turning. Where the lakebed material is sufficiently firm (preferably bedrock), the
sea wall can be constructed as a gravity strueture, that is, a strueture designed to
withstand movement by essentially the weight of the strueture itself.
As with the design of the revetment, the scour pad should be designed with a width
equal to two times the design wave height but should be no less than one metre
in width. The size of stone may be calculated using the procedure set out in the
revetment section but utilizing the shallowest slope (i.e., 1:5). It is generally ac-
cepted that 300 mm diameter rip rap provides a good materials for many purposes..
The splash pad should be designed as a revetment if water is expected to overtop
the crest of the wall. For overtopping wave conditions, the width of the pad should
be based on runup conditions. Otherwise, the splash pad should be equal in width
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 249

to the design wave height but no less than one metre.

Another concern in designing a sea wall is the provision of adequate access for
maintenance. A relatively fiat area (i.e., less than 1:10 slope) should be provided
for a width of five to seven metres behind the splash pad.
Provision for the drainage of the material behind the wall is also important. Surface
drainage should be collected and conveyed to the beach in a controlled manner
to prevent excessive saturation of the backfill material. Drainage must also be
provided through the structure itself from a weeping system location landward of
the wall.
For sea-walls in a tidal region, fronting deep water, the following approximate
zones can be distinguished:
I The zone permanently submerged (not present in the case of a high level
"foreshore");
II The zone between MLW and MHW; the ever-present wave-loading of low
intensity is of importance for the long-term behaviour of structure;
III The zone between MHW and the design level; this zone can be heavily
attacked by waves but the frequency of such attack decreases as one goes higher
up the slope;
IV The zone above design level, where there should only be wave run-up.

DIKES
The degree of wave attack on a dike (or another defence structure) during a storm
surge depends on the orientation in relation to the direction of the storm, the
duration and strength of the wind, the extend of the water surface fronting the
sea-wall and the bottom topography of the area involved. For coastal areas there
is mostly a certain correlation between the water level (tide plus wind set-up) and
the height of the waves, because wind set-up and waves are both caused by wind.
Therefore, the joint frequency distribution of water levels and waves seems to be
the most appropriate for the design purposes (also form the economical point of
view). Respective forces in different zones are analysed in Section 4.3.
The gradiënt of the dyke bank may not be so steep that the whole slope or the
revetment can loose stability (through sliding). These criteria give, therefore, the
maximum slope angle. More gentle (flatter) slope leads to a reduced wave-force
on the revetment and less wave run-up; wave energy is dissipated over a greater
length. By using the wave run-up approach for calculations of the crest height of
a trapezoidal profile of a dike for different slope gradients, the minimum volume
of the embankment can be obtained. 3
3
However, this does not necessarily imply that minimum earth- -volume coincides with minimum
costs. An expensive part of the embankment comprises the revetment of the waterside slope and
the slope and the slope surface (area) increases as the slope angle decreases. The optimum cross-
sectio'n (based on costs) can be determined when the costs of earth works per m 3 and those of
250 Effectiveness ofcoastal defence measures

The water-side berm is a common element in the Dutch dike construction. It could
in the past lead to a reduction in the expenditure on stone revetments (on a very
gently sloping berm a good grass-mat can be maintained) and it produced an ap-
preciable reduction in wave run-up.
It isadvisable to create a transition zone by applying cellular, hoilow or any other
blocks or units, geogrids or other systems allowing vegetation. The forces exerted
on such units, and pertinent stability and strength criteria are presented in Section
4.3.

REVETMENTS
A. GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Revetments constitute a common constituent of numerous coastal defence mea-
sures. Their armour units are similar to those used in other versions of coastal
design. Therefore this considerable space has been devoted to revetments and
their components.
The primary function of a slope revetment structure is to protect an existing or
newly built slope against the erosive action of waves and/or currents. This function
is secured by the design outlined in Fig.1.31.
Referring to Fig.1.31, the innermost layer of a revetment is the base layer, con-
sisting of sand, clay, peat, erosive "rock" or similar materials. In general, this base
layer is not a part of the protection structure but rather a constituent that has to
be protected.
This base does not necessarily have to be a layer, but can also be the core of the
structure that has to be protected.
On top of this base layer, one or more intermediate layers are generally found
(an exception is the situation where the revetment's toplayer is placed directly on
the clay layer of the base). The function of each intermediate layer is in all cases a
combination of one or more of the separate functions mentioned in the following:

• Separation of the base layer, or another underlaying intermediate layer, from

the layer(s) laying above. This function is essential when the hydraulic loads
on the interface, between two layers can be sufficiënt to induce washing out
of the fines. Such situations arise in the presence of a granular sublayer on
top of a core (base) of sand and the presence of a geotextile on the interface
of a granular filter and a very open toplayer, with holes bigger than the size
of the filter material.
revetment per TO2 are known. Careful at tention is needed however, because the revetment costs are
not always independent of the slope angle, e.g. for steep slopes the heavy protection is necessary
while for the mild slopes the (cheaper) grass-mat can provide a sufficiënt protection.
Another point of economie optimization can be the available space for dike construction or
improvement.
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 251

• Reduction of the hydraulic loads on the underlaying layers of the structure.

The design of an intermediate layer can in this situation be such that in
principle the underlaying layer can be washed out through the intermediate
layer, but the design aims at such a reduction of the loads that no erosion
will take place during design conditions.
• Reduction of the hydraulic loads on the toplayer. In this situation the design
of the intermediate layer will be such that the hydraulic internal loads against
the downside of the toplayer are reduced as a result of the proper composition
of the intermediate layer.

• The function of the intermediate layer as a flat working floor for placement
of regular blocks in a revetment, and the function as a layer of filling material
for the placing of a block revetment with irregular thickness (natural stones
like basalt) should also be mentioned.
It is the task of a responsible designer to combine the different functions for the
intermediate layers as much as is relevant and possible. In this respect the designer
should be aware of the consequences of the substitution of one type of material by
another. He should be aware that each of the functions of the initial intermediate
layer can also be performed by the proposed alternative.
For example, the substitution of a granular filter layer by even a properly selected
geotextile will in general replace the separation function of the granular filter, but
the load reduction through the granular filter as a result of damping in the relative
thick layer will in general not be achieved by the geotextile. The designer should be
aware of this possible discrepancy that could easily lead to failure of the structure.
On top of the intermediate layer the toplayer can be found. Of course the pri-
mary function of the toplayer is to protect the base of the structure from erosion
by waves or currents. A secondary, but necessary, function of the toplaiyer is to
avoid instability of the intermediate layers by reduction of the hydraulic loads and
separation.
Especially the ratio of the permeability of toplayer and sublayer k/k', is decisive
for the pressure generation in the revetment, and consequently for the stability of
the toplayer.
B. TOPLAYER
STONE AND ARMOUR U N I T S , AGGREGATES, MATTRESSES, ETC.

In addition to the discussion in Section 4.3, on forces and stability of stone and
armour units of general designation, we will comment on these units, and similar
measures, in connection with revetments, i.e. particular area of their application
in the form of placed blocks, rip-rap, mats, mattresses and the like.
The methods to calculate the internal and external hydraulic loads have been pre-
sented elsewhere in this document.
252 Effectiveness ofcoastal defence measures

The stability of the revetment toplayer can be determined if the resulting loads are
compared with the strength of the toplayer. This fundamental approach is only
available for placed block revetments. For all other types of flexible revetments
purely empirical design methods are used. A fundamental approach to toplayer
design can be splitted up into strength (I) and stability (II) computations.
(I) STRENGTH OF TOPLAYER (placed blocks)
The strength R ( = resistance) of the toplayer of a block revetment has been de-
fined as the maximum allowable upward pressure difference across the toplayer.
A minimum value for the strength, RQ, is obtained by considering only the own
weight of the structure

Ro = AD cos a (4.26)
in which:
Ro = permissible water pressure difference (m),
A = relative specific mass = ps/p — 1 (-),
ps — specific mass of block (kg/m3)
p = specific mass of water (kg/m3)
a = slope angle (degrees).
In addition to the weight of the blocks the strength of the toplayer is increased by:
(a) the friction forces between the blocks as soon as the loads exceed RQ and
(b) the inertia forces as soon as the loads exceeds the sum of Ro and the friction
forces.
FRICTION FORCES

It is known from prototype and large scale model tests on placed block revetments
that large friction and clamping forces can develop between initially loose blocks.
It concerns, however, a highly stochastic phenomenon. There always remains a
chance that loose blocks are present in a revetment. Therefore only the minimum
friction forces between such loose blocks and the block one row lower on the slope
have been taken into account (see Fig.4.18)
Depending on the block dimensions the friction forces will be mobilised directly
when potential instability occurs, or only after a small initial rotation of the critical
block.
Elaboration of the mechanics of the various possible equilibrium stages of forces
on the block leads to a set of analytical expressions for the strength increase due
to friction. Each valid for a specific combination of block dimensions.
The influence of friction on the strength is quantified by multiplication factor rsu
The value of r s l depends on the ratio of block thickness D and block width B.

-For D/B > fb ::: r s l = 1 + fb- tan a (4.28)

 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 253

LIFT ROTATION

W — G cos a — foG sin a or W Gcosa = D/BGsma (4.27)

for D/B > fb for D/B < fb

in which:
W = upward hydraulic force = So-BL.pg(N),
G = submerged block weight = ADBL.pg(N),
Ki = contact force (N),
Fi = friction force = KxJ^N),
fb = friction coëfficiënt (-).
Figure 4.18. Principle of Friction Forces on a Loose Block.

(the block slides upward, perpendicular to the plane of the slope)

- For D/B > fb and D/B < 2. tan a :

r s l = 1 + D/B tan a (4.29)

for initial rotation, or

1+ f^B/Diana
r,i = (4.30)
1 + \tt
for sliding after initial rotation; whichever rsl proves greater.
For 2 tan a < D/B < fb one has

rsl = l + D/Bt&na (4.31)

(Partial initial rotation)

A graphical presentation of the above equations for fb = 0.6 has been given in
Fig.4.19.
INERTIA FORCES
When the loads on a block are sufficiënt to overcome the weight and the friction
forces, the block will be lifted from its place. However, to accelerate the block
inertia forces on the block and its added mass of water should be overcome. This
254 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

*b=0.6

1.8

1.6 cot Ca> = 2

/
cot (a) = 3

cot(a) r 4
1.2
cot<a)=5

i n
"'"0 1 2 3 4 5
» B/D

Figure 4.19. Strength Growth Factor due to Friction.

means that, if some block motion is accepted under design conditions, then the
effective strength of the toplayer is larger than the sum of weight and friction.
The infiuence of inertia on the strength is quantified by the multiplication factor
rs2. In Fig.4.19 the resultant load on a block is assumed to be a parabolic function
of time:

F = Fe + AF(t/t0 - (t/to)2) (4.32)

in which:
F = resultant load (N),
Fe = load at incipient motion (N),
F = maximum of F - Fe(N),
t0 = duration of excessive load(s), cf. Fig.4.20.
For the moving block the following equation of motion is valid:

F-Fe = M.x (4.33)

in which:
M = mass of block plus added mass of water = (ps + p).B.L.D(kg)
x = block acceleration (m/s2).
(Note that the volume of added water is estimated to be equal to the block volume).

Substitution of Eq.4.33 in Eq.4.32 and introduction of the boundary conditions,viz

for t = 0 ::: x = 0 and x = 0 and for t = tu ::: x = 0 and x = e.D leads to a
solution, from which the total strength R of the toplayer can be computed as a
product of the own weight RQ and a multiplication factor rs according to:
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 255
'v duration of OXCCSSÏVQ load
4 *

initiaticn ot motion

*• t(s>

Figure 4.20. Parabolic Representation of Excess Load.

R = R0rs (4.34)
in which:
rs = rsX = rs2 - 1 (4.35)

(II) TOPLAYER STABILITY

In dimensioning of a stable toplayer a distinction has been made between structures
under attack of currents and waves, Pilarczyk (1988).
The simple method derived by Hudson lays the foundations for rubble revetment
computations. In the dimensionless form Hudson's solution can be presented as
H
- A = (KD cot c*)1'3 (4.36)
D,
in which H = wave height
Dw = (G^o/ps)1/3 = nominal rubble diameter (m)
KD= 3.0 for roughly equal size of rubble elements and K~D = 2.2 for riprap
(nonuniform rubble)
a — revetment slope angle
G50 = 50% value of the rubble mass distribution curve
A = Ps~pw =relative density
pw'iPs = water and rubble density, respectively.
Since revetments, and in particular riprap, are subject to direct impact of waves
and the hydrodynamical instability factors, it seems appropriate to present some
methods for revetment computations, although this topic is dealt with separately
elsewhere in this study. Some tentative guidelines at this point will make easier,
La. the preliminary design of shore- -parallel structures located close to shoreline.
Van der Meer (Pilarczyk 1990a) modified Hudson's formula by referring to his
laboratory tests on revetment stability in the case of stone rubble subject to irregular
waves. Wave period has been included through the parameter:
256 Effèctiveness of coastal defence measures

£2 = tan a l S (4.37)
vtts
in which
Hs = significant wave height
Ts = wave period
g = acceleration due to gravity.
Van der Meer's method has been transformed into a table shown in Fig.4.21 For
clearly breaking (plunging) waves; & < 2.5 -¥• 3; the analytical relationships can be
given the form
Hs/ADn50 = 6.2P018(Sd/VN)°-2t-0-5 (4.38)
in which
P = rubble permeability
N = numbers of waves
Sd=-F&-
A = area of eroded profile (m2)
while for surging waves (fm > 3) one has
Hs/ADn50 = l.0P°-13(Sd/y/N)°-2V^t^£ (4.39)
As mentioned above, more information on the two methods of computations for
revetments (rubble and bituminous), and results of the computations, can be found
in the study by Pilarczyk (1985,1990a and Appendix 5-1).
Currents Alone
A general formula for the strength of units subject to attack by flowing water reads
0 03 ?/2
1
AmU>n = <t>KT--Kh • J C TT (4-4°)
where:
Dn = thickness of protection unit; for rock one assumesD„ = (Mso.)1/3; M5Q =
50% value of the mass distribution curve of stone; for mattresses(gabions, sand-
mattresses etc.) one takes Dn = d = average thickness of mattress.
ATO = relative density of protection unit
for rock Aro = A = ^ = ^
Pw
for mattresses A m = (1 - n)A
where n = porosity of stone or sand fill, and can be taken approximately as 0.4; for
common quarry stone and sand as fill-material for mattresses one has (1 —n)Awl
ü = mean velocity; if Kh is neglected (Kh = 1), one takes ub — u — bottom velocity;
Kh = depth factor;
Kh — ,lo 12^/Ar)2 for logarithmic velocity profile and h/kr > 5
where kr = Dn for relatively smooth units (i.e. concrete blocks) and kr — 2Dn for
relatively rough units (i.e. rock)
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 257

a imoermeable core P«o; © j & Pzw ©

• permeabte core <t&
r^ompson (19751 •& *

o permeaBle core of*

* homogeneous strucfure
OnSOf/DnSOCit

S=A;O2 P2Ü5 © ^ 0 Ê2&4 ©

SI'/Ü

On50A/0n50C=3.2 cf***

0 n 50 i = nominal diameter armour

0n50f = nominol diameter filter
20 30 tO 50 60 70
H OnSOC = nominal diameter core
s'OnSoVE^ P#-0.18
Structures on(a).0and (3) have been rested.
formulQ for plunging waves The value of P for (b) has been assumed.

V & O n s . * f\, - 6-2P'"(S//"N]"

A D nSO

10'
5 6 7 8 910° 3 A. 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 '

Breaker parameter £,z - tgcx/

N=3000 • P=QJ

Figure 4.21. Van der Meer's formulae on rip-rap stability for 7^=3000 waves and an impermeablé
core (P=0.1).
258 Effectiveness ofcoastal defence measures

Kh = (75-) for weakly developed velocity profile

Ks slope factor

if,=coSa(i-^r=(i-^fer (4.4D
tan -0 sur©
For a bed slope in the flow direction with angle (ƒ?), i.e. bottom protection
beneath a hydraulic structure, the following slope factor holds: Ks = S ' " ^ Q ^
Ver = critical shear-stress parameter: ^CT = 0.03 for rock and ^ c r = 0.06...0.10
for gabions
a = slope angle
0 = angle of internal friction of granular material
KT = turbulence factor; KT = 2/3 for low turbulence and uniform flow; KT = 1.0
for normal turbulence in rivers and KT — 2.0 for high turbulence, local disturbances
and outer bends of rivers. KT = 2 is only to use when due to the difficulties in
defining the local mean velocity the average mean velocity is being applied.
4> = stability factor.
For practical applications the following values of the stability factor <f> are
recommended:
<f> = 1.25 for exposed edges of loose units
<j>= 1.0 for exposed edges of block-mats and/or mattresses
<f> = 0.75 for continuous protection of loose units
<f> = 0.50 for continuous protection of blocks-mats and/or mattresses.
Examples of the exposed edges are: bottom protection at the scour hole (special
hazard in the case of two-directional current i.e. ebb and flood), edges of toe-
protection, transitions between adjacent revetment-systems, connections between
mats or mattresses.
Practical approach to Wave Attack
Placed/pitched stones and blocks
One has the following relationship (Pilarczyk, 1989):
, cosa H. „ , cosa ,. ,_,.
(4 42)
*'— 2 55 * *• vr -
This refers to free blocks and stones in older types of revetments in which use
has been made of natural friction and interlocking of units
As earlier, one employs
£ = tana^|J
D = thickness (m)
Tz = mean wave period (s)
Hs = significant wave height (m)
The following figures are suggested as follows
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 259

Table 4.5.
$ƒ $o Type of revetment
2.0 2.5 poor quality (irregular) pitched stone
3.0 3.5 good quality (regular) pitched stone
3.5 4.0 natural basalt and less permeable
(closed) blocks
4.0 5.0 relatively permeable blocks (open area
5...0 % )
5.0 6.0 closed blocks on good quality and smooth
clay - surface

N o t e s : 1. The open blocks in line 3 have more reserve stability than closed blocks;
2. Lines 1 through 4 hold for granular sublayers;
3. Blocks on geotextile and sandy subsoil hold only up to Hs — 1.2 m (max. Hs = 1.5 m ) due
to danger of liquefaction.

Block-mats and grouted/interlocked systems

One takes
Hs , cos a
< 0- (4.43)
AD

with $ = 3.5 for blocks connected to geotextile by pins

\& = 4.0 for grouted blocks connected by geotextile
<3> = 4.5 for cabled closed blocks
\!> = 5.0 cabled upon blocks; grouted basalton * > 6.0 for grouted cabled blocks;
mechanically interlocked blocks.

The above remarks for $ƒ... hold.

The edges of adjacent blocks-mats, if not properly connected, should be treated as
free blocks (see case a), with $/ sa 3).
In all cases, the experience and sound engineering judgement play an important
role in applying these design rules; otherwise mathematical or physical testing can
provide an optimum solution.

Loose aggregates & riprap on less permeable subsoil (i.e. sand)

In this case one has
Hs
<
<t> (4.44)
AD» VB
cot a > 2; £zi 3 (breaking waves); N < 3000 waves.
where Dn — (M50/psy/3; M50 = 50% exceedance of mass of stones
4> = 2.25 for incipient movement
<j) = 3.0, for maximum tolerable damage in a 2-layer system.
260 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

A more sophisticated general approach for loose materials has been provided by
van der Meer (198 ). He has considered plunging breakers with £2 < 2.5; duration
of wave attack, damage level and permeability of underlaying layers, and has put
forth

Hs
< 6.2 • P r • ( ^ / i V f V e l (4.45)
ADn
where:
Pb = permeability factor related to the core of the protected body; being Pb
= 0.1 for practically impermeable cores (i.e. sand-/clay-body) and P& = 0.5 for
permeable (granular) core (i.e. in breakwaters)
N = number of waves
(,z= breaking parameter
Dn = nominal diameter
A =relative density of stone
st = damage level.
The physical meaning of Sb is the number of cubic stones with a side of 1 x Dn,
eroded over a width of 1 x ö n . The 'no-damage' criterion is taken generally as S&
between 1 and 3 (stones eroded).
Grouted aggregates (bitumen grouting)
One takes

= *«^?= = ^u—7^
U (4.46)
ADn " ^ vC
with 4>u — upgrading-factor due to grouting; being cj>u = 1.50... 1.65 in the case
of pattern grouting (about 60% of the total surface is filled).
Gabion (rock) mattresses
The existing stability criteria for necessary thickness (d) of gabion result from
small-scale tests, viz.
for sliding:
TT

~ < 2(1 - n) cot a; for cota < 3 (4.47)

Aa
for wave resistance

—-. < 4(1 - n)(cot a)l/3; for cot a > 3 (4.48)

Aa
The latest equation gives, versus Hudson's KD = 3 . 2 for loose materials, an
upgrading of stability by a factor of 4 : (3.2) 1 / 3 = 2.7.
Transformation into a more general form provides:

H 5
" < *uu •r <^J°-
sz = *. •^ (4-49)
(l-n)Ad- " Vfz
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 261

T h e value of the upgrading factor is recommended as 2 < ^u < 3 (max).

By introducing for ^u — 1\d — 1.8JDn and n = 0.4 one obtains

^s -2.16-^ = 4 = (4-50)
ADn y/Wz v^ï
in which (Dn = size of fill-rock).
This means that the level of wave loading in the basket is 2.16 times higher
than acceptable loading for incipient raovement of loose rock. Using more than 2
layers in a system with a finer stone leads to heavier movement of stones causing
deformation and extra loading on the wires. Therefore it is recommended to
calculate the size of stone as if it were in a 2-layer system even if more layers are
applied.
Open stone asphalt (Fixtone)
One has A = 1.15
The existing criteria are summarized as follows:
1° Umax = 6...7 m/s (maximum velocity in respect to surface erosion)
2° thickness d= C.HS with C = 1/6 - on filter cloth, and C = 1/10 - on sand-
bitumen filter
3° From Delta Flume: ~ = 8.4 - on sand asphalt and 6.7 on filter cloth and
sand; with the no-damage criterion of £ = 1.2
In particular, assuming H — l.5Hs —» Hs/Ad = 5.6 and 4.5 respectively one
has
Ad. 1° : U = ^y/^H^b; 0.25 < b < 0.50; * = 1
U2 6 2 ...7 2 1
H = —- = — 2b ^ 4 5 — l(4 51)}
Wgg* l-9.81£ £ 26
For # = lkUmax = lm/s this is equivalent to H = 4.5 m or Hs = 3.0 m.
Ad. 2°: f f = 1 A C = ^ = 5.22 on filter cloth and sand or 8.70 on sand
bitumen filter.
In conclusion one may postulate that the criterion

* < ^ < A (4.52)

g/3 - Ad - £0.5

with 0 = 5 seems to b e a responsible choice. Because of possible liquefaction

the open stone asphalt on geotextile placed on sand this criterion is recommended
only u p to Hs < 2 m. F o r Hs > 2 m t h e sand-bitumen filter is recommended.
Because of the limitation due to the surface erosion this system may b e applied up
to Hs = 3 for a less frequent loading up to Hs = 4 m.
Fabric (geotextile) mattresses
T h e stability criterion for fabric mattresses of thickness d filled with sand or
sand cement attacked by wave is derived from some (limited) tests and t h e recent
knowledge on revetments principles, viz.:
262 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

f f < #(1 - »)C° S (4.53)

or

*' * (454)

for f j 3 (breaking waves)

For granular fill-materials one has A m = (1 — n)A = 1,
where A = density of fill material and n = porosity (m = 0.4).
The value of <f> depends on the ratio of the permeability of the mattress and the
permeability of the subsoü. For values of this permeability ratio much smaller than
1, uplift pressures become important. A safe value for <f> is 2.
For nearly equal permeabilities ^-values of 2 (to 4) may be applied. Local
uplifting may then occur. If the permeability of the mattress is much greater than
that of the subsoil, the uplift pressures are of minor importance, then a stability
factor (f> equal to 4 is considerated to be safe.
However, in the latter case the internal instability of the subsoil might become
the decisive factor. For the wave height 1.2 < Hs < 2.0 and sandy subsoil special
measures against sliding and/or liquefaction should be taken (extra compaction,
extra thickness, granular sublayer 0.2 m in th case of sand-cement, etc).
Special attention should also be paid to the construction and the transitions
which need special measures, expecially against overtopping and/or scour at the
toe. High deformation of the mattress may be expected. Above the wave height of
2.0 m the application of the fabric mattresses should be supported by large-scale
tests or prototype studies.
In view of the uncertainties involved the use of the ^-value higher than 4 is not
recommendable. Moreover, the permeability of the mattress should be treated as
an integrated permeability of the mattress, and not only that of the components
involved (geotextile, fill-material...). Sand and/or gravel are very suitable as fill
material, possibly mixed with cohesive additives. Mixing the fill with seed can
promote vegetation.

C. SUBLAYERS or INTERMEDIATE LAYERS

It will have become clear from the foregoing material that a large variation exists
in types of intermediate layers; each type having its own characteristic behaviour
and its own mode of failure. As specified earlier, the following distinction is made

• granular materials;

• sheet-type materials (like all kinds of geotextiles) and

• cohesive sublayers.
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 263

In the following paragraphs design procedures will be presented for the granular
materials and for the geotextiles, as far as the separation function is considered. So
the only mode of failure treated is the granular failure of the structure. Attention
has been given to
• The erosion of granular filter material through the holes in the toplayer.

• Internal instability of a granular layer.

• Erosion of a granular base layer through a geotextile.

All other modes of failure for the sublayer will be ignored in this document. No
generally applicable design rules are available. Still the designer should be aware
of the other failure modes.
WASHING-OUT OF GRANULAR SUBLAYER THROUGH THE TOPLAYER

From the designer's point of view it can be atttractive to minimise the leakage
factor of a slope revetment . In this way the resulting forces on the toplayer will
be reduced. One of the possibilities to reduce the leakage factor is to increase the
permeability of the toplayer, for example by the application of a toplayer with large
holes in the blocks. In case the holes in the toplayer are larger than the grains in
the under laying filter layer, this sublayer may be washed out through these holes.
Two different mechanisms can be distinguished
1. Erosion by outflowing water through the holes by the flow perpendicular to the
toplayer
2. Erosion by the external water flow up and down the slope by wave impact, runup
and rundown.
The first mechanism will take place during the moment of maximum rundown; the
pressure gradiënt over the slope induces an outgoing water flow that may be able
to transport the individual grains of the filterlayer.
The second mechanism can occur during or just after the moment of wave impact
or during the running down of water on the slope. This downrush generates eddies
in the holes in the toplayer, by which the individual grains are eroded from the
sublayer. Of course, also a combination of both mechanisms is possible.
For larger holes, the flow velocities of the outflowing water are reduced as a result
of the large cross-section and the reduction of the gradiënt over the toplayer. In
this case mechanism 1 is unlikely to occur, while mechanism 2, as a result of the
larger hole diameter is more likely to arise.
INTERNAL INSTABILITY OF SUBLAYERS

A granular filter is called internally stable when the fine fraction of the filter cannot
be washed-out between the larger grains. The mechanism of internal instability is
often referred to as suffosion or internal erosion. Internal instability can only
occur within materials with a very wide gradation (gentle sieve curve). This type
264 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

F(4Dfl
FCDfT

Df ADf 0.4 0.8 12 1.6 20

SIEVE CURVE
v m
F( D f ) ' min
"

o SHINGLE SAND MIX

• MINESTONE
Figure 4.22. Internal Stability of Granular Material.

of material is used more and more widely in slope protections, where industrial
waster materials (slags, silex, minestone) become a cheap alternative for natural
granular materials.
Internal instability is a dangerous process for slope revetments. A gradual increase
of the permeability of the filter layer leads to

• higher internal pressures in the filter layer, endangering the stability of the
toplayer

• Instability of the interface between filter layer and base material, which can
lead to undermining of the entire structure.

Therefore internal instability should be avoided or the consequences should be

taken into account in the design. Kenney and Lau (1985) have developed a method
to evaluate the internal instability as a function of the hydraulic gradiënt. The ratio
of the large and the fine portion of the most gentle part of sieve curve (on linear
scales) appears to be decisive for internal instability. In practice internal instability
occurs only within the 20 % (m/m) of the finest fraction of the filter material.
Therefore this percentage makes up the basis of our analysis.
The method is illustrated in Fig.4.22.
Independent of the hydraulic gradiënt, suffosion will not take place for
[F(ADf)/F(Df) - l]min > 2
EROSION OF THE BASE LAYER INTO THE GRANULAR STJBLAYER
Erosion of the base material into the filter layer can easily be avoided with a
geometrically closed filter layer. This means that it is physically impossible that a
grain frorn the base material is transported into the voids of the filter layer.
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 265

According to Huis in't Veld et al (1984) the following strict rules apply to different
types of materials

• For wide graded filters: Dj15 < 5.IW;

• For very fine base material: log(DjW/Dbio - 2) < 1.9//o#(106-Dti0 — 1)

in which:
Dfx = grain size of filter exceeded by x % (mm) material (m)
Dbx — grain size of base exceeded by x% (mm) of material (m)
n = porosity of filter (-).
Geometrically open filters can also be stable but then the hydraulic loads should
be taken into account. Klein Breteler (1988) developed a set of modern empirical
filter rules, where the filter material (D/is) is selected on the basis of the hydraulic
gradiënt perpendicular to the slope plane (i ), the base material (D&so), the filter
porosity (n) and the slope angle (a).
The formulae for filter design are quite complicated. Therefore a graphical
presentation is given in Fig.4.23, for a base of normal sand (specific weight A b =
2,650 kg/m3) and water viscosity v = 1.2.10 _6 m 2 /s.
For placed block revetments one has i = tan a. For the calculation of hydraulic
gradiënt parallel to the slope plane, a distinction should be made between the
downward and the upward gradiënt:

• idown = sina

• iup can be calculated with a rather complicated analytical formulae, that has
been presented in a graphical form in Fig.4.24.

EROSION OF THE BASE LAYER UNDERNEATH A GEOTEXTILE

Instead of using a stable granular filter layer the application of a geotextile as
a separation layer can be considered. For geometrically closed geotextiles the
following rules quarantee that practically no sand from base will be washed out:

• For stationary hydraulic loads: <£>90/A,9o < 1-0 (for "woven" geotextiles)
$9o/A9o < 1.8 (for "non-woven" geotextiles)

• For dynamic (cyclic) hydraulic loads: <f>98/-D&i5 < 1-0 (if all grains should be
halted)
$98/As5 < 1-0 (if some washing out is acceptable leading to a natura! filter
in the upper base layer).

In general the latter criterion is sufAciently rigorous.

Studies by the Dutch Association "Kust- en Oeverwerken" (1979) have shown that
266 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

ColCJ<0-»* üffu/^fD p/tCO £X9t/>/€' 0,0= 3.5 n

0keo=0.15 " " j
n =035 \».,.r=a25
cotdl : 4
i, = 0.1 J

Figure 4.23. Design Graph for Granular Filter Layers.

tan e - 0.25

tan 0 - 0,50

tan fi - +.0

Figure 4.24. Maximum Parallel Upward Gradiënt in Filter.

 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 267

Table 4.6

D c
b50 m "J'S *i
mm ~ - — (°)
0.1 1.18 0.25 0.11 60
0.15 0.78 0.20 0.073 60
0.2 0.71 0.18 0.055 60
0.3 0.56 0.15 0.044 55
0.4 0.45 0.11 0.038 55
0.5 0.35 0.07 0.036 55
0.6 0.29 0.04 0.035 55
0.7 0.22 0 0.034 50
0.8 0.22 0 0.034 50
1.0 0.22 0 0.035 . 50

geotextiles that are too open, in terms of the traditional strict design rules, often
perform perfectly well in practical situations. Therefore recently Klein Breteler
(1988) developed a new selection criterion for geotextiles in which not only the
grain size of the sand from the base, but also the hydraulic gradiënt, iCT or the
filter velocity Vfcr is taken into account.

The critical filter velocity can be computed with the following formula:

vJcT = G [ 1 2 ( ^ ) 4 ^ ( f )& + ~}^sAb9Db50 (4.55)

v
ü>90 -L'690 Kg e
in which:
0 = coëfficiënt; 0 = 0.8 for bottom protections; 0 = 0.5 for block revetments (-)
Vfcr — filter velocity for incipient motion (m/s)
-Dbgo = 90% grain size of base material (m)
$90 = 90% opening size of geotextile (m)
Tg = thickness of geotextile (m)
^s = Shields parameter (see Table 4.6) (-)
A& = relative mass of sand (= ps/Pw - 1 )
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s 2 )
kg = permeability of geotextile (v = kg.im) (m/s)
m = power in formula for kg (see Table 4.6) (-)
n = porosity of filter (-)
m
e = f.Re (see table 5.1) (-)
Re = Reynolds number (= vfcr.Df15/v) (-)
w = fall velocity of sand (m/s ).

The critical gradiënt icr can be computed from the critical filter velocity by the
following formula:
268 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

_i/(l-n)2 2.2 ,, „
^cr = 1 6 0 - v / vfcr + vfcr (4.56)
The critical gradiënt should be compared with the actual gradiënt.
The method is applicable to structures with slope angles cot a > 3 and a base of
fine sand (D50 = 0.1...0.2mm).

4.2.4 Scour protection

Toe protection is supplemental armouring of the beach or bottom surface in front
of a structure which prevents wave from scouring and undermining. Factors that
affect the severity of toe scour include wave breaking (when near the toe), wave
run-up and backwash, wave reflection, and grain size distribution of the beach or
bottom materials.
Toe stability is essential because failure of the toe will generally lead to failure
throuehout the entire structure. Toe scour is a comülex orocess. SDecific, eenerallv
valid guidance for scour prediction and toe design based on either prototype or
model results has not yet been developed, but some general guidelines can be
ventured; they are exemplified in Chapter 5.
The principal methods of reducing or preventing the scour of bed materials involve
reducing the hydrodynamic forces on the bed, and/or isolating the bed materials
from those forces.
The main measures adopted may be summarised:
(a) reduce forces by reducing reflections, often by the construction of an energy-
absorbing mound or berm;
(b) isolate the problem area close to the structure by a scour control blanket, often
of rock fill, preformed fiexible mats or gabion mattresses;
(c) reinforce the bed foundation material by full, partial or local grouting using
cement or asphalt material.
The most common measure for scour protection is the provision of a scour
protection blanket of rock fill.
In the design of new or rehabilitated structures the use of an absorbing mound
or berm is also frequentaly considered. The design methods available therefore
address the size of rock needed for stability, and the extent of the protection. Three
methods are available, for which two are based on regular waves only.
The stability of rock armour on a toe berm in front of a vertical wall, hence
subjected to relatively severe reflections, has been studied by Brebner & Donnelly
(1962) under regular waves, and by Wu & Jensen (1983) under random waves.
Brebner & Donnelly's results have been used in the Shore Protection Manual
(SPM) to give values of a stability number Ns = H/ADn. It is recommended
that the value of H selected should lie between Hom and H0.i, depending on the
severity of the exposure. They relate values of Nf to a relative depth given by
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 269

hi/hs, and this is shown in Figure (7-120) of SPM.

Wu & Jensen (1983) combine the results of two series of model tests in a single
diagram giving values of stability coëfficiënt, Ns = Hs/ADn, for zero damage,
against a relative water depth, h/Lp, for contours of hi/Lp. Hales & Houston
(Hales 1985) considered the stability of a rock blanket extending seaward from a
permeable rubble slope on a 1:25 slope foreshore. They tested with regular waves
to determine the conditions at which the rock in the scour blanket was just stable.
To these conditions they fitted a mean trend given by:
Hh
28.5(^)2/3 {451)
y
ADn L
where üj, is the breaker wave height
Ls is the wave length in shallow water, given by T^Jghs in this instance
B is the seaward extend of the toe protection.
They also suggest that a more conservative line can be given by:

2/3
J^- = l7.5(f-)
X ' (4.58)
ADn ' LS
The data on which these equations are based is summarised in Hales (1985).
The maximum scour force occurs where wave downrush on the structure face ex-
tends to the toe and/or the wave is breaking near the toe (i.e. shallow water
structrures). These conditions may take place when the water depth at the toe is
less than twice the height of the maximum expected unbroken wave that can exist
in that water depth. The width of the apron for shallow-water structures with a
high reflection coëfficiënt, which is generally true for slopes steeper than about 1
on 3, can be planned from the structure slope and the expected scour depth.
The maximum depth of a scour trough due to wave action below the natural bed
is about equal to the maximum expected unbroken wave at the site. To protect the
stability of the face, the toe soil must be kept in place beneath a suface defined by
an extension of the face surface into the bottom to the maximum depth of scour.
This can be accomplished by burying the toe, where construction conditions per-
mit, thereby extending the face into an excavated trench the depth of the expected
scour. Where an apron must be placed on the existing bottom or only can be
partially buried, its width should not be less than twice the wave height. One is
addressed to Engineer Manual 1110-2-1614 and Shore Protection Manual (both
published by U.S. Corps of Engineers) where th possible configurations are shown.
The wave force will be dissipated on the structure face and a less apron width may
be adequate, but at least equal to the wave height (minimum requirement).
Since scour aprons generally are placed on very flat slopes, quarrystone of the size
(diameter) equal to 1:2 or even 1:3 of the primary cover layer probably will be
the heaviest required unless the apron is exposed above the water surface during
270 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

wave action. Quarrystone of primary cover layer size may be extended over the
toe apron if the stone will be exposed in the troughs of waves, especially breaking
waves.
The minimum thickness of cover layer over the toe apron should be two quarry-
stones.
Quarrystone is the most favourable material for toe protection because of its flex-
ibility. If geotextile is used as a secondary layer it should not be extended over
the whole width of the apron to provide the fiexible edges (at least 1 m) against
undermining or it should be folded back, and then buried in cover stone and sand
to form a Dutch toe.
The size of toe protection against waves can also be roughly estimated by using
the common formulae on slope protection and introducing mild slopes (i.e. 1 on
8 to 1 on 10) and local wave height.
Toe protection against currents may require smaller protective stone, but wider
aprons. The necessary design data can be estimated from site hydrography and/or
model studies.
Special attention must be given to sections of the structure where scour is inten-
sified; i.e. to the head, areas of a section change in alignment, the channel sides
of jetties, and the downdrift sides of groyns. Where waves and resonable currents
(u > lm/s) occur together it is recommended to increase the cover size at least
by a factor of 1.3.
Note that the conservatism of the apron design (width and size of cover units)
depends on the accuracy of the methods used to predict the waves and currents
action and to predit the maximum depth of scour. For specific projects a detailed
study of scour in the natural bottom and near similar existing structures should
be conducted at a planned site, and model studies should be considered before
embarking on the final design.
In all cases, the experience and sound engineering judgement play an important
role in applying these design rules.

4.3 FORCES ON AND STABILITY OF STRUCTURES

4.3.1 General
As already stressed in this chapter, the general layout of design encompasses struc-
tural design dealing with the overall stability of structure, the stability of structural
constituents, and the strength of structural constituents. The stability of entire
structure and its individuai constituents is endangered by the near-field failure
modes discussed in Chapter Three and examined concisely in Section 4.2, with
regard to design guidelines arising from those hazards, wherever appropriate and
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structwal design 271

instructive. In addition, Subsec.4.2.3 also contains a review of the dynamics of

units placed on slope revetments. Therefore it overlaps to a certain degree with
our treatment of the stability of (other as well as similar) units in Subsec.4.3.4.
Forces, stability and strength (to a lesser degree) are discussed in this section.
E x a m p l e s of particular design features for different types of coastal defence mea-
sures are presented in Chapter Five.
It seems appropriate to recall that coastal structures must fulfill their defence
functions, i.e. provide some desirable topographic features, from the macroscopic
(far-field) perspective. On a microscopic (near-field) scale, the structures must be
stable and reliable enough to ensure the far-field effectiveness. In this section we
analyse the important factor of the behaviour of structures, forces exerted by the
ambient medium. These forces, together with other factors, such as scour, con-
tribute to stability of structures and their units. The forces themselves are dealt
with in Subsec.4.3.2 while the stability is discussed in Subsec.4.3.3.

4.3.2 forces on coastal structures

The forces exerted an coastal structures depend primarily on two groups of prop-
erties associated with: (1) marine environment (2) structures themselves. The first
group incorporates wave climate i.e.various aspects of transformation, including
crucial issues of wave breaking, reflection, overtopping and runup. The second
group embodies properties of layout and configuration of structures, such as exis-
tence of vertical or composite walls, curvilinearities, porosity, spacing of structure's
members, etc. A variety of design combinations arise if one considers each type of
structures at various distances from shoreline, not to mention secondary effects.
Design formulae and procedures have evolved from some simple concepts dat-
ing back to the 19th century. Yet there is no unique formula, or a set thereof,
accepted universally throughout the world. Intercalibration of different formulae
would be a useful exercise. In its absence, in this report we confine ourselves to a
shear presentation of different procedures, varying from well-known SPM propos-
als, through important Japanese practice to the least known Soviet standards. The
review is certainly incomplete, and a lot of room may be filled in if necessary, al-
though it must be remembered that forces are not the primary topic in our project,
no matter how important the real sources, components or outcomes of any coastal
phenomenon.
Reference is made to our Part Two, where the summary and excerpts from different
sources have been presented.
Partenscky (1988) illustrates the history of forces on vertical walls (Fig.4.25 and
Fig.4.26), draws attention to the effect of air cushion under breaking waves
(Fig.4.27), compares different theories, with his laboratory measurements (his
page 252) and eventually proposes a new pressure distribution on vertical walls
272 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

O.SH
*-

MINIKIN (1963) NAGAI (1960) PLAKIDA(1970)

(brechende Welle)

1.7SM

7/'-
HOMMA/HORIKAWA(1965) PLAK10A (1970) HIROI (1919)
(gebrochene Welle)

Figure 4.25. Pressure Distribution on Vertical Wall due to Breaking Wave; historical perspective by
Partenscky (1988).

(Fig.4.28), with the following set of characteristic pressure ordinates

-^y/gh,™ —\fghs (4.61)

27TPH2C
Po = (4.62)

2TTPH2C
Ps = (4.63)
t\Lcoshkhs
which remains sensitive to evaluation of the wave impact time tx.
The current Japanese design practice for vertical walls is described extensively by
Goda (1989), cf p. 107-123. He also emphasizes the importance of impulsive
forces and recommends a procedure for their inclusion (p. 133-138).
The Polish guidelines for maritime structures have assumed the following configu-
ration:
• Vertical Wall Under Nonbreaking Waves
high (non-overtopping) or low (overtopping)
on rubble mound or without it
• Vertical Wall Under Breaking Waves
divisions as above
• Inclined and Curvilinear Walls
• Single Cylindric Bodies
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 273

co
/ '/
H/h0= 0.78 MINIKIN (1963;
/ <T)
h«/N, = 07S
Ifot V
A v /h AT>
/ '
1An
i —A
/ v /
/
///
Y,\ / SM ( >)
NAGA! (1960 ;

^//'//S
' 1
i
i -
T i •
1 1 '

S PLAKIDA (1970

SHORE PR0TECTI0N
MANUAL 1984 )

~I 1 r
H (?)
HIROI (1919
WAVE HEIGHT H. m

^r*//--' / //)/////.

Figure 4.26. Horizontal Force per 1 m (left) and Pressure Distribution (right) in Retrospective;
Partenscky (1988).

AIR CUSHION
COMPRESSION
—*&*—i

Phase 2. Phase 3

Figure 4.27. Wave Breaking on Vertical Wall; Air Entrapment; Partenscky (1988).
274 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Resulting
hydrostotic
pressure

Recommended
distribution

Dynamic
pressure

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ " ^ ^ - f i y d r o s t a t ï c pressure
* h=3r " t ' at instant of impact
Figure 4.28. Pressure Distribution due to Breaking Wave; Partenscky (1988).

• Spacial Coastal Structures

The formulae for nonbreaking wave are based on the Miche theory in the form
proposed by Lundgren, while those for breaking waves refer to the Minikin method.
Comparison of dynamic breaking wave forces on vertical walls predicted by Minikin
and Goda methods is provided by Chu (1989). Normalized wave forces computed
by both methods are plotted as a function of water depth to deep-water wavelength
ratio, seabed slope, and superstructure and foundation dimension ratio. The
results exhibit distinctly different characteristics of the two predictive methods. The
Minikin method is more conservative than the Goda procedure for large depth to
wavelength ratio. With long wave or shalow water depth, the Goda method predicts
conservative forces.
The reference to the Shore Protection Mannual is noteworthy.
The Polish quidelines for shore protection structures are based on the Soviet
Standard SNiP 2.06.04.-82* (Appendix 4-1).
The latter assumes the following categories:
• Vertical Walls
Offshore structures; Surf-zone structures; Seawalls
Nonbreaking or Breaking Waves
• Submerged Breakwater; the same divisions

Impervious Groynes

• Slope Revetments
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 275

v//;/;/;;;;;;/s'y;;;/;;;/;/////;;/;//;s//Mw;j>/y"s<'vssss""/"-;s'/7.v
Figure 4.29. Maximum Wave-Induced Pressure on Slope Revetment, in Soviet Standards SNiP
2.06.04.-82*.

An exampie is provided in Fig.4.29 which illustrates how the loading on slope

revetments differs from other approaches. The maximum pressure reads

Pm = k1k2k3'jH (4.64)

the ordinale z2 under pm being

z2 = A + tan 2 £(l - ^2cot2(3 + l)(A + B) (4.65)

for

(4.66)

b = #[0.95 - (OMcotfi - 0.25)— ] (4.67)

IJ

and z3 being found from wave runup formulae; with the following lengths
h = 0.0125Lr , l2 = 0.0325Lr, /3 = 0.0265L,., l4 = 0.0675L, in which Lr is a
runup-associated length given by

LT =lcot(j>(cot2(f>-l)-1/4 (4.68)

kr = 0.85 + 4.8— + cot/3(0.028 - 1.15^) (4.69)

-L LI

where
fc2, fc3, k4 = coefficients given in attached tables (App.4-1).
276 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Figure 4.30. Forces on Rock Placed on Slope.

The problem of the forces induced by waves breaking on a sloping surface is attrac-
tive scientifically and important practically. It has been dealt with recently within
PIANC Working Group 21, concerned about flexible revetments in the marine en-
vironment. Hexe are some highligths.
Regular waves, breaking on a slope excert cyclic hydraulic loads. On the basis
of physical model tests in wave tanks good knowledge has been acquired of the
relevant load phenomena within a wave cycle. For certain specific wave conditions
it has been possible to simulate the entire wave induced water motion with nu-
merical models. The practical use of these numerical models is still very limited.
Therefore, numerical stability calculations (e.g. STEENZET) completely relay on
the wave induced pressures on a slope that are measured in physical model tests.
Systematic studies have revealed that small scale tests are sufficiënt to measure the
relevant details of the water motion for slope renvetment stability analysis.
For different types of revetments, different moments or periods from the wave
cycle are decisive for the stability of the toplayer.
For rip-rap structures, the decisive combination of normal, Fn, and parallel forces,
Fp, is shown in Fig.4.30. It appears that the most dangerous combination of drag
and lift forces on the individual elements developes during the rundown of the
waves. For placed block revetments Den Boer (1983) analysed the wave- -induced
pressures on a slope and distinguished 8 types of resultant loads during one wave
cycle that can lead to failure of the toplayer (see Fig.4.31). Later investigations
in the large flume of DELFT HYDRAULICS (Burger 1983, 1984) have clearly
shown that the most critical failure mode for the toplayer is the uplifting and later
ejection of individual blocks are a result of the combination of relatively high water
pressures in the filter layer (internal load) and low water pressures on the outside
of the slope (external load).
It has become clear that the most critical resultant upward load occurs at the mo-
ment of maximum wave rundown at a position just above this level. This resultant
load is due to a combination of retarded drainage of the filter layer in combina-
tion with the phenomenon that the next wave approaching the slope influences
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 277

Figure 4.31. Revetment Subject to Breaking Wave.

the internal loads just a moment before the external loads are influenced. It is
this perception of loads on a block revetment that forms the basis of the proposed
design method (PIANC WG21)
. A lot of effort has been invested in numerical methods to describe and compute
the water motion under breaking waves on a slope. The main objective was to com-
pute the water motion for complex slope configurations, with berms and varying
slope angles, where empirical methods would fail. The most succesfull attempt has
been made by Klopman (1987, 1988) with a modification of the model proposed
by Vinje and Brevig (1981). Very succesfull simulations of the water motion have
been performed but further improvement of this method towards a versatile, reli-
able, predictive tooi, appeared to be unrealistic. For this reason this development
has been stopped in 1988.
At present, the most promising numerical method for the simulation of the com-
plicated water motion under breaking waves on a slope is the "Marker and Cell"
method. It will take at least a few years untill the development of this method can
give practically valuable results.
A much simple approach towards a computation of the relevant wave loads is to
abandon a full description of time and place dependent wave pressures on the
slope, but to concentrate only on the moment of critical wave loads. Tests have
shown that for placed block revetments the most critical load situation occurs at
278 Effecüveness ofcoastal defence measures

Figure 4.32. Critical Wave Position on Slope.

the moment of maximum wave rundown. Te Duits et al (1988) have indicated that
a sufficiënt description of the critical wave front is given by the parameters <f>b, fi
and ds as shown in Fig.4.32
. A thorough analysis of wave pressure measurements in a small scale model with
varying slopes between 1/2 < tana i 1/4 and varying wave steepness between
0.01 < H/L0 < 0.07 has led to the following predictive formulae for (j>b, 0 and ds:

tana
— = 0.36—7== for <37 (4.70)
H '
y/SJÜ

= 2.2 for tana (4.71)

>37
H T/L
0.17
tan/3 = (4.72)
JH/L0
tana tana
^ = -0.11(^1)« for <26 (4.73)
E H/L0'

ds tana
for >26 (4.74)

in which
H — incoming wave height (m)
L0 = deep water wave length ( = g.T2/(2ir)) (m)
T = wave period (s)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s 2 )
a = slope angle (ö)
<f>b, j3, ds = see Fig.4.32.
With these formulae the critical external wave loads on the slope can be calculated
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 279

with sufficiënt accuracy to perform as boundary conditions for the internal water
motion and pressures in the sublayers of the revetment structure.
Ice Loading
In addition to the ice effects assessed by the Soviet Standard attached in Appendix
4-1 it is worthwhile to examine the western procedure put forth in the aforesaid
PIANC WG21 document.
External ice loads on revetments may be divided into three classes:
I. Horizontal loads caused by sgtatic pressure or dynamic impact from moving ice
II. Vertical loads caused e.g. by tidal motion, or by ride up of ice
III. Thermal expansion forces.
Horizontal loads (class I ) are caused by surface drag from wind and currents,
and occur mainly at structures located on the leeward side of the ice sheet. Their
magnitude is limited by the following factors:
- the sum of drag force components acting in the direction of the structure
- the cfushing strength of ice (or structure) along the line of contact
- the flexural strength of ice in case of ride-up on a sloping structure
- friction and adfreeze strength between structure and ice
Vertical loads (class II) result when the ice is lifted or pushed above or beneath its
normal floating level. Their magnitude is limited by
- the dry weight of ice
- the buoyancy lift of submerged ice
- the flexural stiffness of the ice sheet
- adfreeze or friction between ice and structure
Thermal forces (class III) are mainly expansion type forces, since contraction usu-
ally results in cracks and moderate contraction pull. A special type are the forces
caused by the formation of ice in cavities and cracks within the structure.
Ice loads may be particularly serious to revetments, by first causing local defor-
mation of the cover layer or rearranging groups of cover elements, foliowed by
dislocation of the cover elements by the ice itself or by late wave action. Internal
damage to filter layers may also occur.
Ice loads depend largely on environmental parameters, e.g. air and water temper-
atures, radiation, water chemistry, waves and wind.
Empirical formulae, such as those given below, should be used with caution, but
will usually be sufficiënt for verification of the problem.
If preliminary investigations indicate that ice loads may be important for the sta-
bility of the structure, specialist's assistance is recommended.
Drag forces from wind and currents
Drag forces are calculated from the formula
280 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Fd = ƒ Apu2 (4.75)

in which
ƒ = skin friction factor (water/ice or air/ice)
A = area of ice sheet
p = density of fluid (water or air)
u = velocity of fluid (|vater or ice)
Where both wind and currents occur, calculation must be made for both, and the
resulting forces summed as vectors. Typical values of f are for smooth ice:
Wind drag :ƒ « 0.002
Water drag :ƒ « 0.005
For rough ice the f-values may be more than doubled. The velocities should be
referred to 1 m below the ice for current and 10 m above the ice for wind.
Fd may give the limitüig load for interaction from small ice areas.
Cnishing strength of ich
The crushing strength of ice may limit the ice loads, particularly on protruding
structures of limited size and having near vertical sea front. The crushing load on
a vertical structure reads

Fc = achlbk (4.76)

in which
ac = crushing strength
hi = ice thickness
b = with of contact zqne
k — 0.2 - 1.0, dependicig on structural geometry etc.
Typical field values for ac range from 1 to 3 MPa for ice near 0°C, rising with
decreasing ice temperature.
Ride-up forces on slopes
Fig.4.33 shows the general situation.
For 2-dimensional cases one has

Fh = bcrt(pwghl/E)l'ACi + zhlPlgbC2 (4.77)

in which
Fh = horizontal force,,
crf = flexural strength of ice (0.5 - 1.5 MPa)
pw = density of water
pi = density of ice (915 - 920kg/m3)
E = modulus of elasticity of ice (8,500 - 9,500 MPa)
z = maximum ride-up level or bank height,
hi = ice thickness
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 281

Figure 4.33. Ice on Sloping Surface.

b = width of contact zone

Ci and C2 are functions of slope and friction given in Fig.4.34 and Fig.4.35.
Figure 4.36 shows data for thick lake ice with af = 0.7 MPa. 1
For three-dimensional cases, the situation is more complicated.
Adfreeze Forces
If the ice in contact with a revetment remains stationary long enough for the ice to
freeze to the revetment elements, adfreeze forces will result whenever the ice sheet
starts to move again. The motion may be parallel to the slope due to dynamic ice
thrust, or vertical due to changes in the water level.
For certain types of sloping structures, the force required to break the adfreeze
bond can be greater than any other force on a single element, and therefore alone
represents the design condition for the structure.
Referring to Fig.4.37, the force Fha required to break the bond, for instance on an
element of width b will be

Fha = ^ (4.78)

where
hi = ice thickness,
a = slope angle
63 = adfreeze bond strength per unit area.

Little data is available on adfreeze strengths. Adhesion strengths published by

Michel (1970) are in the range 140 to 1050 kPa for fresh ice. Sackinger and
Sackinger (1977) have published adfreeze strengths for sea ice on steel. They
found that salinity and temperature affected adfreeze strengths. A maximum value
Figures 4.33...4.36 have been copied from Croasdale, 1980
282 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Figure 4.34. C\ versus Slope Angle and Friction Factor (left).

Figure 4.35. Ci versus Slope Angle and Friction Factor (right).

1 '

ï 800
: "V" i
^7• 0 0 k P < j /
h-lm J

—
y oJ
0 1 /

i i 1 1
40' 60" 60'
O.Slop* &oqt»

ht

Figure 4.36. Horizontal Ice-Induced Force versus Slope Angle and Friction Factor (left).
Figure 4.37. Adfreeze Bond (right).
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 283

of 1590 kPa was measured at a temperature of — 23° C for ice with a salinity of 0.4
parts per 1000.
Vertical f orces
For a vertical wall, the vertical up/down design load a solid ice cover will be the
minimum of the weight/buoyancy load due to the stiffness of the ice, given by

Fv = Pw9Azlb (4.79)

and the adfreeze bond load being

Fva = aMb (4.80)

in which
Az = vertical motion
/ = characteristic length of ice sheet = [12 pffi-^)]^ 4
v = Poisson's ratio (0.31 - 0.35).
During strong horizontal pressure against a vertical structure, vertical friction loads
may result from water level variations also when no adfreeze bonds are present:

Fvt = Fdn or F - cji (lowest value) (4-81)

where
fj. = friction factor (0.1 - 0.5)
If Fvf > Fva then Fvf should replace Fva in the above analysis.
Vertical ice loads on slopes may have different origin:
The weight of piles up ice above the water level may be significant, but depends
on local conditions.
Weight caused by the stiffness of the ice sheet during sinking water level can be
found by the formula for Fv ahove.
During rising water level, a lift force of magnitude Fv will appear only if the ice
sheet has points for upward attack on the slope.
Adfreeze forces may in some cases lift separate revetment elements out of their
position.
Thermal Forces
Thermal expansion of an ice sheet occurs mainly under two situations:
- rapidly rising air temperature
- snow fall on snow-free ice during low temperature.
In the latter case the snow will insulate against heat loss, and the average temper-
ature of the ice will approach the water temperature.
If free to expand, the linear expansion AL os given by

AL = ATaxL (4.82)
284 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

where
A T = average temperature change through the ice
o?! = linear expansion coëfficiënt £=: 5.10 -5 per °C
L = linear dimension of the ice sheet.
The linear expansion may cause ride up of similar effects as wind- or current-driven
ride up, but it is limited to the distance L each time. By repetition, considerable
pile up of ice on the shore may result during a season, however.
If prevented from expanding by solid structures on two sides, the ice will build
up pressure against its constraints. The magnitude of expansion thrust varies with
many factors, including the local topograph.
Reported values of maximum thrust are within the range 100 - 500 kN/m for 0.5 m
thick ice, increasing slowly for larger thickness. The thermal thrust will be quicklwy
reduced as soon as the structure yields.
Freezing of water between the elements of a structure causes expansion and may
gradually wedge the elements apart, finally leaving the elements free for dislocation
by waves etc.
Ice Load Codes and Other References
Various countrïes or institutions have established codes for predicting ice loads
on vertical structures. Similar codes for sloping structures are not known to be
available, with the only exception of the Soviet standards given in A p p e n d i x 4 - 1 .
The knowledge on ice is still developing. It is therefore recommended to consult
the most recent literature and handbooks.

4.3.3 Overall Stability of Structures

As pointed out throughout this document, an optimum structure should satisfy
simultaneously two requirements, i.e.
(1) offer favourable morphological effects and
(2) possess satisfactory stability and durability at possibly low cost.
The anticipated morphological effects include shape and volume of beach forms,
shoreline sinusoity, type of shore profile etc. or, most generally, long-term stability
of defended coast. This class of problems is very wide, and is treated elsewhere.
Attention in this Section is focused on the other aspect, i.e. stablity of coastal
structures and their units.
We have already identified the three classes of stability problems. For example, in
the case of a mound, the toe structure, the wave screen, the crown and inner slope
must also remain stable. Furthermore, the foundation must be able to carry all.
loads as well as provide protection against bottom material scour to avoid hazards
to the stability of the toe structure.
The overall stability of a structure can be exemplified by a vertical wall (Fig.4.38).
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 285
f B) Overturning

f=0;

(Al Slid.ne

c=0>
(O F - allure of Foundation

-i'lanar Slip

Figure 4.38. Modes of Overall Stability Loss for Vertical Breakwater.

One can see that the major, classical modes of overall stability encompass sliding,
overturning and slip of foundation.
All potential modes of the loss of overall stability are checked by reference to
Standard methods of mechanics and the strength of materials. For conservation
of overall stability one requires that respective passive forces and moments resist
the active counterparts arising due to the impact of the coastal environment. One
takes into account all possible effects, e.g. not only the wave-induced pressure but
also uplift forces (example in Fig.4.39), friction and shear, etc. Details are beyond
the scope of this document.
In the case of rubble mound, overall stability is mainly concerned with:
(1) Sliding of the armour layer as a whole or
(2) mass slides penetrating deeper in the mound;
(3) toe failure; and
(4) mass breakdown.
Sliding of the armour layer as a whole is usually a result of a lifting of the armour
decreasing or cancelling entirely the friction forces between the armour and the
first sublayer. The lifting may be a combination of forces by up- or downrushing
water, hydrostatic pressures from the water standing in the mound, which varies
highly with the permeability of core and sublayer materials. It is counteracted by
gravity including friction forces.
Mass departure of blocks from the armour layer by jumps and/or rollings may
take place as a result of such combined forces, which first force a single unit
out. Neighbouring units which are resting on (exert pressures on) said unit may
then start moving too in a kind of "attempt to close the gap". The result of such
movements will, however, in most cases not only be a "healing of the wound",
286 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures

Tolal l ' r e i s u r e Tolal Uplift

Figure 4.39. Example of Loading in Overall Stability Computations.

but a decrease of ties between blocks making them more vulnerable to extraction
by external forces. The departure of one unit may therefore be foliowed by the
departure of a great many other units.
Toe failure causing breakdown of the lower slope expanding upwards, causing a
mass failure of the armour. Such incident may start as a failure of the mattress
below the toe.
Toe failure is often hard to observe because a severe toe damage usually expands
upward in the mound leaving no direct evidence of its occurrence. The reason
for the failure is either scour by currents or by deep downrushes or by both.
Such scours may be prevented by a proper mattress, which could be built of rock,
willow (Holland) or of synthetic material, in all cases loaded down with rock. The
magnitude of the mattress depends on the local bottom condition. The softer the
bottom the larger and the stronger the mattress has to be. Model experiments may
be of guidance on design of a proper mattress.
Mass breakdown by heavy overwashes of the crown of the mound, peeling off layer
by layer, and washing most of the material down on the inside of the mound are
sometimes the reason for massive failure of mound breakwaters. It has been a
habit to save on materials in the crown and in the inside slope. This often proved
to be a poor practice. Storm waves are in most cases accompanied by high tides.
Together they cause high uprushes and possible overwashes, which could be fatal
to the breakwater if crown and inside slope blocks were too small. To improve
such situations, still using blocks of more modest size, grouting by asphalt may
be used, avoiding the rigidity of cement mortaring. Concrete caps on the top of
crown blocks sometimes failed due to uplift pressures. Vent holes may mitigate
the problem, but they are seldom kept clean and fail to work.

4.3.4 Stability of Units

GENERAL

The stability of units can be well illustrated by a rubble mound where it depends
heavily on gravity forces. The latter are exerted directly on the unit and by friction
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural design 287

forces from the neighboring units. Ability of units to stay in place depends highly
upon their geometry. For the same slope blocks may show a great variety in being
extracted by hydraulic forces, because their ability to "interknit" or "intertangle"
varies greatly. So do the "squeezing forces" by gravity depending upon friction
forces in all directions. While intertangling is "a geometrical condition" that does
not depend upon slope the squeezing forces are highly slope-dependent. One
may, therefore, present the stability in its single components as shown in Fig.
3.29 demonstrating schematically "the stability" as function of slope and the three
components of stability: gravity directly, squeezing and intertangling. Gravity is
responsible for squeezing by friction forces. Intertangling is a geometrical property.
The three components make up "the stability of the unit" disregarding all structural
aspects. Various block materials, however, have strongly varying characteristics.
The optimum stability slope, therefore of necessity will come out differently for
the three types of armour. It is in this respect interesting to note that Losada gives
the following optimum slope angles for these units:
Optimum Stability Slope
Type of Armour Unit cotaopt
rip-rap
quarry stones 5.00
parallelopipedic blocks 4.00 to 6.00
stabits 3.00 to 6.00
tetrapods 2.00 to 2.50
dolos 1.75 to 2.00
The hydraulic stability of revetment units depends not only on the slope angle a
but also on the friction and serration (intertangling) of the units. These effects are
outlined in Fig.4.40.
S t r u c t u r a l unit stability may be considered not only as the ability of the unit
to stay in place in the mound but as the structural stability of the unit, which must
not repute, crack or break under any load, static or dynamic or both, it will be
exposed to.
The forces working for stability of a unit include gravity forces, directly and by
friction. These forces may in blocks of special geometrical shape be assisted by
joining of blocks in an interknitting or intertangling making the armour a kind of
a "mattress". This, however, may be dangerous practice if the single elements (leg
or arm) of a block are not strong enough to resist the forces by pressure momen-
tum, shear or combined, which they are exposed to. The numerous failures of
breakwaters with armour of multilegged blocks have proven the inadequacy of the
structural stability of such blocks, which simply was not considered in the design.
STABILITY FORMULAE FOR UNITS

Most formulae in contemporary use have been based on the semi-empirical ap-
288 Effectiveness of coastal defence measures
ROCK

ctga:

CONCRETE
CU8E
Max

CQ

<
ctgoC

Max
__I___^

CONCRETE
SHAPE U. ^©
~—--^ . (3)

"\©
ctgc*
Figure 4.40. Hydraulic Stability of Rubble Mound, Kozakiewicz (1987)
1 = effect of weigth; 2 = friction between units; 3 — intertangling of units; a slope
angle
1PR

0 10 20 30 40 50 O^max Wegrees]
Figure 4.41. Steepest Allowable Slope of Mound, Walton and Weggel (1981).
 Ch.4: Geometrical and structural desigji 289

proach of Irribaren ("the first and probably the best" in Per Bruun's opinion).
Some of the versions have been presented for revetments in Subsec.4.2.3.
The weight W of a stable unit reads

W = CDPSH3
8(ps/p — 1)3(/^ cos a — sin a ) 3
in which

CD = drag coëfficiënt
H = friction factor, blocks versus mounds
a = slope angle of riprap facing offshore

Subsequent developments include primarily the Hudson formula

H
(KD cot a)1/3 (4.84)
(p,/p - l)Dn

in which
H = wave height
Dn = (Wso/psy^3 = nominal rubble diameter
KD= stability factor
G5Q = 50% value of the rubble mass distribution curve.
The distinction between the two formulae, Irribaren's and Hudson's, consists in KD
in the Hudson formula, which varies from 2.2 (nonuniform rubble) to 3.2 (roughly
equal size of rubble elements). In both approaches the incident wave is regular, at
right angle, nonbreaking and nonovertopping.
More recent modifications account for wave steepness, H/L; cf. Walton and Weggel
(1981) and Carver and Davidson (1982), wave period, cf. Pilarczyk (1985) and
wavelength, cf. Chen, Kao and Tang (1986).
Walton and Weggel (1981) based their considerations on the earlier findings of
Ahrens and McCartney, Thomsen, Bruun, Losada and others, and proposed the
following formula, which incorporates the effects of inertia, lift and drag, refiected
in the parameter of steepness:

N -ps-g-H3 • (l + ^-tan.9) sin3é\sin3é\

W = — ^ °2 1 ' ' (4.85)
Vpsjp — l ) ( t a n 0 c o s a — since) — CM • TT \T) COS^
in which
CL-, CD, CM = lift, drag, and added-mass coëfficiënt, respectively
9 = angle of internal friction
ij) = wave phase angle
 290 Effectiveness ofcoastal defence measwes

Ns= stability number.

The stability parametr N is linked with KD as follows
tan 6 cos a — sin a ,. „ „
KD = zz (4.86)
v
Nacota '
3
For typical values of ps = 2650kg/m , tanö = 1, maximum h/L = 0.05 and
Cm = 1-5 (for a hemisphere on a plane surface) one comes to the maximum stable
slope 1 : 1.5. Graphical representation of the stability is given in Fig.4.41.
Carver and Davidson (1982) emphasized the effect of wave breaking. Upon analysis
of doloses and rock units they postulated a fuctional (graphical) dependence of Ns
on relative wave height f, wave steepness H/L, Ursell number ^-, breakwater
slope angle a and shape of unit. They have concluded i.a.

a . Effects of H/d, LïH/d?, and H/L are more pronounced for dolos
armor.
b . In general, minimum stability for each armour type occured for
the larger values of H/h (H/h > 0.90), intermediate values of
H/L (0.06 < H/L < 0.085), and larger values of L2H/h3.
c . Linear Hudson-type data fits generally give a reasonable approxima-
tion of N3 as a function of cot a; however the influences of H/h, H/L
and L2H/h3 are strong enough to merit their consideration in final
selection of armour unit weight.
Pilarczyk (1983,1985), Meer & Pilarczyk (1987) and Van der Meer (1988) have se-
riously improved the Hudson formula by including the effect of irregular waves (see
TT

4.2.3). Aside from the controlling quantities identified earlier, such as > _\D ,
c o t a , - ^ (5=damage level, iV=number of waves) and porosity P, they also
singled out the important factor £* = j t a n a and formulated stability criteria for
a variety of designs and configurations such as slope revetment and breakwater
revetment, plunging and surging etc. Pilarczyk (1988) presented a comprehensive
summary of nis findings, from which excerpts are presented in 4.2.3.
The highest discrepancy between the theory and practice is observed if the Hud-
son method is applied to long waves, as noted by Chen, Kao and Tang (1986).
A unit which is stable under a short wave becomes unstable if the length of the
wave increases, for the same wave height. The method proposed by Chen, Kao
and Tang links the weight of units with wave length, so that the original method
by Irribarren becomes modified. Wave length is found to be more important than
wave steepness. Respective nomographs are shown in Fig.4.42.
Kobayashi-and Jacobs (1985) provide stability analysis with the effect of drag, lift