AERODYNAMICS

Aeronautical Engineering
School of Engineering
UPB
 PHILOSOPHY OF THE THEORETICAL
SOLUTIONS FOR LOW-SPEED FLOW OVER
AIRFOILS: THE VORTEX SHEET

Vortex sheet.

z
y
Individual vortex
filament. x

G → rotates clockwise  positive

Circulation ≈ Vortex filament strength.

 PHILOSOPHY OF THE THEORETICAL
SOLUTIONS FOR LOW-SPEED FLOW OVER
AIRFOILS: THE VORTEX SHEET
Vortex sheet. Velocity potential (f) – because V changes in the
z direction from a to b; hence, the vortex sheet's
y The velocity
𝛾𝑑𝑠 incremental velocities induced at point P by
at point P: 𝑑𝑉 = −
2𝜋𝑟 different sections must be added vectorially.
x 𝛾𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝜙 = − 𝜃
2𝜋
The velocity potential at P due to the entire vortex
sheet from a to b is:
1 𝑏
𝜙 𝑥, 𝑧 = − න 𝜃𝛾𝑑𝑠
2𝜋 𝑎
G around a point vortex is equal to the strength of
the vortex  the circulation around the vortex
sheet is the sum of the strengths of the elemental
vortices: 𝑏
g = g(s) strength of the vortex sheet per unit of length along s. Γ = න 𝛾𝑑𝑠
𝑎
P - point in the flow located at a distance r from ds.
 PHILOSOPHY OF THE THEORETICAL
SOLUTIONS FOR LOW-SPEED FLOW OVER
AIRFOILS: THE VORTEX SHEET
• Length – ds
• Height – dn
• u1 and u2 – velocity components tangential to the
Tangential velocity jumps top and bottom.
across a vortex sheet. • v1 and v2 – velocity components tangential to the
left and right sides.

𝛾𝑑𝑠 = 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 𝑑𝑠 + 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 𝑑𝑛
The circulation around the dashed path: If dn → 0  u1 and u2 become the velocity
Γ = − 𝑣2 𝑑𝑛 − 𝑢1 𝑑𝑠 − 𝑣1 𝑑𝑛 + 𝑢2 𝑑𝑠 components tangential to the vortex sheet
Γ = 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 𝑑𝑠 + 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 𝑑𝑛 immediately above and below the sheet:
The strength of the vortex sheet 𝛾𝑑𝑠 = 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 𝑑𝑠 ⇒ 𝛾 = 𝑢1 − 𝑢2
contained inside the dashed path is: This last equation means that the local jump in
Γ = 𝛾𝑑𝑠 tangential velocity across the vortex sheet equals the
local sheet strength.
 PHILOSOPHY OF THE THEORETICAL
SOLUTIONS FOR LOW-SPEED FLOW OVER
AIRFOILS: THE VORTEX SHEET
Simulation of an arbitrary
airfoil by distributing a vortex
sheet over the airfoil surface.

Applying the last results to an airfoil:

Vortex sheet → airfoil surface (streamline of the flow) Replacing the airfoil’s surface Mathematical
with a vortex sheet. device (tool)
Γ = න 𝛾𝑑𝑠

The resultant lift force per unit of span can be found by the In real life, there is a boundary layer – a thin layer of
use of the Kutta-Joukowski theorem: 𝐿′ = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ Γ highly viscous region in which the larger velocity
gradients produce substantial vorticity →   V is
No general analytical solution exists for g = g(s) applied to an finite within the BL.
arbitrary shape and thickness airfoil (need of a computer).
 PHILOSOPHY OF THE THEORETICAL
SOLUTIONS FOR LOW-SPEED FLOW OVER
AIRFOILS: THE VORTEX SHEET

Thin airfoil approximation.

“Zoom-out”
THE Kutta CONDITION
Effect of different values of circulation on the potential flow over a given
airfoil at a given AoA (Points 1 and 2 are stagnation points).
THE Kutta CONDITION
THE Kutta CONDITION

Different possible shapes of the T.E. and their relationship with the Kutta condition.
THE Kutta CONDITION
Different possible shapes of the T.E. and their relationship with the Kutta condition.

An additional condition
that fixes G for a given
airfoil at a given a.
𝛾 𝑇𝐸 = 𝛾 𝑎 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2

𝛾 𝑇𝐸 = 0 𝛾 𝑇𝐸 = 0

Statement of Kutta condition:

• For a given airfoil at a given AoA, the value of G around the airfoil is such that
the flow leaves the T.E. smoothly.
• If the T.E. angle is finite, then the T.E. is a stagnation point.
• If the T.E. is cusped, then the velocities leaving the top and bottom surfaces
at the T.E. are finite and equal in magnitude and direction.
KELVIN’S CIRCULATION THEOREM
AND THE STARTING VORTEX
Kelvin´s theorem.
KELVIN’S CIRCULATION THEOREM
AND THE STARTING VORTEX

The creation of the starting

vortex and the resulting
generation of circulation around
the airfoil.
 CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY (TAT):
THE SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL
The purpose is to calculate the variation
of g(s) such that:
Placement of the vortex 1. The camber line becomes a
sheet on the chord line. streamline of the flow.
2. The Kutta condition is satisfied at
the T.E. [g(TE) = 0].
Thin airfoils: can be
simulated by a vortex
sheet placed along the
camber line. Once the particular g(s) that satisfies the
two conditions is found, then the total
circulation (G) around the airfoil is found by
integrating g(s) from the L.E. to the T.E.
CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY (TAT):
THE SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL
Lift force per unit of span can be calculated from G via the
Kutta-Joukowski theorem: L’ = r∞V∞G

Having → g = g(s), then by the Kutta condition  g(c) = 0

The strength (g) of the vortex sheet on the chord line is

determined by the camber line being a streamline.

• V∞, n – component of the freestream velocity normal to the

camber line.

• w’(s) – component of the velocity normal to the chord line

induced by the vortex sheet. If the airfoil is thin, then the
camber line is close to the chord line: w’(s) ≈ w’(x)
CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY (TAT):
THE SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL
Determination of the component of freestream
velocity normal to the camber line. For the camber line to be a streamline: V∞, n + w’(s) = 0
at every point along the camber line.

At any point P where the slope of the camber line is

dz/dx, the geometry gives:

𝑑𝑧
𝑉∞,𝑛 = 𝑉∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
For a thin airfoil at small AoA, both a and tan-1(dz/dx) are
small values, then: for small q → sin q = 0; tan q = q [rad]

𝑑𝑧
𝑉∞,𝑛 = 𝑉∞ 𝛼−
𝑑𝑥
CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY (TAT):
THE SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL

It is desired now to calculate w(x) at the location x:

Calculation of the induced
velocity at the chord line.
Considering an elemental vortex of strength g(x) located
at a distance x from the origin along the chord line, g
varies with the distance along the chord: g = g(x)
𝛾 𝜉 𝑑𝜉
Velocity dw at point x: 𝑑𝑤 = −
2𝜋 𝑥 − 𝜉
𝑐
𝛾 𝜉 𝑑𝜉
𝑤 𝑥 = −න
0 2𝜋 𝑥 − 𝜉
 CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY (TAT):
THE SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL
Remembering that: V∞, n + w’(s) = 0
Calculation of the induced
velocity at the chord line.
𝑑𝑧
𝑉∞,𝑛 = 𝑉∞ 𝛼−
𝑑𝑥
𝑐
𝛾 𝜉 𝑑𝜉
𝑤 𝑥 = −න
0 2𝜋 𝑥 − 𝜉

𝑑𝑧 𝑐 𝛾 𝜉 𝑑𝜉
𝑉∞ 𝛼 − − ‫׬‬0 =0
𝑑𝑥 2𝜋 𝑥−𝜉

This equation is a representation of the camber line 𝑑𝑧 1 𝑐 𝛾 𝜉 𝑑𝜉

acting as a streamline of the flow. 𝑉∞ 𝛼− = න
𝑑𝑥 2𝜋 0 𝑥 − 𝜉
CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY (TAT):
THE SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL
For the symmetrical airfoils: dz/dx = 0
Calculation of the induced 0
velocity at the chord line. 𝑐
𝑑𝑧 1 𝛾 𝜉 𝑑𝜉
𝑉∞ 𝛼− = න
𝑑𝑥 2𝜋 0 𝑥 − 𝜉

1 𝑐 𝛾 𝜉 𝑑𝜉
𝑉∞ 𝛼 = න
2𝜋 0 𝑥 − 𝜉

This is the exact expression for the inviscid, incompressible

flow over a flat plate at a small AoA (for practical purposes
can be used for symmetrical airfoils).
CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY (TAT):
THE SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL
For the integral solution of the previous equation,
Calculation of the induced a transformation is used as a mathematical tool:
velocity at the chord line.
𝑐
𝜉= 1 − cos 𝜃
2
𝑐 1 𝑐 𝛾 𝜉 𝑑𝜉
𝑥 = 1 − cos 𝜃0 𝑉∞ 𝛼 = න
2 2𝜋 0 𝑥 − 𝜉
𝑐
𝑑𝜉 = sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃
2

1 𝜋 𝛾 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 θ = 0 − 𝐿𝐸: 𝜉 = 0
𝑉∞ 𝛼 = න for:
2𝜋 0 cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃0 θ = 𝜋 − 𝑇𝐸: 𝜉 = 𝑐
CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY (TAT):
THE SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL
Calculation of the induced 1 𝜋 𝛾 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
velocity at the chord line. 𝑉∞ 𝛼 = න
2𝜋 0 cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃0

The solution for the last equation is:

1 + cos 𝜃
𝛾 𝜃 = 2𝛼𝑉∞
sin 𝜃

Using L’Hospital’s rule in the last equation

(to satisfy the Kutta condition):

− sin 𝜋
𝛾 𝜋 = 2𝛼𝑉∞ =0
cos 𝜋
CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY (TAT):
THE SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL
Calculation of the induced Now, let’s calculate the cl for a thin, symmetric
velocity at the chord line. airfoil; the total circulation (G) around the airfoil is:
𝑐
Γ = න 𝛾 𝜉 𝑑𝜉
0
Transforming the last equation:
𝑐
𝜉 = 1 − cos 𝜃 𝑐 𝜋
2
𝑐 Γ = න 𝛾 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜉 = sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃 2 0
2

𝜋
1 + cos 𝜃
𝛾 𝜃 = 2𝛼𝑉∞ Γ = 𝛼𝑐𝑉∞ න 1 + cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜋𝛼𝑐𝑉∞
sin 𝜃 0
CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY (TAT):
THE SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL
Calculation of the induced Γ = 𝜋𝛼𝑐𝑉∞
velocity at the chord line.
Recalling the Kutta-Joukowski theorem, the lift per
unit of span is:
𝐿′ = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ Γ = 𝜋𝛼𝑐𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2
𝐿′
𝑐𝑙 =
Knowing that: 𝑞∞ 𝑆
𝑆=𝑐 1

𝜋𝛼𝑐𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2
𝑐𝑙 =
1
𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑐 1
2
𝑑𝑐𝑙
𝑐𝑙 = 2𝜋𝛼 Lift slope: 𝑎0 = = 𝑐𝑙𝛼 = 2𝜋 1ൗ𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑑𝛼
 CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY (TAT):
THE SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL

𝑐𝑙 = 2𝜋𝛼

Comparison between theory and experimentation for

the lift and moment coefficient for a NACA 0012 airfoil.
CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY (TAT):
THE SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL
Considering an elemental vortex of strength g(x)dx located
Calculation of moments
at a distance x from the LE, and remembering the
about the L.E.
circulation:
𝑑Γ = 𝛾 𝜉 𝑑𝜉
dL contributed by the elemental vortex: 𝑑𝐿 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑑Γ
dL creates a moment about LE: 𝑑𝑀 = −𝜉 𝑑𝐿
𝑐 𝑐
𝑀′𝐿𝐸 = − න 𝜉 𝑑𝐿 = − 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ න 𝜉𝛾 𝜉 𝑑𝜉
0 0
Transforming the last equation:
𝑐
𝜉 = 1 − cos 𝜃
2 𝜋𝛼 2
𝑐 𝑀′𝐿𝐸 = −𝑞∞ 𝑐
𝑑𝜉 = sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃 2
2
CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY (TAT):
THE SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL
Knowing that the moment coefficient is:
Calculation of moments
about the L.E. 𝑀′𝐿𝐸
𝑐𝑚,𝐿𝐸 = where S = c(1); then:
𝑞∞ 𝑆𝑐
𝑀′𝐿𝐸 𝜋𝛼
𝑐𝑚,𝐿𝐸 = 2
=−
𝑞∞ 𝑐 2
𝑐𝑙
From previous results we know that: 𝑐𝑙 = 2𝜋𝛼 𝜋𝛼 =
2
𝜋𝛼 𝑐𝑙
𝑐𝑚,𝐿𝐸 = − =−
2 4
𝑐𝑙
𝑐𝑚,𝑐ൗ = 𝑐𝑚,𝐿𝐸 + = 0
4 4
 CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY (TAT):
THE SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL
Comparison between theory and experimentation for
the lift and moment coefficient for a NACA 0012 airfoil.
Summary: 𝑐𝑙 = 2𝜋𝛼
TAT’s essence is finding a distribution vortex sheet
strength along the chord line that will make the camber 𝑐𝑙
line streamline the flow while satisfying the Kutta 𝑐𝑚,𝑐ൗ = 𝑐𝑚,𝐿𝐸 + =0
4 4
condition [g(TE) = 0].
𝑐𝑙 = 2𝜋𝛼
𝑑𝑐𝑙
𝑎0 = = 𝑐𝑙𝛼 = 2𝜋 1ൗ𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑑𝛼
𝑐𝑙
𝑐𝑚,𝑐ൗ = 𝑐𝑚,𝐿𝐸 + =0
4 4

xcp and xac are both located at c/4

CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY (TAT):
THE SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL
Example – Consider a thin flat plate at an AoA of 5°. Applying Thin airfoil theory
for symmetrical airfoils calculate:

1. cl
2. cm,LE
3. cm,c/4
4. cm,TE
CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY (TAT):
THE SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL
Example – Consider a thin flat plate at an AoA of 5°. Applying Thin airfoil theory
for symmetrical airfoils calculate:
From TAT: 𝑐𝑙 = 2𝜋𝛼
1. cl 𝜋
2. cm,LE 𝛼=5 = 0.0873 𝑟𝑎𝑑
180
3. cm,c/4
4. cm,TE 𝑐𝑙 = 2𝜋 0.0873 = 0.5485

𝑐𝑙 0.5485
𝑐𝑚,𝐿𝐸 = − =−
4 4

𝑐𝑚,𝐿𝐸 = −0.137

𝑐𝑚,𝑐/4 = 0
CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY (TAT):
THE SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL
Example – Consider a thin flat plate at an AoA of 5°. Applying Thin airfoil theory
for symmetrical airfoils calculate:
3
′
The moment about the trailing edge is: 𝑀𝑇𝐸 = 𝑐 𝐿′ + 𝑀𝑐′ൗ
1. cl 4 4
2. cm,LE
3. cm,c/4 ′
𝑀𝑇𝐸 3 𝐿′ 𝑀𝑐′ൗ 3 0
4
4. cm,TE 𝑐𝑚,𝑇𝐸 = = 𝑐 + = 𝑐 + 𝑐
3 𝑞∞ 𝑐 2 4 𝑞∞ 𝑐 2 𝑞∞ 𝑐 2 4 𝑙 𝑚,𝑐/4

𝑎= 𝑐 cos 𝛼
4
3 3
𝑐𝑚,𝑇𝐸 = 𝑐𝑙 = 0.5485
4 4

𝑐𝑚,𝑇𝐸 = 0.4113
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL
Placement of the vortex sheet on the chord line
Remembering that:

𝑑𝑧 1 𝑐 𝛾 𝜉 𝑑𝜉
𝑉∞ 𝛼− = න
𝑑𝑥 2𝜋 0 𝑥 − 𝜉

Transforming the last equation:

𝑐
𝜉 = 1 − cos 𝜃
2
𝑐 𝑑𝑧 1 𝜋 𝛾 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑥 = 1 − cos 𝜃0 𝑉∞ 𝛼− = න
2 𝑑𝑥 2𝜋 0 cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃0
𝑐
𝑑𝜉 = sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃
2
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL
𝑑𝑧 1 𝜋 𝛾 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
The idea is to obtain a solution for the equation: 𝑉∞ 𝛼− = න Kutta condition: g(p) = 0
𝑑𝑥 2𝜋 0 cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃0

The solution for g(q) will make the camber line a streamline of the flow; for this, the Fourier sine series solution is applied:
∞
1 + cos 𝜃
𝛾 𝜃 = 2𝑉∞ 𝐴0 + ෍ 𝐴𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃
sin 𝜃
𝑛=1

Coefficients A0, and (1, 2, 3, …, n) must be specific values in order for the camber line
to represent a streamline of the flow: Fourier sine series coefficients:
• An: dependent only on the shape
of the camber line dz/dx
• A0: depends on both dz/dx and a
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL
Placement of the vortex sheet on the chord line.
To find the Fourier sine series coefficients substitutes:
∞
1 + cos 𝜃
𝛾 𝜃 = 2𝑉∞ 𝐴0 + ෍ 𝐴𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃
sin 𝜃
𝑛=1

𝑑𝑧 1 𝜋 𝛾 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
into: 𝑉∞ 𝛼− = න
𝑑𝑥 2𝜋 0 cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃0
To obtain:
∞
1 𝜋 𝐴0 1 + cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 1 𝜋
𝐴𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃 sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑧
න + ෍න =𝛼−
𝜋 0 cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃0 𝜋 0 cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃0 𝑑𝑥
𝑛=1

Solution Solution
𝜋 𝜋
cos 𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝜋 sin 𝑛𝜃 sin 𝑛𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
න = න = −𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜃0
0 cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃0 sin 𝜃0 0 cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃0
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL
Placement of the vortex sheet on the chord line.
𝜋 𝜋 ∞
1 𝐴0 1 + cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 1 𝐴𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃 sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑧
න + ෍න =𝛼−
𝜋 0 cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃0 𝜋 0 cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃0 𝑑𝑥
𝑛=1

Solution Solution
𝜋 𝜋
cos 𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝜋 sin 𝑛𝜃 sin 𝑛𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
න = න = −𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜃0
0 cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃0 sin 𝜃0 0 cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃0

Solving the last equation, it is obtained that:

∞
𝑑𝑧
𝐴0 − ෍ 𝐴𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃0 = 𝛼 −
𝑑𝑥
𝑛=1
∞
𝑑𝑧
or rearranging: = 𝛼 − 𝐴0 + ෍ 𝐴𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃0
𝑑𝑥
𝑛=1
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL
Placement of the vortex sheet on the chord line. ∞
𝑑𝑧
= 𝛼 − 𝐴0 + ෍ 𝐴𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃0
𝑑𝑥
𝑛=1

This equation is evaluated at a given point x; along the airfoil’s

chord. Here dz/dx and q0 correspond to the same point on the
chord line.

Applying the expansion form for the Fourier cosine series:

1 𝜋 𝑑𝑧 1 𝜋 𝑑𝑧
𝛼 − 𝐴0 = න 𝑑𝜃0 → 𝐴0 = 𝛼 − න 𝑑𝜃0
𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥 𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥

2 𝜋 𝑑𝑧
𝐴𝑛 = න cos 𝑛𝜃0 𝑑𝜃0
𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL ∞
Placement of the vortex sheet on the chord line. 1 + cos 𝜃
𝛾 𝜃 = 2𝑉∞ 𝐴0 + ෍ 𝐴𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃
sin 𝜃
𝑛=1

∞
𝑑𝑧
= 𝛼 − 𝐴0 + ෍ 𝐴𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃0
𝑑𝑥
𝑛=1

1 𝜋 𝑑𝑧 A0: depends on both

𝐴0 = 𝛼 − න 𝑑𝜃0 dz/dx and a
𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥
2 𝜋 𝑑𝑧 An: dependent only
𝐴𝑛 = න cos 𝑛𝜃0 𝑑𝜃0 on the shape of the
𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥 camber line dz/dx
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL
Placement of the vortex sheet on the chord line.
Obtaining expressions for the aerodynamic coefficients:

The total G due to the entire vortex sheet from the L.E. to the T.E. is:
𝑐
𝑐 𝜋
Γ = න 𝛾 𝜉 𝑑𝜉 = න 𝛾 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0 2 0

∞
1 + cos 𝜃
Now, if: 𝛾 𝜃 = 2𝑉∞ 𝐴0 + ෍ 𝐴𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃
sin 𝜃
𝑛=1

𝜋 ∞ 𝜋
Then: Γ = 𝑐𝑉∞ 𝐴0 න 1 + cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + ෍ 𝐴𝑛 න sin 𝑛𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0 𝑛=1 0
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL
Placement of the vortex sheet on the chord line.
Obtaining expressions for the aerodynamic coefficients:

Solving the integrals inside the equation:

𝜋 ∞ 𝜋
Γ = 𝑐𝑉∞ 𝐴0 න 1 + cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + ෍ 𝐴𝑛 න sin 𝑛𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0 𝑛=1 0

𝜋
න 1 + cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜋
0
𝜋
𝜋 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1
න sin 𝑛𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 2
0
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 1

𝜋
Γ = 𝑐𝑉∞ 𝜋𝐴0 + 𝐴1
2
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL
Placement of the vortex sheet on the chord line.
Obtaining expressions for the aerodynamic coefficients:

Recalling the Kutta-Joukowski theorem, the lift per unit of span is:
𝐿′ = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ Γ
𝜋
Replacing G: Γ = 𝑐𝑉∞ 𝜋𝐴0 + 𝐴1
2
Lift force per unit of span:
𝜋
𝐿′ = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ Γ = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑐 𝜋𝐴0 + 𝐴1
2
In the coefficient form:
𝜋
𝐿′ 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑐 𝜋𝐴0 + 𝐴1
𝑐𝑙 = = 2 = 𝜋 2𝐴0 + 𝐴1
𝑞∞ 𝑆 1
𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑐 1
2
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL
Placement of the vortex sheet on the chord line.
Obtaining expressions for the aerodynamic coefficients:

Lift coefficient (airfoil):

Replacing the Fourier series coefficients:

1 𝜋 𝑑𝑧
𝐴0 = 𝛼 − න 𝑑𝜃 A0: depends on both dz/dx and a
𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥 0
2 𝜋 𝑑𝑧 An: dependent only on the
𝐴𝑛 = න cos 𝑛𝜃0 𝑑𝜃0
𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥 shape of the camber line dz/dx

Then:
1 𝜋 𝑑𝑧 2 𝜋 𝑑𝑧
𝑐𝑙 = 𝜋 2𝐴0 + 𝐴1 =𝜋 2 𝛼− න 𝑑𝜃0 + න cos 𝑛𝜃0 𝑑𝜃0
𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥 𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL
Placement of the vortex sheet on the chord line.
Obtaining expressions for the aerodynamic coefficients:

The lift coefficient (airfoil):

1 𝜋 𝑑𝑧 2 𝜋 𝑑𝑧
𝑐𝑙 = 𝜋 2𝐴0 + 𝐴1 =𝜋 2 𝛼− න 𝑑𝜃0 + න cos 𝑛𝜃0 𝑑𝜃0
𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥 𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥
Operating this last equation, it gives:
1 𝜋 𝑑𝑧
𝑐𝑙 = 2𝜋 𝛼 + න cos 𝜃0 − 1 𝑑𝜃0
𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑐𝑙
𝑎0 = = 𝑐𝑙𝛼 = 2𝜋 1ൗ𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑙 = 𝑎0 𝛼 − 𝛼0
𝑑𝛼
1 𝜋 𝑑𝑧 The more highly cambered the airfoil, the
𝛼0 = 𝛼𝐿=0 =− න cos 𝜃0 − 1 𝑑𝜃 larger will be the absolute magnitude of a0.
𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL
∞
1 + cos 𝜃
Substituting: 𝛾 𝜃 = 2𝑉∞ 𝐴0
sin 𝜃
+ ෍ 𝐴𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃
Calculation of moments about the L.E. 𝑐 𝑐 𝑛=1
Into: 𝑀′𝐿𝐸 = − න 𝜉 𝑑𝐿 = − 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ න 𝜉𝛾 𝜉 𝑑𝜉
0 0

Replacing, integrating, and normalizing the last equation, the

result is: 𝜋 𝐴2
𝑐𝑚, 𝐿𝐸 = − 𝐴 + 𝐴1 −
2 0 2
Recalling that: 𝑐𝑙 = 𝜋 2𝐴0 + 𝐴1
𝑐𝑙 𝜋
Then: 𝑐𝑚, 𝐿𝐸 =− + 𝐴 − 𝐴2
4 4 1

𝑑𝑧
For: = 0 → 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 0 symmetrical airfoil solution.
𝑑𝑥
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL
Calculation of moments about the L.E. 𝑐𝑙 𝜋 Finite for
𝑐𝑚,𝑐ൗ = 𝑐𝑚,𝐿𝐸 + 𝑐𝑚,𝑐ൗ = 𝐴2 − 𝐴1 cambered airfoils.
4 4 4 4

If cm,c/4 is finite for a cambered airfoil; then it can be said that the
c/4 location is not the center of pressure for a cambered airfoil.

A1, and A2: dependent

only on the shape of cm,c/4 is dependent only of a
the camber line dz/dx

c/4 is the theoretical location of the a.c. for a cambered airfoil.

 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL
Calculation of moments about the L.E. The theoretical location of the c.p. for an asymmetrical airfoil will be:

𝑀′ 𝐿𝐸 𝑐𝑚,𝐿𝐸 ∙ 𝑐 𝑐 𝜋
𝑥𝑐𝑝 =− ′ =− = 1+ 𝐴 − 𝐴2
𝐿 𝑐𝑙 4 𝑐𝑙 1

The last equation demonstrates that xcp for a cambered

airfoil varies with cl; hence, as a changes, xcp also changes.

As L’ approaches to zero, xcp moves forward infinity.

xcp is not a reference at which to draw the force system

on an airfoil; instead, the force and moment system is
more conventionally considered at the xac.
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL
Example – NACA 23012 airfoil mean camber line is given by:
𝑧 𝑥 3 𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑥
= 2.6595 − 0.6075 + 0.1147 ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ ≤ 0.2025
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
Mean Camber Line
(MCL)
𝑧 𝑥 𝑥
= 0.02208 1 − ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0.2025 ≤ ≤ 1.0
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
Calculate: 𝑧Τ
𝑐
0,1

1. aL=0 0,05

2. cl @ a = 4° 0
𝑥Τ
𝑐
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4 0,45 0,5 0,55 0,6 0,65 0,7 0,75 0,8 0,85 0,9 0,95 1
3. cm,c/4
4. xcp /c @ a = 4°

Compare and validate the results with experimental data.

 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL 0,1
Example – NACA 23012. 0
Solution point 1.: aL=0 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

We will need dz/dx; from the given shape of the MCL, this is:

𝑧 𝑥 3 𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑥
= 2.6595 − 0.6075 + 0.1147 ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ ≤ 0.2025
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
Fore part of MCL
𝑑𝑧 𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑥
= 2.6595 3 − 1.215 + 0.1147 ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ ≤ 0.2025
𝑑𝑥 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

𝑧 𝑥 𝑥
= 0.02208 1 − ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0.2025 ≤ ≤ 1.0
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
Aft part of MCL
𝑑𝑧 𝑥
= −0.02208; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0.2025 ≤ ≤ 1.0
𝑑𝑥 𝑐
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL 0,1
Example – NACA 23012. 0
Solution point 1.: aL=0 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1
1
𝑐 𝑥 1 0.2025 = 1 − cos 𝜃
2
Transforming from x to q, where: 𝑥 = 1 − cos 𝜃 ⇒ = 1 − cos 𝜃
𝜃 = cos−1 1 − 2 0.2025
2 𝑐 2
2 𝜃 ≈ 0.9335 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑑𝑧 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
= 2.6595 3 − 1.215 + 0.1147 ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ ≤ 0.2025
𝑑𝑥 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝑑𝑧 3
Fore part of MCL = 2.6595 1 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 0.6075 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 0.1147 ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 0.9335 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑑𝑥 4
𝑑𝑧
= 0.684 − 2.3736 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 1.995 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 0.9335 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑧 𝑥
= −0.02208; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0.2025 ≤ ≤ 1.0
𝑑𝑥 𝑐
Aft part of MCL
𝑑𝑧
= −0.02208; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0.9335 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑑𝑥
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL 0,1
Example – NACA 23012. 0
Solution point 1.: aL=0 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

Solving: Fore part of MCL Aft part of MCL

𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
= 0.684 − 2.3736 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 1.995 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 0.9335 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = −0.02208; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0.9335 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝜋 𝑑𝑧
𝛼𝐿=0 =− න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 1 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥

Substituting the equation for dz/dx into the last equation:

1 0.9335 2
1 𝜋
𝛼𝐿=0 =− න 0.684 − 2.3736 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 1.995 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 1 𝑑𝜃 − න −0.02208 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 1 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 0 𝜋 0.9335

1 0.9335 1 𝜋
𝛼𝐿=0 =− න −0.684 + 3.0576 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 4.368 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 1.995 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 − න 0.02208 − 0.02208 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 0 𝜋 0.9335
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL 0,1
Example – NACA 23012. 0
Solution point 1.: aL=0 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

1 0.9335 1 𝜋
𝛼𝐿=0 =− න −0.684 + 3.0576 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 4.368 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 1.995 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 − න 0.02208 − 0.02208 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 0 𝜋 0.9335
න𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

1 𝜃
Solution for the integrals: න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 +
2 2
1
න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 2
3

1 0.9335
1
𝛼𝐿=0 = − −2.8683𝜃 + 3.0576 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 2.1843 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 0.665 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 2 0 − 0.02208𝜃 − 0.02208 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜋
0.9335
𝜋 𝜋

1
𝛼𝐿=0 = − −0.0065 + 0.0665 = −0.0191 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜋

𝛼𝐿=0 = −0.0191 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = −1.09°

 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL 0,1
Example – NACA 23012. 0
Solution point 2.: cl @ a = 4° 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

For a = 4 [deg] = 0.0698 [rad], the value of the lift coefficient can be calculated as follows:

𝑑𝑐𝑙
= 𝑐𝑙𝛼 = 𝑎0 = 2𝜋 1ൗ𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑑𝛼

𝛼𝐿=0 = −0.0191 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = −1.09°

𝑐𝑙 = 𝑎0 𝛼 − 𝛼0 = 2𝜋 0.0698 − −0.0191

𝑐𝑙 = 0.559
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL 0,1
Example – NACA 23012. 0
Solution point 3.: cm,c/4 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

2 𝜋 𝑑𝑧
𝐴1 = න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥
The value of cm,c/4 is obtained using the following equation: 𝑐𝑚,𝑐Τ4 = 𝐴2 − 𝐴1 2 𝜋 𝑑𝑧 2 𝜋 𝑑𝑧
4 𝐴2 = න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = න 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥 𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥
Solving for A1:

2 0.9335 2 3
2 𝜋
𝐴1 = න 0.684 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 2.3736 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 1.995 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + න −0.02208 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 0 𝜋 0.9335

2 0.9335
2 𝜋
𝐴1 = 0.684 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 1.1868 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 1.1868𝜃 + 0.665 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 2 0 + −0.02208 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 0.9335
𝜋 𝜋

2
𝐴1 = 0.1322 + 0.0177 = 0.0954
𝜋
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL 0,1
Example – NACA 23012. 0
Solution point 3.: cm,c/4 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

2 𝜋 𝑑𝑧
𝐴1 = න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥
The value of cm,c/4 is obtained using the following equation: 𝑐𝑚,𝑐Τ4 = 𝐴2 − 𝐴1 2 𝜋 𝑑𝑧 2 𝜋 𝑑𝑧
4 𝐴2 = න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = න 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥 𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥
Solving for A2:
2 0.9335 2 𝜋
𝐴2 = න −0.684 + 2.3736 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 0.627 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 4.747 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 + 3.99 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + න 0.02208 − 0.0446 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 0 𝜋 0.9335

1 3
Integral solution for: න𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 𝑑 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝜃
4 8

0.9335 𝜋
2 1 1 1 3 2 1
𝐴2 = ቐ−0.684𝜃 − 0.0446 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝜃 − 4.747 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 2 +3.99 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝜃 ቋ + 0.02208𝜃 − 0.0446 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝜃
𝜋 2 3 4 8 0
𝜋 2 0.9335

2
𝐴2 = 0.11384 + 0.01056 = 0.0792
𝜋
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL 0,1
Example – NACA 23012. 0
Solution point 3.: cm,c/4 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

2 𝜋 𝑑𝑧
𝐴1 = න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥
The value of cm,c/4 is obtained using the following equation: 𝑐𝑚,𝑐Τ4 = 𝐴2 − 𝐴1 2 𝜋 𝑑𝑧 2 𝜋 𝑑𝑧
4 𝐴2 = න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = න 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥 𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥

𝐴1 = 0.0954 This figure shows an example of the moment at the

𝐴2 = 0.0792 c/4 exerted in an airfoil:

With the values of these two Fourier sine series coefficients, the value
of cm,c/4 can be obtained:

𝜋 𝜋
𝑐𝑚,𝑐Τ4 = 𝐴2 − 𝐴1 = 0.0792 − 0.0954 = −0.0127
4 4
 THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL 0,1
Example – NACA 23012. 0
Solution point 4.: xcp /c @ a = 4° 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

𝑥𝑐𝑝
𝑐

𝑐 𝜋 𝑥𝑐𝑝 1 𝜋
Using the equation: 𝑥𝑐𝑝 = 1+ 𝐴 − 𝐴2 ⟹ = 1+ 𝐴 − 𝐴2
4 𝑐𝑙 1 𝑐 4 𝑐𝑙 1

𝑐𝑙 = 0.559
𝑥𝑐𝑝 1 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝐴1 = 0.0954 = 1+ 𝐴 − 𝐴2 = 1+ 0.0954 − 0.0792
𝑐 4 𝑐𝑙 1 4 0.559
𝐴2 = 0.0792

𝑥𝑐𝑝
= 0.237 = 23.7%
𝑐
 THE CAMBERED 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = 4° ⇒ ቊ𝑐
𝑐𝑙 = 0.55
𝑚,𝑐/4 = −0.0122

AIRFOIL 𝛼𝐿=0 = −1.1°

Lift and moment coefficients data for a NACA 23012

airfoil (from NACA report 824).

Comparison between calculated results

with the experimental data:
Parameter Calculated TAT Experiment Error %
aL=0 -1.09° -1.1° 0.91
cl, @a = 4° 0.559 0.55 1.64
cm,c/4 -0.0127 -0.0122 4.10

Analysis: The results from TAT for a cambered airfoil agree very well with
the experimental data; this illustrates that the development of TAT in the
early 1900s was a crowning achievement in theoretical aerodynamics and
validates the mathematical approach of replacing the chord line of the
airfoil with a vortex sheet, with the flow tangency condition evaluated
along the mean camber line.
THE CAMBERED AIRFOIL
Exercise – NACA 2412 airfoil - establish the equations for the mean camber line (z/c).

𝑧Τ
𝑐

𝑥Τ
𝑐

Then, calculate:

1. aL=0
2. cl @ a = 2°
3. Construct the graph of cl vs. a for a range of AoA from -16° to +16°.
4. cm,c/4
5. xcp/c @ for a range of AoA from -16° to +16°.

Compare and validate the results of TAT with experimental data (NACA report).