Industrial Revolution : The

situation of Britain in the 18th

and 19th centuries

1. Introduction
2. Economic Developments
3. Social Developments
4. Working-Class discontent
5. Social Reforms
6. The Second Industrial Revolution
7. Conclusion
 1. Introduction :
In the second half of the 18 th century, there was a rapid development of industry, bringing
great wealth to some and driving others into poverty.

In 1783, Britain had suffered the humiliating loss of its American colonies in the American
War of Independence.

By 1885 it had become a predominantly urban population. Industrialisation had created a

new prosperous middle-class.

The middle-class and manufacturers challenged the aristocratic control over political power
and pressed for political changes.

2. Economic Developments :
In Britain, rapid industialisation started around 1780 and continued well into the 19 th
century.

Domestic system Factory system

Small-scale production, often at home Large-scale production, in factories

Preconditions for economic growth :

o Development of trade
o Availability of capital
o Access to raw material
o Improvements in agriculture
o Political stability
o Scientific and technological inventions
o Free movement of people and goods
o Growth in population

In Britain, there was some capital to invest due to the different colonies and their markets.

Britain possessed natural resources to produce power : streams for water power. There were
also a lot of coal and iron. As Britain is an island, there were a lot of rivers that were link to
the sea, so it was good for the transport.

A positive aspect of the Industrialisation was the greater wealth, thanks to the goods that
were produced. Another effect was the growth of trade unions.

Agriculture :
By 1800, more people were employed in industry than in farming, but the production was
rising thanks to technical progresses :
The open-field system didn’t use fences so everyone could use the fields, the animals and the
tools. Then, it changed to enclosure system, this system used fences and the fields were
owned by only one man. So, the unemployment level rose as not everybody could buy a
field.

The three fields system was used at first and it then, changed into the Norfolk system, which
made four rotations instead of three.

Clover and turnip were eaten by the animals, which give manure, that give nutriments to the
soil. Animals by eating more, became heavier and so, people had more meat and so they
lived more and they were in a better health.

The cotton industry :

The cottage industry was a type of producing clothes by using wool or linen, this type was
small-scale, slow and the production was limited. The industry changes with the increased
import of raw cotton.

Cotton had advantages over wool and linen : it was cheaper, more comfortable and easier to
wash. Basically, there were two areas that were producing cotton’s clothes : Lancashire, near
Liverpool and Lanarkshire, near Glasgow.

During the 18th century, there were many technical inventions that increased the production :
The flying shuttle (1733, by John Kay) and the spinning jenny (1770s, by James Hargreaves).

The development of Arkwright’s water frame in 1769 marked the start of the factory system
of production and revolutionized the industry. By 1820, the cotton industry was fully
mechanized.

In 1851, two thirds of Britain’s exports were clothes, but then, thanks to coal, machinery,
iron,… the exportation of clothes started to fall.

Sources and use of power :

Until the late 18th century, the basic sources of power were man, horse, wind and water. The
manufacturer had to build his factory close to the source of power as it wasn’t transferable.

Steam power revolutionized everything. Watt’s invention, in 1781, made steam power more
effectively. His invention was used in many sectors : mines, textile industries, ironwork,… In
the 19th century, it was also used for the development of railways.

Iron and coal :

Iron foundries were built on the edge of coal fields to access their essential source of fuel
cheaply and easily. The industry became concentrated in four main areas : Birmingham,
South Wales, Sheffield and Newcastle.
The demand for iron and coal increased as all engineering projects of the mid-Victorian era
were dependent on it. During this period, steel appeared as a better material than iron. By
1870, many rail companies had replaced iron tracks with steel ones.
Coal replaced wood as a fuel, it was cheap. Coal was cut with pickaxes, by manual labour. The
mines were very small and dangerous.

The growth of coal industry during the second half of the 19th century was immense.

Transport - Canals :
To transport the goods from the factories to some other places, canals were uses and there
was a construction of a network of canals across the country, but then, canals were
overtaken by the railway in the early 19th century.

Railways :
Railways were first used to move coal from mines to factories. George Stephenson is
considered as the inventor of railway. The first line used with steam locomotive opened in
1830, the Liverpool - Manchester line. This line marked the beginning of the large-scale
public railways.

The railway was one of the key developments of the industrial age :
o The economy moved.
o Transporting people and goods at low cost and fast.
o It created new jobs.
o It boosted the iron and coal industries.
o Altered the landscapes with the train stations, the railways, the different bridges
…
o Cheaper goods due to many factors such as the cost of transport.
o It increased the number of export trade.
o The postal system was sped up from one city to another.
o It created tourism as the prices were low and the trains were fast.

The first London underground line, the Metropolitan line opened in 1863.

Shipping :
In 1869, the Suez Canal opened. It reduced the time of shipping as the boats could now avoid
passing by South-Africa, as they could just cross Egypt.

Industrial and transport developments in the second half of the 19 th century :

Britain was the best colonial power and had a really strong market inside and outside Britain.
They still had plenty of natural resources thanks to their colonies. The profits from increasing
sales and exports of manufactured goods were invested back into existing businesses or used
abroad, to build railways for example.
After 1873, the British economy experienced a downturn : supply was overtaking demand in
the colonies and even in Britain. This led to a fall of price and a fall of margin profit. This
downturn is due to different factors :
o More competition.
o New technologies weren’t bought in a lot of family-owned factories.

By 1870, both Germany and the USA had stronger markets than Britain. Both of these
countries set up the tariff barriers, so it encouraged people to buy local products. Britain still
used the laissez faire policy and so people could order from different countries freely and not
consume local products.

3. Social Developments :
The middle class :
Industrialisation brought opportunities for entrepreneurial men to invest and create new
businesses. The new industrial world was organised by this emerging middle class. By 1800,
25 % of the British population was in the middle class.

The working class and the working conditions :

They lived in the urban centers. They were mostly employed in the new factories and they
were paid per hour. When the economy was good, they were paid on a regular wage, but
when economy had a downturn, wages were lowered. Capitalist economy made deep
differences between the working class and the middle class.

There were no safety regulations in place and the machines had no safety guards. There was
also a high risk of fire, as early machines had wooden frames. The workers usually worked 12
hours per day and 6 day per week.

At least 20 % of the workforce were children. Women and children often worked in the
cotton factories as they were cheap and easier to discipline. There was no allowance for
sickness and no compensation for personal injuries received at work. Children were used to
clean machines and risked serious injuries.

Education was considered by many upper-class and middle-class people to be socially

dangerous among the poorer classes as it was thought to encourage revolutionary ideas.

Agricultural labourers and the poor :

The majority of rural population were the lowest paid. They were often forced to rely on
parish poor relief.

Urban development and living conditions :

Some rural areas were transformed into industrial landscapes. The towns were expanding so
quickly that when problems of public health and maintaining social order arose there were
no mechanisms in place to deal with them.

The poorer classes lived in overcrowded tenement houses. The poor living conditions caused
numerous health problems and allowed disease to spread. Endemic infectious diseases
caused 40 % of deaths in industrials towns.

Urban transport was lacking, so that working people had to walk to their destination.

By 1871, 65 % of the population lived and worked in urban areas. Diets became more varied.
A sewage system was built in London in the 1860s, symbol of the progress and prosperity of
the period. It cleaned up London’s water supply and reduced the mortality rate. Rent of flats
or houses were expensive.

Population growth :
A strong growth in the overall population, there are several reasons for this growth :
o An increase in the birth rate.
o A fall in the death rate.
o Better and more food.
o Better health.
o Less infant deaths.
o Increased longevity.
o Discovery of vaccines.
o Better hygiene.

The growth’s rate was higher in industrial areas than in rural areas. This was the result of
migration. From 1864, the death rate began to decline, but a little bit after the birth rate did
the same.

4. Working-class discontent :
In the early decades of the 19th century, working-class discontent arose. The wages were
higher in the towns. Working-class discontent was often related to the state of the economy.
Sometimes, there was hunger and unemployment. When local militias were protesting, they
were called out and arrested.

Trade unions :
Strikes were illegal in Britain, during the 18th century. The members of trade unions paid a
subscription and then, received help in case of sickness and unemployment.

One effect of industrialisation was a steady movement of people from small towns, villages
and farms to the expanding industrial towns.

In 1799, the Combination Acts made all associations of working men illegal. The Combination
Acts were repealed in 1824. After the repeal, there was an increase in the formation of small
trade unions.

The 1880s saw a change in direction in the union movement. The uncertain economic
climate of the late 1870s and 1880s contributed to the growth of new unionism. As
manufacturing industries began to experience a downturn in demand for their goods and
profits, unskilled workers were the first to be laid off. On the other hand, their confidence
was boosted by the spread of education among the labouring classes, after 1870. In 1884 the
right for many unskilled workers to vote. It was the start of mass unionism.

Early socialism :
In the 19th century, ideas of Socialism were starting to emerge in some sections of society.
Robert Owen and David Ricardo were important figures in establishing the concept and
applying socialist principles to their lives. Owen paid attention to his workers’ living
conditions and his factory became a model.

5. Social reforms :
Education :
In 1830, Sunday schools started, the only day children didn’t work. The most successful early
school system for poor children was the Monitorial schools, these schools were financed by
private donations and congregations.

In 1833, the government gave £20,000 to help open more schools, it was the start of
government activities in national education, even though there was an opposition.

By 1850, education was a priority for government. In 1850, Factory legislation allowed
children to work “only” 60 hours per week.
During 1870s and 1880, different acts made school compulsory for children up to ten.
Abolition of slavery :
In 1833, the Slavery Abolition Act passed.

Other acts of Parliament :

The Mines Act, in 1842, avoid women and boys under 10 years old to work underground.

The Factory Act, in 1844, made children work less.

Forster’s Education Act, in 1870.

The Trade Union Act, in 1871, gave the right to workers to strike.

In 1869, women could vote in local elections.

In the 1870s, Public Health Acts were passed to improve the sanitary condition in British
cities by creating sewage systems.

6. The second industrial revolution :

Electricity and petroleum took an increasing importance as energies used by industry. The
arrival of automobiles also changed the industry. Germany and the USA were the main
powers during the 20th century.

Taylorism :
The method of Frederick Winslow Taylor is characterised by the division of labour, the
specialization of tasks, it aims to increase the speed of production, and to improve
productivity. This method nonetheless constituted a dehumanization of the work of millions
of workers, confined to the roles of simple performers of a repetitive task.

Fordism :
To motivate his workers to work well, Henry Ford, offered good wages, which directly made
him new customers. He also introduced Taylor’s recommendations in his factories by
increasing productivity through mass production on production lines. Assembly line work
emerged as the ultimate solution, to be the most efficiency.

7. Conclusion :
For most of the 19th century, Britain had held the position of the wealthiest :
o Life expectancy was increasing.
o The standard of living for most British families was improving.
o Investments in education increased after the 1870 Education Act.
o The political system had become more democratic.
o A large prosperous middle class had emerged and an even larger working class.
Working class, would develop progressively in the 20 th century. All women were granted the
right to vote in 1928.