SCHOOL OF NURSING

Manila Adventist College

Modules on

Nursing Research 1

Prepared by:

Ryan Ray M. Mata

Course Facilitator

All Rights Reserved. No part of this presentation may be reproduced, stored

or transmitted in any form without the prior written permission of the holder.

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Introduction to Nursing Research

Research
• Etymology: Old French term re – “again” ; serche / ceirsher – “to search”

• To search again or to examine carefully

• A diligent, systematic inquiry or study that validates and refines existing

knowledge and develops new knowledge

• Scientific investigation of phenomena which includes collection, presentation,

analysis and interpretation of facts that lines an individual’s speculation with
reality

• A process of executing various mental acts for discovering and examining facts
and information to prove accuracy or truthfulness of a claims or conclusions
about the topic of research

Nursing Research
• Scientific process that validates and refines existing knowledge and generates
new knowledge that directly and indirectly influences the delivery of evidence-
based nursing (Barcelo, 2018).

“Thus says the Lord who made the earth, the Lord who formed it to establish it –
the Lord is His name: Call to me and I will answer you, and will tell you great and
hidden things that you have not known.” Jeremiah 33: 2-3

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Topic One: Significance and Purposes

• Promoting health, well-being, and competency for personal care among all age
groups;
• Preventing health problems throughout the life span that have the potential to
reduce productivity and satisfaction;
• Decreasing the negative impact of health problems on coping abilities,
productivity, and life satisfaction of individuals and families;
• Ensuring that the care needs of particularly vulnerable groups are met through
appropriate strategies;
• Designing and developing health care systems that are cost-effective in
meeting the nursing needs of the population.

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Topic Two: Methodological Foundation

Quantitative
• Formal, objective, systematic methodology that counts or measures to
(1) describe variables,
(2) test relationships between them, and
(3) examine cause-and-effect interaction among variables (Barcelo, 2018).

Qualitative
• Rigorous, scholarly, interactive, holistic, subjective research approach used to
describe life experiences, cultures, and social processes from the perspectives
of the persons involved (Barcelo, 2018)

Mixed Methods
• Combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods

Comparison of Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

Table 1

Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative research

Characteristic Quantitative Qualitative

Focus Narrow and specific Holistic and general

Ex. Academic stress of Ex. Lives of ABM students

Senior High School during Immersion
Students

Research question Precisely worded Broadly worded

Ex. What is the level/ Ex. What are the lived

extent/degree of academic experiences of ABM
stress of senior high school students during immersion?
students

Type of evidence Objective Subjective

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Belief about reality Social world is similar to Social world can only be
& research activity other sciences and open to known through an
measurement by the individual’s experience and
researcher understanding to it

Reality is out there and Reality is inside all of us

objective
Researcher’s Detach More equal and reciprocal
relationship to relationship
subjects

Review of the Critical to the development Used to provide a broad

literature of the process picture, but often used to
support findings

Planning Carried out in depth High level of planning

avoided so as to reduce
preconceived ideas about
the nature of the topic

Data collection tool Emphasis on accuracy and Tool is used flexibly and
consistency to ensure continually developing, it is
reliability and validity impossible to pilot to
determine consistency and
accuracy

Sample size Large numbers to reduce Small numbers but

bias and allow statistical appropriate experience
procedures explored

Sample referred to
as Subjects Informants

Analytical approach
Deductive Inductive

Data Numerical Words

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Data gathering Extensive to gain maximum Intensive to gain maximum

coverage depth and rich, “thick” data

Product of data
analysis Results Findings

Generalizability High level achieved Low level achieved

Ethical concern High, particularly where and High, harm is concerned
intervention is invasive with psychological and
social elements and the
protection of human dignity

Methodological Reliability, validity and bias Trustworthiness, in the form

concerns of credibility, dependability,
confirmability and
transferability

Emphasis on rigor High High

Application to Highly rated, notably in the Presently low acceptability,

evidence-based form of RCT’s increasing emphasis on use
practice views and experiences may
change this

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Topic Three: Level of Evidences

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Topic Four: Phases of the Nursing Research Process

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PHASE ONE: Conceptual Phase

Topic One: Identifying a research problem

Literature Review
-Sources of Data
-Search Engines
-Uses of Software
-Proper Citation (I.E. APA)

Observations and Experiences

Significance of the study/ Social Value

PKUP Framework

Problem
• Refers to the dependent/ outcome variable
• It is the seriousness or magnitude of the problem – presented by statistical
data/ prevalence/ incidence
– Global scenario
– National scenario
– Local scenario (pertaining to the school/ community/ organization/
institution itself)

Known
• It defines or clarifies the terms/ variables/ phenomenon used in the study –
taken from the review of related theories, conceptual literature, and research
literature

Unknown
• It defines or clarifies the terms/ variables/ phenomenon used in the study –
taken from the review of related theories, conceptual literature, and research
literature

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• Use the following statements but not limited to the following to express
research gaps:
– “The problem is that….”
– “Little research is available today about….”
– “Little is known about….”
– “Available research has failed to….”
– “No study has been found that has….”

Purpose
• Refers to the purpose or reason to conduct the/ of the present study
• Sample phrases that help express the statement of the problem:
– “The main purpose of this study….”
– “The aim of this study….”
– “The main thrust of this study….”
– “The goal of this study….”
– “The main objective of this study….”
– “This study aims….”

“I directed my mind to know, to investigate and to seek wisdom

and an explanation, and to know the evil of folly and the
foolishness of madness.” Ecclesiastes 7:25

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Topic Two: Identifying framework to be used in the study (Theoretical and

Conceptual)

Anatomy of a Theory

Theory
• Derived from the Greek word, theoria, which means “vision”

• Integrated set of DEFINED CONCEPTS and STATEMENTS that present a view

of a phenomenon and can be used to DESCRIBE, EXPLAIN, PREDICT, and
CONTROL that phenomenon

Types:
Concrete
• Realities or actual instances

Abstract
• Focuses on more general things

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Samples:

Abstract Concrete
Pain Acute, sharp penetrating sensation in the
Health lower right abdominal pain
Grief
Coping

Concept
• Abstractly describes and names an object, idea, or phenomenon, thus providing
it with a separate identity or meaning

• Basic element of a theory

• Building blocks of a theory

Variable
• QUALITIES, PROPERTIES, OR CHARACTERISTICS of persons, things, or
situations that change or vary in VALUE, LEVEL, DEGREE, SCALE, or
MAGNITUDE over time and are manipulated or measured in research

• Defined so that it is measurable and suggests that numerical values of the term
are able to vary from one instance to another

Construct
• Concepts at very high levels of abstraction that have general meanings

Samples:

Construct Physiological response Abstract

Concept Pain
Variable Perception of acute pain Concrete

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Construct Optimal health Abstract

Concept Health
Variable Health promoting behavior Concrete

Statement
• Express CLAIMS that are important to the theory

Types:
Existence statement
• DECLARES that a given concept exists or that a given relationship
between concepts occurs

Relational statement
• CLARIFIES the type of relationship that exists between or among
concepts

Samples:

Existence Relational
Concept of stress and concept of health High levels of stress are related to
declining levels of health

Smoking related to lung cancer

Proposition
• Abstract statements that FURTHER clarify the relationship between two
concepts in theories

Map or model
• Developed to explain the concepts contributing to or partially causing an
outcome

• Referred to as a conceptual map or framework map

• Schematic drawing

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Assumption
• Statements taken for granted or considered true, even though they have not
been scientifically proven

Types:
Universal
• Comes from the researcher’s knowledge and from the observed facts
related to the problem, and are presumed true based on experience and
observations

Study
• Positive assertions necessary to carry out the study; basis for stating the
study hypothesis

Theory- or research-based
• Premised on the specific theory applicable to the study

Samples:

Universal Smoking is harmful to one’s health

Handwashing prevents infectious diseases

Study Maternal attitudes and behavior affect toilet
training of toddlers

Positioning during labor influences the progress of

labor
Theory- or Research based The patient’s basic physiological needs must be
met before providing client teaching (Based on
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, 1970)

The perceived susceptibility to a certain disease or

condition influences behavioral changes (Based on
Health Belief Model by Rosenstock, 1974, 1990)

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Framework
• Overall conceptual underpinnings of the study

• Similar to a skeleton

Classification:

Theoretical framework
• Study based on theory

• Broad, general explanations of the relationships between concepts of

interest in a research

Conceptual framework
• Study that has its roots in a specified conceptual model

• Set of highly abstract, related constructs that broadly explains

phenomena of interest, expresses assumptions, and reflects a
philosophical stance

Similarities of the Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

• Provide an overall view of the research study
• Anchor a theory that supports the study
• Guide in developing relevant research questions/objectives
• Help justify assumptions/hypothesis
• Aid in choosing appropriate methodology
• Help in gathering and interpreting data
• Guide in identifying possible threats to validity

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Differences between the Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Theoretical framework Conceptual framework

Scope • Broader • Narrower/focused
• Can be used in different • Directly related to a
studies specific study

Focus of content • The particular theory used • Set of related

already in the field concepts to a specific
study

Number of theories • Presents one theory at a • May synthesize one or

time more theories

Time of development • Already existing before • Develop while

the conduct of the study planning and writing a
specific research

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Topic Three: Defining the variables

Terminologies

Variable
• Characteristic that changes or varies over time and/or for different individuals or
objects under consideration

• Quantity susceptible or liable to fluctuation or change in value, level, degree,

scale, or magnitude under different conditions

Research variable
• Refer to the varying characteristics, properties, or qualities of people, things,
phenomena, situations, events or condition under investigation which can be
quantitatively or qualitatively assessed

Classification/ Kinds of Variables

I. Qualitative and Quantitative variables

Variables Description Examples

Quantitative ü Referred also as numerical • Age
variable • Height
• Weight
ü Classified according to • Temperature
numerical characteristics
Qualitative ü Referred also as categorical
variable • Gender
• Religion
ü Classified according to some • Occupation
attributes or categories • Skin/ eye color

II. Continuous and discrete variables

• Factors that relate to the range of the values of variables

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Variables Description Examples

Continuous ü Wide range of values between • Height
two points and that can be • Weight
presented infinitely in a • Temperature
continuum

ü Assumes a continuous point in a

scale

ü Obtained by measurement

Discrete ü Small range of values or a finite • Number of chairs

number of values between any inside the classroom
two points • Total population of
enrolled senior high
ü Assumes a distinct or discrete school students
value on a scale

ü Obtained by counting
(countable)

III. Explanatory variables

• Represent or explain the phenomena under study

Variables Description Examples

Independent ü Comes before the dependent Refer to your textbook for
variable examples

ü Stand alone

ü Manipulated

Dependent ü Comes after the independent Refer to your textbook for

variable examples

ü Relying on something

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ü Changes as a result of
manipulation/ intervention/
experiment

Related terms used for Independent and Dependent Variables

Independent Dependent
Cause Effect

Stimulus Response

Input Output

Predictor Criterion

Experimental Outcome

Treatment Consequences
Manipulation

IV. Attribute and active variables

• Represent the characteristics of the subject

Variables Description Examples

Attribute ü Already present or inherent in • Age
the subjects of the study • Sex
• Height
• Weight
• Religion
Active ü Created by the researcher

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V. Organismic and environmental variables

• Need to be controlled tightly as they could affect or contaminate the results of
the study

Variables Description Example

Organismic ü Factors related to research • Demographic
subjects • Physiological
• Psychological
Environmental ü Factors outside of the
organism/ person that bear
influence on the phenomenon
under investigation

VI. Moderating variable

• Special kind of independent variable chosen by the researcher to determine if it
changes or modifies the relationship between the independent and dependent
variables

VII. Intervening variable

• Hinders the independent and dependent variables, but the effects strengthen
or weaken the independent or dependent variables

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Levels or scales of measurement

Description Examples
Nominal ü Provide a label, categorization, • Gender
or classification • Religion
• Occupation

Ordinal ü Provides an order or rank of the • Military rank

value • Government
position

Interval ü Difference of people’s views or • Mental ability

attitudes between two points scores
on a scale • Achievement scores
• Temperatures in
degree Celsius

Ratio ü Rating something from zero to a • Age

certain point; possess a true • Weight
zero point • Height

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Topic Four: Stating the Research Questions and Hypothesis

Research question
• Specific questions that needs to be addressed

Samples of Research questions for Quantitative research

Descriptive Correlational Comparative Experimental

What is the level of Is there a Is there a Is there a
clinical significant significant significant
performance of the relationship difference in the difference in pain
respondents? between sleep pain level of male level of the
quality and clinical and female experimental
performance of the respondents? group and control
What is the extent respondents? group?
of hand hygiene
practices of the Is there a
respondents? Is there a significant Is there a
significant difference in the significant
association self-efficacy of the difference in the
What is the degree between education respondents when self-efficacy of the
of laceration of the attainment and age group is experimental
respondents? political activism of considered? group before and
the respondents? after the
treatment?
Is there a
Is there a significant
significant difference in the Is there a
correlation grit of the significant
between social respondents when difference in the
intelligence and residence is oxygen saturation
resilience of the considered? of the experimental
respondents? and control group

Samples of Research questions for Qualitative research

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Design Research Questions

Case study What are the transition experience of graduate students in a
faith-based education institution?

What strategies do graduate students initiate to deal with

transition?

How does a faith-based education institution respond to the

transition issues of graduate students?

Phenomenological What were the experiences and practices of mothers as they

study were giving early literacy instruction to their children?

How dis they go about these experiences and practices?

How do they look at these experiences?

What are the lived experiences of the children of overseas

contract workers?

Appreciative How would you describe STARTS? (Discovery)

inquiry
What does the best description of an effective research
capability program look like? (Dream)

What would be your suggestions for an effective five-year-plan

for the development of STARTS practices? (Design)

What would need to be included to ensure the long-term

implementation of STARTS? ( Destiny)

Photovoice What are the lived experiences of teen mothers before and
during their pregnancy, and during motherhood?

How do teen mothers envision the future – for themselves and

for their children?

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Terminologies

Hypothesis
• A prediction or a testable statement about the relationship between two or
more variables which a researcher aims to test to see if it is supported or
rejected

• Shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted to

explain observed facts or conditions and to guide further investigation

Purposes of Hypothesis
• Guide the scientific inquiry in the advancement of knowledge

• Provide direction for the research design and the collection, analysis, and
interpretation of data

• Provide a framework for reporting the conclusion of the study

Characteristics of Hypothesis
• Present tense

• Testable (Accepted or rejected/ supported or not supported)

• Contains one independent variable and one dependent variable

Classification of Hypothesis
• Research hypothesis
• Null hypothesis
• Alternative (or experimental) hypothesis

Research hypothesis
• Also referred to as (1) scientific, (2) substantive or (3) declarative hypothesis

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• Presents a general POSITIVE prediction about the relationship between two

phenomena or variables

• States the ACTUAL expected relationship between variables

Samples:

ü There is a significant difference in the perceived level of social support between

dormitorian and non-dormitorian senior high school students.

ü There is a significant relationship between the perceived level of social support

and academic performance of senior high school students.

Null hypothesis
• Also known as statistical hypothesis

• Formal statement indicating that there is NO relationship between the

independent and dependent variables

• Always expressed as a NEGATIVE statement

• Subjected to testing in which the decision is either accept or reject it

Samples:

ü There is no significant difference in the perceived level of social support

between dormitorian and non-dormitorian senior high school students.

ü There is no significant relationship between the perceived level of social

support and academic performance of senior high school students.

Alternative/ Experimental hypothesis

• State the precise behavior or responses

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Symbols used for Hypothesis

Symbols Meaning
H Hypothesis
H0 Null hypothesis
HA Alternative hypothesis
H1 First (of possible several) research hypothesis
H2 Second (of possible several) research hypothesis

Types of hypothesis
• Simple and complex hypotheses
• Associative and causal hypotheses
• Directional and non-directional hypotheses

Simple hypothesis
• Also called univariate hypothesis

• States the relationship between two variables (one independent and one
dependent)

Samples:

ü Teachers with more work experience provide better teaching skills than
teachers with less working experience.

ü Cigarette smoking causes lung cancer.

Complex hypothesis
• Also referred to as multivariate hypothesis

• States the relationship between two or more independent variables and two or
more dependent

• Types:
(1) multiple independent variables,
(2) multiple dependent variables,

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(3) multiple independent and dependent variables

Samples:

ü The personal and professional profiles of senior high school students affect their
level of academic performance and the NAT rating.

ü Heredity, home environment, and quality of instruction are related to

intelligence, motivation, and performance in school.

Associative hypothesis
• Proposes relationships among variables that occur or exist together in the real
world, so that when one variables changes, the other changes

Causal hypothesis
• Cause-and-effect interaction between two or more variables (IV and DV)

Directional hypothesis
• States the DIRECTION of the relationship between variables

• Usually derived from conceptual models or findings from previous researches

Samples:

ü Older people are at greater risk of acquiring non-communicable diseases.

ü The higher the intake of fibers, the lower is the weight of physical mass.

ü Women who have higher levels of depressive symptoms will report fewer
positive health practices.

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Directional Indicators

Positive (+) direction Negative (-) direction

Increase Decrease
Higher Lower
Presence Absence
More Less
Better Worse
Greater Lesser

Non-directional hypothesis
• States the relationship between variables but has NO specific direction

• Used when past research studies provide conflicting results or when the
direction of the relationship is unknown

Samples:

ü There is a correlation between board examination result and number of hours

spent watching television.

ü Male students differ from female students with respect to scores in the
Academic performance and National Achievement Test

Hypothesis testing

Decision H0 is True H0 is False

Rejected/ Not accepted H0 Type I error (incorrect Correct decision
decision)

Accepted H0 Correct decision Type II error (incorrect

decision)

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Type I error – rejection of the null hypothesis when in fact it is true

Type II error – acceptance of the null hypothesis when in fact it is false

Rejection and Acceptance of Null Hypothesis

Null hypothesis Computed Value Tabular Value (TV)/ Critical

(CV) Value
Rejected/ Not accepted Significant Equal or greater than

Accepted Insignificant Lesser than

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PHASE TWO: Designing and Planning Phase

Topic One: Determine the Appropriate Research Design

Classification/ Kinds of research

Research can be categorized according to the following dimensions:

Dimension: Purpose

• General

Basic/ pure/ fundamental research

o Establishing new knowledge in a particular discipline and formulation or
refinement of theories
o Basis for applied research

Samples:
ü Newton’s law
ü Boyle’s law
ü Charle’s law

Applied research
o Establishing new knowledge as well as knowledge that can be applied in
practical settings; referred to as “practical application of the theoretica”
o Finding solutions to existing problem

Samples:
ü PowerPoint presentation vs. video presentation: Their influence
information retention among senior high school students

ü Variation in blood pressure in different bed positioning among

hypertensive patients

• Specific (DEEC)

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Descriptive research
o Systematically describes a problem, situation, phenomenon or illustrate
attitudes towards a problem or an issue
Samples:
ü Health behaviors among senior high school students

ü Senior high school students’ perception on bullying

Exploratory research
o Explores areas about which very little information is available, or probes
if a particular research study can be undertaken

Samples:
ü Factors influencing academic performance of senior high school students

ü Facilitators and barriers influencing learning research among senior high

school students

Explanatory research
o Attempts to explicate the relationship between certain aspects of a
situation or phenomenon; tries to answer the how’s and why’s of such
relationships

Samples:
ü Testing a model of post-stroke exercise behavior (Shaugnessy, Resnick
and Macko, 2006)

Correlational research
o Establishing a relationship or determining whether a relationship exists
between 2 or more facets of a phenomenon

Samples:
ü Correlates of eating habits and quality of sleep on academic
performance among senior high school

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ü Learning styles and critical thinking abilities of senior high school

students

Dimension: Data

• Quantitative research
o Need of precise measurement and quantification; involves a rigorous and
controlled design
Descriptive-survey
o Designed to obtain information about the prevalence, distribution, and
interrelations of variables within a population

Types:
Community survey

Normative survey

Social survey

School survey

Descriptive-status
o Determines the prevailing conditions in a group of cases chosen for study

Descriptive-analysis
o Describes the nature of an object by separating it into parts

Descriptive-classification
o Applied in natural sciences subjects like Botany, Zoology, Biology,
Ichthyology, Phycology, Mycology, Microbiology, Conchology, and the
like

Descriptive-comparative
o Considers two variables (not manipulated) and establishes a formal
procedure to compare the variables and conclude that one is better than
the other

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Descriptive-evaluative
o Tests the quality, effectiveness and efficiency of products, treatments,
procedures, or methods

Secondary analysis
o Used of gathered data in a previous study to test new hypotheses or
explore new relationships in a typical study

Meta-analysis
o Findings from multiple studies on the same topic are combined by the
use of various statistical methods to establish their significance or validity

Delphi surveys
o Method of problem solving in which several rounds of questionnaires are
mailed to a panel of experts. Feedback for previous questionnaires is
provided with each new questionnaire so that the experts’ opinions can
converge to a consensus in subsequent rounds.

Developmental
o Satisfies felt needs and answers questions by developing new and more
effective and efficient products, treatments, procedures, or methods

Feasibility study
o Serves the purpose of determining the viability of undertaking a business
venture, establishing a project or institution, or constructing
infrastructure

Dimension: Time

Cross-sectional research
o Study in which data are collected at one point in time, with no follow-up

Samples:
ü Electronic cigarettes and conventional cigarette use among US
adolescents: a cross-sectional study (Dutra & Glantz, 2014).

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ü Prolonged sedentary time and physical activity in workplace and non-

work contexts: a cross-sectional study of office, customer service and call
center employees (Thorp et al., 2012).

Longitudinal research
o Study in which data are collected at different points in time

Samples:
ü A longitudinal study of electronic cigarette users (Etter & Bullen, 2014)

ü Social networking sites: their uses and social implication – A longitudinal

study (Brandtzaeg, 2012)

Retrospective research
o Examines data collected in the past, through review of medical records

Samples:
ü Incidences of needle prick injury among healthcare providers in selected
hospital

ü Incidence of fall in tertiary hospital in Makati City

Prospective research
o Examines data collected at present

Samples:
ü Mobile phone use and risk of brain neoplasms and other cancers:
prospective study (Benson et al., 2013)

ü Musculoskeletal extremity injuries in a cohort of schoolchildren aged 6-

12. A 2.5 years prospective study (Jespersen et al., 2015)

Dimension: Design

Experimental research
o Intervention or treatment is introduced by the researcher

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o Types: (1) true experimental, (2) quasi-experimental, and (3)pre-

experimental

True Experimental
Types Equation
Pretest-posttest controlled group R O1 X O2 (experimental group)
design R O1 O2 (control group)

Posttest only controlled group design R X O2 (experimental group)

R O2 (control group)

Solomon four-group design R O1 X O2 (experimental group)

R O1 O2 (control group)
R X O2 (experimental group)
R O2 (control group
Legend: R = randomization; O = observation; X = treatment

Quasi- experimental

Types Equation
Non-equivalent controlled group O1 X O2 (experimental group)
design O1 O2 (control group)
Time-series design O1 O2 O3 X O1 O2 O3
(multiple observations)
Legend: O = observation; X = treatment

Pre-experimental

Types Equation
One-shot case study X O

One-group pretest-posttest design O1 X O2

Legend: O = observation; X = treatment

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Non-experimental / observational research

o Collection of data without introducing treatments or changes
o ALL types of research under the dimensions: purpose, time and data

Dimension: Settings

Laboratory
o Highly controlled environment; experimental researches are done

Naturalistic/ field
o Less controlled environment where research studies are conducted like in
people’s home, workplace, health centers, school

Quantitative
• Refer to the above mentioned designs

Qualitative

Mixed methods

Design Description Strengths Weaknesses

Convergent design Data collection Provides Time-consuming,
occurs concurrently comprehensive resource-intensive,
view, enables may require larger
triangulation sample size

Explanatory design Begins with Offers deeper Sequential design

quantitative understanding, can be time-
followed by facilitates consuming,
qualitative data clarification of possibility of
collection findings inconsistent results

Exploratory design Begins with Allows for Limited statistical

qualitative followed hypothesis power, may be
by quantitative generation, challenging to
data collection provides context integrate data

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for quantitative
findings

Embedded design One type of data is Utilizes strengths Complex data

dominant, other of both analysis may be
supplementary. approaches, required, requires
Data collection enhances depth expertise in both
occurs concurrently and breadth of methods
or sequentially findings

Transformative Focuses on social Addresses complex Requires a

design change or research questions, thorough
transformation, provides insights understanding of
employs both into change context, may
qualitative and processes require long-term
quantitative data collection
methods

Multiphase design Multiple phases Allows for flexibility Can be time-

with different in study design, consuming and
emphases, each exploration from resource-intensive,
phase may use different angles requires careful
different methods planning and
coordination

Systematic reviews

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Topic Two: Identify the population to be studied

Historical background

Literary Digest – pioneering survey about the American citizens’ favorite among the
1920 presidential candidates

Terminologies

Sampling
• Refers to the method or process of selecting respondents or people to answer
questions meant to yield data for the study

Sample
• Subset of the population selected by the researcher to participate in a research
project

Population
• Entire sum of subject, persons, families, species, or orders of plants or animals
that possess some common characteristics

2 Groups of population:

Accessible population
• Specific study population

Target population
• Entire group of people or objects to which the findings of the study
generally apply

Sampling frame
• Listing of all the elements in the population from which the sample is drawn

Sampling bias
• Systematic overrepresentation or underrepresentation of some segment of the
population in terms of characteristics relevant to the research question

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Sampling error
• Pertains to the differences in proportion values and sample values

Benefits of sampling

• Economical, cheaper and faster

• Saves time, money, and effort
• More accurate
• Gives more comprehensive information
• More effective

Sampling Categories

Probability sampling
• Also referred to as unbiased or scientific sampling
• An equal chance of participation in the sampling or selection process given to
every member of the population

Types Description Advantages Disadvantages

Simple • Best type • Easily understood • Expensive
Random • Use pure- • Can project results • Difficult to
chance construct
selection • No
• Every member assurance
has the same of
opportunity to representa-
be in the tiveness
sample
Systematic • Selects • Easier to • Can
Random arbitrarily implement than decrease
every nth SRS representa-
number in a • Increase tiveness
list representativeness
• Sampling frame
not necessary

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Stratified • Dividing the • Precision • Expensive

Random population • Include all • Difficult to
into two or important sub select
more populations relevant
homogenous stratification
strata or variables
subsets from
which an
appropriate
number of
elements
(equal or non-
equal number)
are selected at
random
Cluster • Population is • Easy to implement • Difficult to
grouped into • Cost effective interpret
small units results

Advantages of probability
• Viable method of obtaining representative samples
• Allows researcher to estimate the magnitude of sampling error

Disadvantages of probability
• Expensive
• Inconvenient

Non-probability sampling
• Disregards random selection of subjects
• Based on the availability of the subjects or the purpose of the study
• Discretion of the researcher

Types Description Advantages Disadvantages

Voluntary • Volunteering to • Candidates • Time
constitute the have interest/ consuming
sample knowledge

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about the • Not

subject representative
• Accurate • Bias in answers
answers
Quota • Choosing • Can control • Selection bias
sample certain sample • Most likely not
members characteristics representative
possessing or
indicating the
characteristics
of the target
population
Purposive • Also referred to • Low expense • Subjective
as judgmental • Little time • Does not allow
sampling needed generalizations
• Corresponds to • Convenient
the objectives
of the study
Availability • Can also be • Least • Selection bias
referred as expensive • Not
accidental, • Least time representative
haphazard or needed
convenience • Most
sampling convenient
• Willingness of
person as a
subject to
interact with
the researcher
Snowball • Also referred to • Can estimate • Time
as chain or rare consuming
network or characteristics • Most likely not
nominated representative
sampling
• Begins with a
few eligible
subjects or
participants

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and then
continues to
enroll or recruit
subjects on the
basis of
referrals until
the desired
number of
participants
reached

Advantages of non-probability sampling

• Economical
• Convenient

Disadvantages of non-probability sampling

• Not every element in the population has a chance of being included in the
sample

Probability and Non-probability Sampling Methods

Sampling Method Common Application

Probability
ü Simple random sampling
ü Stratified random Quantitative research
sampling
ü Cluster sampling
ü Systematic sampling

Non-probability
ü Convenience sampling Quantitative and qualitative research
ü Quota sampling Quantitative and rarely qualitative research
ü Purposive sampling Qualitative research and sometimes quantitative
research
ü Snowball sampling Qualitative research and sometimes quantitative
research
ü Theoretical sampling Qualitative research

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Sample Size for Qualitative Research

Sample size may be determined based on the approach of the study or the data
collection method used.

Research approach/ design Rule of thumb

Case study Select one case or person

Phenomenology Assess 10 people who have experienced

the phenomenon under study. If you
reach saturation (data) prior to assessing
ten people, you may use fewer

Grounded theory Assess 20-30 people, which typically is

Ethnography enough to reach saturation point
Narrative

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Sample Size for Quantitative Research

Things to consider:

Homogeneity of the population

• The higher the degree of variation within the population, the smaller the sample
size that can be utilized

Degree of precision desired by the researcher

• A larger sample size will result in greater precision or accuracy of results

Types of sampling procedure

• Probability sampling utilizes smaller sample sizes than non-probability sampling

Use of formulas
• Yamane’s formula
• Calmorin’s formula
• Cochran’s formula

Others: software calculators

Other considerations
• Sample size as small as 30 are generally adequate to ensure that the sampling
distribution of the mean will approximate the normal curve (Shott, 1990)

• When the total population is equal to or less than 100, this same number may
serve as the sample size. This is called universal sampling.

• The following are the acceptable sizes for different types of research (Gay,
1976)

Types of research Samples to be considered

Descriptive 10% - 20% may be required

Correlational 30 subjects or respondents

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Comparative 15 subjects/ group

Experimental 15-30 subjects per group

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Topic Three: Specifying methods to measure, gather, analyze and assess variables/
data

Terminologies

Statistics
• Branch of mathematics that transforms data into useful information for decision
makers

Descriptive statistics
• Branch of statistics that collects, summarizes, and presents data

Inferential statistics
• Branch of statistics that uses sample data to draw conclusion about an entire
population

Levels or scale of measurement

Scale Description Examples

Nominal ü Provide a label, categorization, • Gender
or classification • Religion
• Occupation

Ordinal ü Provides an order or rank of the • Military rank

value • Government
position

Interval ü Difference of people’s views or • Mental ability

attitudes between two points scores
on a scale • Achievement scores
• Temperatures in
degree Celsius

Ratio ü Rating something from zero to a • Age

certain point; possess a true • Weight
zero point • Height

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Summary of Levels/ Scales of Measurement

Characteristics Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Categorization, label, classification Y Y Y Y

Allows mean or median calculation Y Y Y

The “order” of the value is known Y Y Y

Can quantify the difference between each Y Y

value

Can add or subtract each value Y Y

Can multiply and divide each value Y

Has a true zero Y

Summary of Statistical Tools

No. of Levels of Measurement

Variables
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

UNIVARIATE
Tables Frequency and Frequency and Frequency and Frequency and
percentage percentage percentage percentage

Charts Pie chart and Bar graph Histogram, Histogram,

bar graph steam and leaf steam and leaf
display, and display, and
box plot box plot

Central Mode Mode and Mean, Mean,

Tendency median median, and median, and
mode mode

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Variations Index of Range and Range, Range,

dispersion interquartile standard standard
range deviation, deviation,
variance, variance,
coefficient of coefficient of
variation variation

BIVARIATE
Tables Crosstabs Crosstabs None None

Association/ Lambda and Gamma and Pearson’s r and Pearson’s r and

relationship Tau Tau-c coefficient of coefficient of
determination determination
Source: Research Module. University of the Philippines, Baguio City, May 15, 2009

Assumptions of Parametric and Non-parametric test

Parametric test Non-parametric test

Focus on population parameter Does not estimate parameter

Normal distribution of variables Distribution is markedly skewed

Interval or ratio scale Nominal or ordinal scale

Sample size usually n>30 Sample size usually n<30

Generally: Mean is tested Usually: Median is tested

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Comparison of Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

Parametric Tests Non-Parametric Tests
(interval/ratio variable or (nominal and/or ordinal
scale) variable or scale)
Central tendency: Mean,
Mode, Median
Test of Association/ Relationship/ Correlation

Relative Location/ Pearson r Chi-square (nominal)

Position: Quartile, Decile, Spearman rho (ordinal)
Percentile

Dispersion/ Variation:
Range, standard
deviation, variance,
absolute distance
Test of Difference

Shape of the distribution, Independent T-test Fisher-exact (nominal)

kurtosis, skewness (for 2 separate groups) Mann-Whitney (ordinal)

Dependent T-test McNemar, Chi (nominal)

(for 1 group before and Sign test or Wilcoxon
after test) (ordinal)

ANOVA or F-test Chi square (nominal)

(3 groups and above) Kruskall-Wallis (ordinal)

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Matrix for Statistical Tools

Example 1
Research Title: Safety Competence and Culture of Staff Nurses in Selected Private
Health Care Institutions

Research Questions Scale Measurement Statistical Tools

1. What is the level of safety IV – Ordinal Frequency
competence of the respondents? (Interval) Percentage
Mean
Standard
deviation
2. What is the extent of safety culture DV – Ordinal Frequency
of the respondents? (Interval) Percentage
Mean
Standard
deviation
3. Is there a significant relationship IV-DV – Ordinal Pearson-R
between safety competence and (Interval)
safety culture of the respondents?
4. Is there a significant on safety DV – Interval Independent T-
culture of the respondents when MV – Ordinal test
grouped according to: MV – Nominal
a. Age One-way ANOVA
b. Gender
c. Length of experience, and
d. Civil status?

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Example 2
Research Title: Association of Church Attendance and Spiritual Well-being of Senior
High School Students

Research Questions Scale Measurement Statistical Tools

1. What is the extent of church IV – Ordinal Frequency
attendance of the respondents? (Interval) Percentage
Mean
Standard
deviation
2. What is the level of spiritual well- DV – Ordinal Frequency
being of the respondents? (Interval) Percentage
Mean
Standard
deviation
3. Is there a significant relationship IV-DV – Ordinal Pearson-R
between church attendance and (Interval)
spiritual well-being of the
respondents?
4. Is there a significant difference on DV – Interval Independent T-
spiritual well-being of the MV – Ordinal test
respondents when grouped MV – Nominal
according to: One-way ANOVA
a. Gender and
b. Religion?

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Example 3
Research Title: School Engagement of Junior High School Students in Public and
Private Schools: A Comparative Study

Research Questions Scale Measurement Statistical Tools

1. What is the level of engagement in DV – Ordinal Frequency
the public school of the Percentage
respondents? Mean
Standard
deviation
2. What is the level of engagement in DV – Ordinal Frequency
the private school of the Percentage
respondents? Mean
Standard
deviation
3. Is there a significant difference on DV-MV – Ordinal Independent T-
the engagement between public test
and private schools?
4. Is there a significant difference on DV – Interval ANCOVA
the engagement between public MV – Ordinal
and privates schools when the MV – Nominal
following variables are considered:
a. Gender and
b. Family income?

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Example 4
Research Title: Comparison of Sugar Intake of Elementary Pupils in Urban and Rural
Setting

Research Questions Scale Measurement Statistical Tools

1. What is the extent of sugar intake in DV – Ordinal Frequency
the urban setting of the Percentage
respondents? Mean
Standard
deviation
2. What is the extent of sugar intake in DV – Ordinal Frequency
the rural setting of the respondents? Percentage
Mean
Standard
deviation
3. Is there a significant difference on DV-MV – Ordinal Independent T-
the sugar intake between urban and test
rural setting?
4. Is there a significant difference on DV – Interval ANCOVA
the sugar intake between urban and MV – Ordinal
rural setting when the following MV – Nominal
variables are considered:
a. Age
b. Gender and
c. Family income?

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Example 5
Research Title: Internet Usage and Satisfaction of Dormitorians at a Tertiary Institution

Research Questions Scale Measurement Statistical Tools

1. What is the extent of internet usage IV – Ordinal Frequency
of the respondents? (Interval) Percentage
Mean
Standard
deviation
2. What is the level of satisfaction on DV – Ordinal Frequency
internet usage of the respondents? (Interval) Percentage
Mean
Standard
deviation
3. Is there a significant relationship IV-DV – Ordinal Pearson-R
between internet usage and (Interval)
satisfaction on internet usage of the
respondents?
4. Is there a significant difference on DV – Interval Independent T-
satisfaction on internet usage of the MV – Ordinal test
respondents when grouped MV – Nominal
according to: One-way ANOVA
a. Gender
b. Course and
c. Family income?

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Topic Four: Develop Research Instruments

Questionnaire
• Most commonly used research instrument

• Invented by Sir Francis Galton

• Research instrument consisting of a series of questions and prompts the

purpose of gathering information

Advantages Disadvantages
Economy of time and money Costly printing and mailing

Easy to test reliability and validity Low response rate

Easier to maintain respondents’ Difficult retrieval of questionnaire

anonymity and confidentiality
Requires respondents’ literacy and
understanding; cannot be used for
extremes of age

General types of questions

Open-ended question
• Allows respondents to respond in their own words, in narrative fashion

Closed-ended
• Offers respondents response options, from which they must choose the one
that most closely matches the appropriate answer

• Otherwise called fixed-alternative

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Specific types of questions

Types Description Examples

Yes or No type • Answerable by “yes” or “no” Do you drink alcohol? ( ) Yes ( )
questions No
• Close ended question
Do you smoke? ( ) Yes ( ) No
Recognition type • Fixed alternative answers Civil Status
are already provided ___ Single
• Respondents simply choose ___ Married
from among the given ___ Separated
choices ___ Widow/ Widower
• Closed-ended question
Completion type • Respondents are asked to I see my classmate being
fill in the blanks with the bullied, I will _______________
necessary information
• Open ended question My parents scolded me, I will
_______________
Subjective type • Respondents are free to What can you say about the
give their opinions about an use of illegal drugs?
issue of concern
• Open ended question What can you say about
prostitution?
Coding/ rating • Numbers are assigned to On a scale of 1 to 10, how will
question names, choices, and other you rate your learning in this
pertinent data class?
Multiple choice • Offers more than two You are helping someone who
question response alternatives wants to go to your airport,
town center or railway station.
You would:
a. Draw, or give her a map.
b. Tell her the directions.
c. Write down the directions
(without a map).
d. Go with her.
Cafeteria question • Response options are
usually full expressions of a
position on a topic

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Rank order • Ranking concepts along a Below are key nursing values.
question continuum, such as most to Choose 5 that you deem most
least important important and rank them
accordingly.
___ Care
___ Empathy
___ Collaboration
___ Independence
___ Competence
___ Efficiency
___ Courtesy
___ Obedience
___ Knowledge
___ Accountability
Forced choice • Choosing between two Which statement best
question statements that represent represents your point of view?
polar positions or
characteristics ( ) What happens to me is my
own doing.
( ) Sometimes I feel I don’t
have enough control over my
life.
Combination • Uses open and closed
ended questions

Scales
• Measuring instrument composed of several items that have a logical or
empirical relationship with each other.

Types:

Categorical response scale

Example:

Yes No Don’t know Not applicable

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Semantic differential scale

• The most reliable way to get information on people’s emotional attitude towards
a topic of interest

• Invented by Charles Egerton Osgood, a famous American psychologist, so that

this “connotative meaning” of emotional attitude towards entities can be
recorded and put to good use

Example 1:
Direction: Please encircle the number to show your opinion about the school guidance
counselor

Emphatic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Apathetic
Approachable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Aloof
Understanding 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Defensive
Unconditional 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Conditional

Example 2:
Direction: Put a check on the number that correspond to your opinion about the
education at University M.

1 2 3 4 5
Structured Unstructured
Chosen Imposed
Formal Informal
Active Passive
Fun Boring
Dull Lively
Useless Useful
Hard Easy
Facts Ideas
Alone With others

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Guttman scale

• Also called cumulative scaling or scalogram analysis

• Created with elements that can possibly be ordered in a hierarchical manner. It

is representative of the extreme “attitude” of respondents, i.e. extremely positive
or negative, about the subject in-hand

Example 1:

Lowest intensity of opinion, easies to accept

1. My individual rights are important to me

2. I would vote to retain my individual rights
3. I would campaign to maintain my individual rights
4. I would actively campaign to maintain my individual rights
5. I would fight for my individual rights
6. I would be prepared to use force to defend my individual rights

Highest intensity of opinion, most difficult to accept

Summative scale or Likert scale

• Common scaling technique which consists of several declarative statements that

express a viewpoint on a topic

• Organizational psychologist Rensis Likert developed the Likert Scale in order to

assess the level of agreement or disagreement of a symmetric agree-disagree
scale

• It may include agreement, frequency, importance, quality, and likelihood

Example 1:

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Statements Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly

Disagree Agree
1. I feel that I gave a number of good
qualities
2. At times I think I am no good at all
3. I feel I do not have much to be
proud of
4. At time I feel like a failure
5. I certainly feel useless at times
6. All in all I am inclined to feel that I
am a failure
7. On the whole, I am satisfied with
myself
8. I wish I could have more respect
for myself
9. I feel that I am a person of worth, at
least on an equal basis with others
10. I take a positive attitude towards
myself
Reference: Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.

Agreement

Agree very strongly Completely agree Strongly agree Agree strongly

Agree strongly Mostly agree Agree Agree
Agree Slightly agree Minimally agree Tend to agree
Disagree Slightly disagree Minimally disagree Tend to disagree
Disagree strongly Mostly disagree Disagree Disagree
Disagree very Completely Strongly disagree Disagree strongly
strongly disagree
Strongly agree Agree Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree
Undecided Disagree
Disagree
Strongly disagree

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Frequency

Very frequently Always Always Almost always

Frequently Very frequently Usually To a considerable
Occasionally Occasionally About half the degree
Rarely Rarely time Occasionally
Very rarely Very rarely Seldom Seldom
Never Never Never Never
Always A great deal Often
Very often Much Sometimes
Sometimes Somewhat Seldom
Rarely Little Never
Never Never

Importance

Very important Very important

Important Moderately important
Moderately important Unimportant
Off little importance
Unimportant

Quality

Very good Extremely poor Good

Good Below average Fair
Barely acceptable Average Poor
Poor Above average
Very poor Excellent

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Likelihood

Definitely True of myself

Very probably Mostly true of myself
Probably About halfway true of myself
Possibly Slightly true of myself
Probably not Not at all true of myself
Very probably not
To a great extent Like me True
Somewhat Unlike me False
Very little
Not at all

Adequacy/ Relevance/ Satisfaction

Extremely Adequate Extremely Relevant Very High

Somewhat adequate Very Relevant High
Adequate Relevant Moderate
Very Adequate Somewhat Relevant Low
Extremely Adequate Not relevant Very Low

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Validity and Reliability for Quantitative Research

Validity
• Ability of an instrument to measure what it purports to measure

Reliability
• Consistency of results
• Yields the same rank for individuals who take the test more than once

Types of validity:

Face validity
• Also known as logical validity
• Analysis of whether the instrument is using a valid scale

Content validity
• Studying the questions to see whether they are able to elicit the necessary
information
• Instrument is subjected to an analysis by a group of experts who have the
theoretical and practical knowledge of the subject (3-5 experts)

Construct validity
• Whether the test corresponds with its theoretical construct
• Concerned with the extent to which a particular measure relates to other
measures and to which it is consistent with the theoretically-derived
hypothesis

Criterion-related validity or equivalent test

• Expression of how scores from the test are correlated with an external
criterion

Types:
Concurrent validity
• Deals with measures that can be administered and validated at the same
time

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Predictive validity
• How well the tests predicts some future behaviors of the examinees
Methods in establishing reliability

Stability / test-retest
• Extent to which similar results are obtained on two separate administrations of
the instrument

Internal consistency
• Extent to which the items of an instrument measure the same trait or attribute
and nothing else

Equivalence
• Extent to which equivalent results are obtained by different observers

Tabular Summary (refer to the textbook)

Reliability Validity
Stability Face validity
Internal consistency Content validity
Equivalence Construct validity
Criterion-related validity
• Predictive validity
• Concurrent validity
Comprehensibility
Objectivity
Reactivity
Sensitivity
Specificity
Simplicity
Speededness

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Trustworthiness for Qualitative Research

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Ethical Considerations in Research

Terminologies

Ethics

• Science that deals with the nature of actions of intelligent beings in relation to
their moral qualities;

• Concerned with determining right and wrong in relation to people’s decisions

and actions;

• Concerned with rules and principles of human behavior

Human rights

• Claim and demand that have been justified in the eyes of an individual or by the
consensus of a group of people

Historical Background

Nazi Medical experiments (1930s-1940s)

• Programs of Nazi regime include sterilization, euthanasia, and medical

experimentation for the purpose of producing a population of “racially pure”
• Subjects: prisoners of war and persons considered racially valueless
• Experiments involved exposing subjects to high altitudes, freezing
temperatures, malaria, poisons, spotted fever, or untested drugs and
performing surgical procedures, usually without any form of anesthesia

Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972)

• U.S. Public Health Service initiated a study of syphilis in African American men
in the small rural town of Tuskegee, Alabama
• Purpose: Determine the natural course of syphilis
• Subjects not informed about the purpose and procedure

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• 1936 – more complications developed and were not treated

Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital Study (1960s)

• Purpose: determine patients’ rejection responses to live cancer cells

(suspension)
• Subjects: elderly
• Without informed consent and institutional board review

Willowbrook Study (1950s-1970s)

• Dr. Saul Krugman conducted a research on hepatitis at Willowbrook, an

institution for the mentally retarded in Staten Island, New York
• Subjects: children
• Consent was not informed

John Hopkins Crisis (2001)

• Study involved the use to healthy volunteers to study the pathophysiology of

asthma
• 3rd subject to receive the drug hexamethonium as part of the research protocol
died as a result of progressive hypotension and multi-organ failure
• Drug hexamethonium – not indicated in the consent and not approved by U.S.
FDA

Other Events:

Elixir of Sulfanilamide (1937-1938)

Thalidomide: Mitigation of a European Tragedy

Ethical Principles

Autonomy

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• Self-determination that fosters research subject independence and self-

regulation
• Must be fully-informed
• Free and voluntary decision and signs an informed consent

Beneficence
• Do/ promote GOOD
• Involves positive action toward preventing or removing evil or harm
• Dimensions:
ü Freedom from harm and exploitation
ü Benefits from research, and
ü Risk-benefit ratio

Non-maleficence
• Do NO HARM
• Does no cause direct harm nor inflict unnecessary pain/ injury
• Forms of Harm:
ü Physical injury and incapacitation
ü Mental and psychological stress and anxiety
ü Social disability
ü Spiritual distress
Justice
• Fairness
• Non-discriminatory selection of research subjects
• Fair and equitable sharing of benefits and risks

Rights of Human Subjects

Self-determination

• Decide voluntarily, freely and without coercion to participate in a study or not

to participate and to refuse to give information without risking any penalty or
threats of penalty

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Privacy and dignity

• Handling of information discretely

• Freedom to determine the time, extent, and general circumstances under which
private information will be shared with or withheld from others
• Private information may include person’s attitudes, belief, behaviors, opinions,
and records

Anonymity and confidentiality

• Anonymity – guarantee that the identity cannot be linked with his/her individual
response; keeping individual nameless and limiting access to information
collected about a subject

• Confidentiality – protecting data by not divulging without permission any

information obtained into the public; management of private information
shared by a subject or participant

Fair treatment

o Treated fairly and receive what they are due or owed before, during, and after
participation in the study

Protection from discomfort and harm

o Minimizing, if not totally eliminating, all types of discomfort and harm which
include physical, emotional, social or economic, or any combination

Informed Consent

Informing – the transmission of essential ideas and content from the investigator to
the prospective subject

Consent – prospective subjects agreement to participate in a study as a subject

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Informed consent – agreement by a prospective subject to participate voluntarily in a

study after he or she has assimilated essential information about the study
- a decision to participate in research, made by a competent
individual who has received the necessary information; who has adequately
understood the information; and who, after considering the information, has
arrived at a decision without having been subjected to coercion, undue
influence or inducement, or intimidation (CIOMS, 2008)

Assent – authorization for one’s own participation in research given by a minor or

another participant who lacks the capability to give informed consent; a
requirement for research, in addition to consent given by the parent or legally
authorized representative (LAR); agreement by an individual not competent to
give legally valid informed consent, like a child, to participate in research

Elements of informed consent:

ü Disclosure of essential study information to the study participant or subject
ü Comprehension of this information by the subject
ü Competence of the subject to give consent
ü Voluntary consent of the subject to participate in the study
Essential information for consent (FDA, 1998; U.S. DHHS, 2005):

1. Introduction of research activities.

The initial information presented to prospective subjects clearly indicates
that a study is to be conducted and that they are being asked to participate as
subjects.

2. Statement of the research purpose.

The researcher states the immediate purpose of the research and any
long-range goals related to the study.

3. Selection of research subjects.

The researcher explains to prospective subjects why they were selected
to participate in the study.

4. Explanation of procedures.

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Prospective subjects receive a complete description of the procedures to

be followed and identification of any procedures that are experimental in the
study.

5. Description of risks and discomforts.

Prospective subjects are informed of any reasonably foreseeable risks or
discomforts (physical, emotional, social and economic) that might result from
the study.

6. Description of benefits.
The investigator describes any benefits to the subjects or to other people
or future patients that may reasonably be expected from research, including
any financial advantages or other rewards for participating in the study.

7. Disclosure of alternatives.
The investigator discloses the appropriate alternative procedures or
courses of treatment, if any, that might be advantageous to the subject.

8. Assurance of anonymity and confidentiality.

Prospective subjects should know the extent to which their responses
and records will be kept confidential. Subjects are promised that their identity
will remain anonymous in reports and publications of the study.

9. Offer to answer questions.

The researcher offers to answer any questions the prospective subjects
may have.

10.Voluntary participation.
Consent form includes a statement that participation is voluntary and
that refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss of benefits to which the
subjects is otherwise entitled.

11.Option to withdraw.
Subjects are informed that they may discontinue participation (withdraw
from a study) at any time without penalty or loss of benefits

12.Consent to incomplete disclosure.

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In some studies, subjects are not completely informed of the study

purpose because that knowledge would alter their actions. However,
prospective subjects must be told when certain information is being withheld
deliberately.

Vulnerable Groups

ü Age (neonates & children or elderly)

ü Pregnant women and fetuses
ü Persons with mental illness or cognitive impairment
ü Terminally ill subjects
ü Persons confined to institutions (prisoners)
ü Compromised position (comatose or under the influence of drugs)
ü Social or cultural deprivation (the poor or minority group)

Selected Guidelines for Health Research

ü World Medical Association Declaration Helsinki October 2013

ü ICH Harmonized Tripartite Guideline for Good Clinical Practice E6 (2)
September 4, 2016
ü WHO standards and Operational Guidance for Ethics Review of Health-Related
Research with Human Participants 2011
ü International Ethical Guidelines for Health-Related Research Involving Humans
(CIOMS 2016)
ü Philippine National Ethical Guidelines for Health and Health-Related Research
2017
ü DOH Department Order

Case Studies

1. A group of SHS students is planning to conduct a research study entitled

“Coping Strategies Utilized by HIV Positive and AIDS Patients”.
• What ethical principles need to be observed by the researchers? Why?
• Which rights of a patient with HIV/AIDS should be protected? How can the
researchers protect this patient’s rights?

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• Can a patient refuse to participate in such a research project? Why?

• Can a patient be allowed to back out in the middle of the said conduct of
research project?

2. Dr. Caleb has just discovered a mathematical error in his paper that has been
accepted for publication in a journal. The error does not affect the overall
results of his research, but it is potentially misleading. The journal has just gone
to press, so it is too late to catch the error before it appears in print. In order to
avoid embarrassment, Dr. Caleb decides to ignore the error.
• What ethical principle/s in research writing is/are violated? Why?
• What appropriate ethical action should Dr. Caleb performed?

3. You conduct a phenomenological study of teenage students from a suburban

school system. You conduct an in-depth interview with a teenager to whom you
have promised confidentiality. She tells you she is depressed and plans to
commit suicide. You believe she means it. Can you break your promise? If so,
who do you tell?

4. You conduct a case study on a small school in a remote location. When you
write up the results, it is almost impossible to disguise the school, yet you
promised you would treat the data anonymously. How should you deal with
this?

5. You conduct an ethnographic study of a young adult over a long period. Your
fieldwork takes you to his home, his school, the bars he frequents, his church,
and so on. Over time, you become very attached to him. You find your
friendship leads to feelings toward him that you cannot control. You know that
getting too close is inappropriate, but you find it difficult to control your
feelings. What should you do?

6. Your plan is to study educational practice among a particular tribe of Native

Americans. You approach the leader of the school on the reservation. He gives
his permission to study students and teachers. However, when you attempt to
get the participation of these groups, no one is willing to sign your permission
form. They are willing to talk to you, but they do not trust what you might do
with the form. Even though you assure them that you will keep the information
private, they see you as someone who represents the leadership and thus are

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mistrustful. What should you do? How do you convince them that they need to
sign the form for you to continue?

7. You interview college students about life on campus. One student tells you that
his roommate seems seriously depressed and spends much time on the Internet
looking at sites for making bombs. Do you tell someone?

8. One group of HUMMS strand of students is planning to conduct a research

study entitled “Unveiling the Lives of Female Sex Workers”.
• What ethical principles need to be observed by the researchers? Why?
• Which rights of a female sex worker should be protected? How can the
researchers protect their rights?
• Can a female sex worker refuse to participate in such a research project?
Why?
• Can a female sex worker be allowed to back out in the middle of the said
conduct of research project?

Ethics in Writing Research

Appreciation/ Recognition of Ownership of Borrowed Ideas

• Acknowledgement
• Citation or in-text citation
• References / bibliography

Research Misconduct

• Fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in proposing, performing, or reviewing,

or in reporting research results

Plagiarism

• Appropriation of another person’s ideas, processes, results, or words without

giving appropriate credit, including those obtained confidential review of
others’ research proposals and manuscripts

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• Copying or quoting the words or the ideas of another person or institution

without acknowledging the sources

Types of Plagiarism

• Self-plagiarism
It’s a practice of presenting one’s own previously published work as though
it were new

• Duplicate plagiarism
Author submits a previously-published work as if it is an original manuscript

Fabrication

• Making up of results and recording or reporting

Falsification

• Manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes, or changing or

omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in
the research record

Authorship

• Authors are persons who have contributed sufficiently to a scientific report to

be listed on the byline of the published report

Types Description
Coercion authorship Use of intimidation tactics to gain authorship (Strange, 2008)

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Honorary/ gift Authorship awarded out of respect or friendship, in an

authorship attempt to curry favor and/ or to give a paper a greater
sense of legitimacy (Strange, 2008)

Mutual support Agreement by two or more investigators to place their

authorship names on each other’s papers to give the appearance of
higher productivity (Strange, 2008)

Denial of authorship Publication of work carries out by others without providing

them credit for their work with authorship or formal
acknowledgement (Strange, 2008)

Ghost authorship Papers written by individuals who are not included as authors
or acknowledged (Strange, 2008)

Guest authorship Based solely on an expectation that inclusion of a particular

name will improve the chances that the study will be
published or increase the perceived status of the publication

Anonymous Author can make a credible claim that attaching his or her
authorship name to the document could cause serious hardship (e.g.,
threat to personal safety or loss of employment)

Group authorship Collaborated on a project

Deceased or Obtaining disclosure and copyright documentation from a
incapacitated familiar or legal proxy
authors

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Textbooks:
Polit, D. F. & Beck, C. T. (2023). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence
for nursing practice. Wolters Klumer/ Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Gray, J. R., Grove, S. K. & Sutherland, S. (2018). Burns and Grove’s the practice of
nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis, and generation of evidence. 8th ed.
Elsevier.
Nieswiadomy, R. M. & Bailey, C. (2018). Foundations of nursing research. 7th ed.
Pearson.
Brown, S. J. (2018). Evidence-based nursing: The research-practice connection. Jones
& Bartlett Learning

Supplemental Materials:
American Psychological Association (2019). Publication manual of American
Psychological Association. 7th ed. American Psychological Association.
Denis, D. J. (2019). SPSS data analysis for univariate, bivariate, and multivariate
statistics. Wiley.
Keele, R. (2011). Nursing research and evidence-based practice: Ten steps to success.
Jones & Bartlett.
Mertler, C. A. & Reinhart, R. V. (2017). Advanced and multivariate statistical methods:
Practical application and interpretation. 6th ed. Routlegde Taylor and Francis
Group.
Trinidad, J. E. (2018). Researching Philippine realities: A guide to qualitative,
quantitative, and humanities research. Ateneo de Manila University Press.
Trinidad, J. E. (2019). Error-proofing your research: Common mistakes and how to
address them. Ateneo de Manila University Press.

Search engines for Review of Related Literature:

http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/search.html
https://scholar.google.com.ph/
http://www.jurn.org/#gsc.tab=0
http://search.ebscohost.com/
https://tqr.nova.edu/websites/
https://oatd.org/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
https://www.biomedcentral.com/
https://www.emeraldworks.com/

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https://www.tandfonline.com/
https://doaj.org/

Search engines for Standard Referencing Styles:

http://pubs.acs.org/isbn/9780841239999
http://law.unimelb.edu.au/mulr/aglc/about
http://www.amamanualofstyle.com
http://www.apastyle.org
http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/home.html
https://www.counsilscienceeditors/publications/scientific-style-and-format/
https://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/index.html
https://www.mla.org/MLA-Style
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/resources.html

Search engine for Statistics

https://statistics.laerd.com/

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