Precambrian Research, 58 (1992) 305-344 305

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Early Proterozoic ore deposits and tectonics of the Birimian

orogenic belt, West Africa

Jean-Pierre Mil6si, Patrick Ledru, Jean-Louis Feybesse, Alain Dommanget and Eric Marcoux
BRGM, B.P. 6009, 45060 OrlOans COdex 2, France
(Received May 30, 1990; accepted after revision March 16, 1991 )

ABSTRACT

Mil6si, J.-P., Ledru, P., Feybesse, J.-L., Dommanget, A. and Marcoux, E., 1992. Early Proterozoic ore deposits and tecton-
ics of the Birimian orogenic belt, West Africa. In: G. Ga~il and K. Schulz (Editors), Precambrian Metallogeny Related
to Plate Tectonics. Precambrian Res., 58: 305-344.

The Early Proterozoic of the West African craton comprises a series of volcanic troughs and sedimentary basins (the
Birimian ) with granitic terranes accreted on Archean nuclei in the Man and Reguibat shields. Studies of the Birimian of
the Man Shield indicate a model of polycyclic evolution, with a major collision event (D~; 2.1 Ga) thrusting part of the
Proterozoic terrane over the Archean before individualization of numerous volcanic troughs and clastic-infill basins. The
proposed evolution for the Birimian orogenic belt comprises: ( 1 ) deposition of the sedimentary Lower Birimian (B1)
with minor tholeiitic volcano-sedimentary intercalations (containing chert and/or Mn-formations), and with most of the
detritus being derived from Early Proterozoic sources, apart from contamination near the Proterozoic/Archean contact;
(2) pre-B2 crustal thickening related to Dt thrusting; (3) formation, over about 40 Ma, of the Upper Birimian (B2) with
numerous volcanic troughs of different composition (tholeiitic and rare komatiitic, bimodal tholeiitic to calc-alkaline,
volcano-plutonic) and Tarkwaian clastic-infill basins; and (4) major transcurrent tectonics with sinistral (DE) and dex-
tral (D3) strike-slip faults. Such a tectonic evolution from a collision (D~) phase to a transcurrent (D2, D3 ) phase is typical
of collision belts, and in the present case the evolution of the Birimian orogenic belt can be extended into Guyana.
The metallogenic history of the Birimian shows a three-phase evolution coinciding with the orogenic evolution, and
extends over almost 150 Ma from the Perkoa massive (Zn-Ag) sulfides (2.12 Ga) with a clear mantle affinity to the late-
mesothermal Au quartz veins ( ~ 2 Ga) with (according to lead isotopes) a high crustal participation. The economic
mineralization of belt thus consists of:
( 1 ) "Pre-orogenic" (pre-D~) deposits related to early extension zones. This was diverse with stratiform Au tourmalinite
( type 1 Au: Loulo in Mali; Dorlin in Guyana ), stratiform Fe (Cu) ( Fal6m6 in S6n6gal ) and Mn (Nsuta in Ghana; Tambao
in Burkina Faso ), and a single massive Zn-Ag sulfide deposit (Perkoa in Burkina Faso ) associated with regional volcano-
sedimentary (variably tholeiitic) stratigraphic marker beds;
(2) "Syn-orogenic" (post-D~ to syn-D2/D3) deposits with disseminated Au-sulfides (type 2 Au: Yaour6 in the Ivory
Coast ) in extensional zones of the B2 followed by auriferous paleoplacers (type 3 Au ) in B2 extensional zones (Tarkwaian
Banker conglomerate) or syn-D2 transtensional zones (debris flow of Orapu in Guyana).
(3) "Late-orogenic" (post-peak D2/D3 ) deposits with mesothermal Au mineralization evolving from a "disseminated
gold-bearing arsenopyrite and Au-quartz lode" type (type 4 Au: Ashanti in Ghana) to a "quartz-vein" type with free gold
and Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag-Bi paragenesis. Most of the gold in West Africa comes from this phase.
Finally, the metallogeny of the Birimian appears as rich in Au- and Mn-formations and poor in volcanogenic minerali-
zation and BIF. It differs from the Archean metallogeny of West Africa and other regions, through the presence of certain
deposit types (such as Au-stratiform tourmalinite, gold-bearing conglomerate with Au and Fe-Ti-oxides but no uranium
or sulfides, and Au-arsenopyrite-rich shear-zone deposits) that are very common in, but not exclusive to, the Proterozoic
and Paleozoic.

Correspondence to: Dr. J.P. Mil6si, BRGM, B.P. 6009, 45060 Orl6ans C6dex 2, France.

0301-9268/92/$05.00 © 1992 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All fights reserved.

306 J.-P. MILESI ET AL.

Introduction tonic disruption of the belts, (c) the less com-

plete stratigraphy of the belts which show, in
West African craton particular, an absence of calc-alkaline facies,
and (d) possible, but hypothetical, major dif-
The West African craton contains two large ferences in the composition of the continental
areas of Early Proterozoic terrane overlying crust. However, our knowledge of Archean
Archean nuclei--the Man Shield from Ghana metallogeny could be limited simply due to the
to S6n6gal and the Reguibat Shield in Mauri- fact that little exploration has been carried out
tania (Bessoles, 1977; Black and Fabre, 1983; on the Shield.
Fig. 1 ), with the Archean of the Man Shield The Archean does, however, contain most of
being restricted to the Liberian craton and the iron-ore reserves of the West African cra-
constituting highly metamorphosed gneiss ton which are hosted within large BIF (banded
older than 2.7 Ga (Camil, 1984). The Early iron formation) deposits ( > 6000 Mt of iron
Proterozoic terranemthe Birimian--repre- ore) in the Man and Reguibat shields (Berge,
sents large sedimentary basins and linear or ar- 1968; Pouit, 1975; Bessoles, 1977; Morel, 1979;
cuate volcanic belts corresponding to a period Umeji, 1983; Bronner et al., 1990). The Ar-
of accretion around 2.1 Ga (Abouchami, chean also contains occurrences of Cr (numer-
1990), during the Eburnean orogeny that took ous in the Man Shield, but rarer in the Regui-
place between 2.1 and 2.0 Ga (Bonhomme, bat Shield) and deposits of Ni-Co with traces
1962 ) and was accompanied by emplacement of PGE (well developed in the Man Shield;
of large granitic plutons. The deformation and Tagini and Gobert, 1981) associated with
metamorphic grade within the Early Protero- greenstone belts or layered mafic-ultramafic
zoic are generally rather weak, except (a) near complexes (Umeji, 1983; Camil, 1984). The
the tectonic Archean-Proterozoic boundary BIF within greenstone belts are also the source
(Feybesse et al., 1989, 1990b), (b) in some of alluvial and eluvial gold, which is com-
presumed collision zones (Lemoine, 1988), monly spatially associated with the BIF (Mi-
and (c) along subsequent transcurrent fault 16si et al., 1989b). Finally, several discordant
zones (Lemoine, 1982; Vidal, 1986; Ledru et Au, Pb, Mo, Sn and W mineralizations are re-
al., 1989b, 1991b). lated to various magmatic intrusions---either
Liberian or later.
West African mineralization The Early Proterozoic (Birimian) of the
West African craton is poor in BIF (Tagini,
The Archean of the West African craton is 1971 ), but is characterized by a more exten-
distinguished from other Archean cratons by sive range of deposits containing, in particular,
the notable absence of (a) major volcanogenic Mn, Fe, Au, Zn-Ag, Cu _+ Mo _+ Au (Figs. 2
pyritic or polymetallic massive sulfide orebod- and 3 ). In the southern part of the West Afri-
ies, (b) disseminated gold mineralization can craton (Figs. 1B and 2), the volcano-sed-
(stratiform or stratabound) related to volcan- imentary formations contain stratiform and
ites or turbidites, (c) magmatic Ni-Cu sulfide stratabound deposits such as: (a) Mn-oxide
deposits, and (d) late-orogenic mesothermal and carbonate deposits at Nsuta, Ghana
gold. The differences could be due to several (Kesse, 1985 ) and Tambao, Burkina Faso; (b)
factors, such as (a) the limited development stratiform iron deposits in a carbonate envi-
of greenstone terranes, (b) subsequent tec- ronment later transformed to skarns, e.g. Fa-
 F ~. T
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o 5O I00 150 200 250 ~,m
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Fig. 1. Location maps of the West African craton. (A) Schematic map of the major Precambrian shields of West Africa, simplified from Black
and Fabre ( 1983 ), Mil6si et al. (1989b), Bronner et al. (1990). (B) Schematic lithotectonic map of the Man Shield. Key: I = Post-Eburnean.
2-8. Early Proterozoic: 2 = Granite; 3 = Leucogranite; 4 = B2 Tarkwaian unit; 5 = B2 volcanic unit; 6 = B 1 sedimentary unit; 7 = D~ thrust belt;
8 = deformed Archean (9, 10) and/or Early Proterozoic (2, 6) complexes. 9, 10. Archean: 9 = Archean greenstone belt and ultrabasic-basic
complexes; 10 = Archean granite-gneiss complexes. 11-20. Structural features: 11 = D~ thrust; 12 = D2 thrust; 13 = D2 sinistral strike-slip fault; La9
O
14a = D2 anticline; 14b = D2 syncline; 15 = D3 dextral strike-slip fault; 16a = D 3 anticline; 16b = D 3 syncline; 1 7 = D3 thrust; 18= Pan-African
mobile belt; 1 9 = MAKO: geographic area; 20= Brobo: main fault.
 ~o
L2o ~oo

/
19 ~ Au DT. 23 [] Zn, Pb /
f /
/ 20 0 Au M T 24 ~ Other commodities ,'[[,~/
/
// 14 ¸
21 A& Fe

?2 V Mn /
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• 12=

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____ L
THE BIRIMIAN OROGENIC BELT, WEST AFRICA 309

Lithostructural Ore deposit Type Au-metol Grade Production ( t )

unit (t) (g/t ) 1986 1988

Torkwoion TARKWA DISTRICT :

B2 • Old Torkwo +Abolmo (GH) 3 107 9.8
• TARKWA GOLDFIELD (GH) 3 21.3 4-5 0.6 0,62
• Teberebie ( GH) 3 25.7 1.9
• Iduopriem (GH) 3 11 2.6
Ntronong (GH) 3 2.6 4.8

82 POURA (BF) 5 26.3 11-15 2.44 2.32

Sabodala (S) 5 11 5-6
Yoour~ (CI) 2 10 4-5
SYAMA (M) 2-L >8 3.7

BI (GH) 4 710 22.5 7.68 9.69

PRESTEA (GH) 4 220 10.5 0.6 0.73
IBibioni (GH) 4-5 50-70 11
Old Konongo (GH) 4 40
KONON60 (GH) 4 16 5-12 i 0.34
Old Morlu (GH) 4 28 4
Morlu- Bogosu (GH) 4 55 :5.8-4.1
KALANA- I (M) 5 26 15 0.5
Loulo-O (M) 1 28 4.5
Ity (CI) L 16 8

Fig. 3. Type, tonnage, grade and production of the major Early Proterozoic gold deposits of West Africa. ASHANTI:
active mine; Bibiani: closed mine; Loulo: under development; BF: Burkina Faso; CI: Ivory Coast; GH: Ghana; M: Mali;
S: S6n6gal. Type 1: tourmalinized-turbidite hosted gold deposits; type 2: disseminated Au-sulfide deposits; type 3: Tark-
waian gold-bearing conglomerate; type 4: discordant mesothermal auriferous arsenopyrite mineralization; type 5: mesoth-
ermal mineralization with quartz, native gold and polymetallic sulfides; L: lateritic ore. "Au-metal tons" represents past
production and inferred reserves.

16m6, S6n6gal (Wade, 1985); (c) a single mas- and (c) spodumene pegmatite at Bougouni in
sive Z n - A g sulfide orebody in Burkina Faso Mali (Bassot et al., 1981 ). Finally, a few rare,
(Napon, 1988; Ouedraogo, 1989); and (d) late- to post-orogenic quartz veins containing
gold deposits related to tourmalinized turbi- lead and antimony have been reported (Oued-
dite sandstone ( D o m m a n g e t et al., 1985, raogo, 1987, 1989) in the Man Shield.
1986 ). Several deposits related to mafic or fel- In the northern part o f the West African cra-
sic magmatic rocks have been recorded, namely ton (Reguibat Shield) the mineralization
(a) gabbro with F e - T i - V at Tin Edia, Burkina (Pouit, 1975 ) includes: (a) some deposits that
Faso (Neyberg et al., 1980); ( b ) discordant are similar to those o f the southern p a r t m i n
C u - M o , Cu-Ag, Sb, W, Sn, N b - T a minerali- particular, small stratiform Mn orebodies (Bir
zations (Tagini, 1971; Peron, 1975; Tagini and Caleh) contained within Proterozoic metase-
Gobert, 1981; Kesse, 1985; Ouedraogo, 1987); dimentary formations (Rocci, 1975 ) and rest-

Fig. 2. West African ore deposits. 1-18. See Fig. 1B for explanation. 19-24. Early Proterozoic and Archean ore deposits:
19= Early Proterozoic disseminated Au-ore deposits, including: type l, tourmalinized turbidite-hosted deposits (Loulo
district ); type 2, disseminated Au-sulfide deposits (Yaourr, Syama (pro-parte), Dirnrmrra, Goren (pro-parte) ); type 3,
Tarkwaian gold-bearing conglomerate (Tarkwa district, Ntronang); and indeterminate pre-schistose types (Kouprla and
Lrro); 20 = Early Proterozoic discordant mesothermal Au ore deposits including: type 4, disseminated auriferous-arse-
nopyrite ore (Ashanti, Prestea, Marlu-Bogosu, Konongo (pro-parte), Asupiri, Sanoukou (pro-parte); type 5, "quartz-
vein" ore; and other gold deposits; 21= Archean (white) and Early Proterozoic (black) iron deposits; 22= Early Proter-
ozoic manganese deposits; 23= Early Proterozoic Zn + Ag _+ Pb deposits, including Perkoa massive sulfide deposit and
Garango disseminated type; 24 = Other commodities, including: Birimian (?) diamonds (Akwatia, Bonsa river (B), Tor-
tiya); Li pegmatite (Bougouni); volcanogenic disseminated Cu sulfide ore deposit (Zeitouo); Cu-Mo sulfide stockwork
ore (Monogaga); Ni _+ Co lateritic ore (Bonga, Syola); disseminated Ni-Co-PGE ore (Biankouma, Archean ultrabasic-
basic complexes); Pt traces (Winneba, Axim, Makalondi, Kadiolo); Ta-Cb (Issia); 25 = Late- to post-Eburnean Pb quartz
veins. AK=Akrokerri district (Au); NT=Ntronang district (Au Tarkwaian type); OM=Opon Mansi (Fe lateritic ore);
M B = Marlu-Bogosu district (Au).
310 J.-P. MILESI ET AL.

ing, commonly with a tectonic contact, on Ar- carbonate formations (well developed in S6n-
chean rocks (Deschamps and Rocci, 1975; 6gal, Mali and Guinea);
Deschamps et al., 1986); (b) various quartz ( 2 ) Volcanic belts (or troughs ) generally at-
veins with native gold and traces of Fe, Zn, Pb tributed to the Upper Birimian (B2) and
sulfides, or with Cu-Zn-Pb-Fe sulfides along showing bimodal (tholeiitic and calc-alkaline )
northerly-striking (D2?) fracture zones at the volcanism, polyphase intrusive magmatic
margins of granitic plutons; and (c) Mo-Fe- complexes and fluvio-deltaic formations (in-
As bearing quartz veins and Cu-Sn greisens, cluding the Tarkwaian of Ghana) whose abun-
also associated with granodiorite or porphyri- dance and importance varies from one belt to
tic granite. another.
Recent geochemical studies of the bimodal
Geologic setting of the Birimian volcanic B2 series give controversial results in
that they suggest (a) intracontinental rift vol-
canism at Mako, Bouroum-Yalogo and Tsala-
Lithology bya el Khabra in Mauritania (Deschamps et
al., 1986), (b) back-arc volcanism at Mako
In comparison with the classic features of (Dia, 1988), and (c) oceanic plateau volca-
Precambrian shields, the Early Proterozoic of nism at Mako, Bouroum-Yalogo, Yaour6,
West Africa is distinguished by (a) a paucity Haute-Como6, Liptako and Tsalabya el Kha-
of komatiite (Regnoult, 1980; Tegyey and Jo- bra (Abouchami, 1990; Abouchami et al.,
han, 1989; Mil6si et al., 1989b), (b) the pres- 1991 ). The tholeiitic and komatiitic suites of
ence of abundant leucogranite (Casanova, Guinea (Kiniero and Niandan) belong to a rift
1973; Cocherie, 1978), and (c) certain metal- developed in a thick, composite crust (Mil6si
logenic differences, which are considered later et al., 1989b). The calc-alkaline volcanism at
in this article. the end of each volcanic cycle can be inter-
Whereas the Archean granite-gneiss nuclei preted within the context of either transcur-
of the West African craton typically contain rent faulting (Dal6ma; Bassot, 1987) or sub-
disrupted greenstone belts, the Early Protero- duction; however, the intercalation of
zoic Birimian is characterized by an alterna- continental sediments with the calc-alkaline
tion of "sedimentary basins" and "volcanic sequences of the volcanic belts in S6n6gal-Mali
belts" extending over several hundreds or even and the Ivory Coast (Mil6si et al., 1989b; Ledru
thousands of kilometers and by large intrusive et al., 1989b, 1991b), and the absence of ma-
magmatic complexes showing polyphase em- jor low-angle tectonics would seem to favour
placement (Figs. 1 and 2; Mil6si et al., 1989b). the transcurrent context.
The reconstituted pile of the volcanic and sed- The geological history of the Early Protero-
imentary formations, which were initially de- zoic of West Africa is, depending on the latest
fined in the Birim river of Ghana (Kitson, field and laboratory data, generally described
1928; Junner, 1940), shows (Fig. 4): in relation to one of two conceptual models--
(1) Sedimentary basins attributed to the monocyclic evolution or polycyclic evolution.
Lower Birimian (B 1 ) and consisting, from the A comparison of the two models, however,
base up, of (a) basic volcanic rocks and plu- shows an inversion of the proposed lithologic
tons of tholeiitic character (locally preserved sequence. In the Ivory Coast, for example, the
in northwest and west Ivory Coast), (b) flys- Como6 basin is positioned at the top of the
choid deposits with volcano-sedimentary in- lithologic pile (Tagini, 1971; Alric and Vidal,
tercalations (chemical sediments and subor- 1990) whereas its extension in Ghana forms
dinate volcanoclastic tholeiite), and (c) the Lower Birimian (Junner, 1940; Kesse,
 ,H
,-e

_.E
F~
• :Z
Calc-alkaline v o l c a n i c Bz
II SW NE o

TH : Bz intracratonic rift ( Guinea ) 7'

\NIANDAN
,, :"~ "';'" 6d ~ Main dyke and
, ~ .... .~,,~ ~, _ .......... ::.. :~

~ ~ i . " ' ~ - ' : : ' : : . . . . . 'oo~'~,/~ ."-:."-:. :" ... '[~ "- ::(::.:":: ,,
÷ ÷+ .. ~
,Q:. . ..
RAN~ G~- ~ ~ I - ~ ( . . . :--- - - _
5-6-f1-f9 + , .'.'."

~X:: KINIERO
Fig. 4. Location of the main Early Proterozoic ore deposits of West Africa related to host lithologies (paleogeographic reconstruction predating
the Eburnean D2 tectono-metamorphic phase). Geology: (unit numbers as in Figs. 1B and 2). 2=Granite (pre- to syn-Di phases). 4=B2
Tarkwaian u n i t - - K = Kawere sandy-conglomerate formation; B = Banket sandy-conglomerate formation containing Au quartz-pebble conglom-
erate; TH= Tarkwa and Huni formations (mainly phyllite and fine-grained sandstone). 5 = Upper Birimian (B2) predominantly volcanic--
5a=tholeiitic volcanic rock; 5b=calc-alkaline or tholeiitic andesite; 5c=felsic volcanic and epiclastic rock; 5d=komatiitic basalt (Niandan;
Guinea); 5e= volcano-plutonic complexes (Ghana). 6. Lower Birimian (B 1) predominantly sedimentary--6a = basic tholeiitic volcanic and
plutonic rocks; 6b = flysch type rocks; 6c = volcano-sedimentary complexes, including a tourmalinized sandstone (white), b chert, and c "Mn-
formations" and some intermediate tholeiitic to felsic volcanic rocks; 6d=carbonate formations, including Fe stratiform deposits (black).
7=Archean (9, 10) and/or Early Proterozoic (2, 6) complexes deformed by the Eburnean orogeny (only phase Dl shown). 9=Archean
greenstone-belt and ultrabasic-basic complexes--9a = basalt and/or stratified complexes; 9b= banded iron formations with associated meta-
sedimentary rocks. 10 = Archean--10a = granite-gneiss complexes; lob = Late-Liberian granite. Ore deposits: Au ( 1-17 ): 1 = Tourmalinized
turbidite-hosted deposit--Loulo district; 2-3. Greenstone-hosted deposits---2=Yaour6-Angovia, Syama, Kokumbo; 3=Di6n6m6ra, Goren;
4=Tarkwaian gold-bearing conglomerate--Tarkwa district, Ntronang. 5-7. Discordant mesothermal auriferous arsenopyrite ore deposits.
5 = Gold Coast Range Ashanti, Prestea, Marlu-Bogosu, Konongo (pro-parte); 6 = Asupiri; 7 = Sanoukou district, Diabarou; 8-16. Discordant
mesothermal quartz veins with native gold: 8 = Poura; 9 = Bouroum, Guiro, Aribinda, Zug; 10 = Bayildiaga, Akrokerri; 11 = Bibiani, Konongo,
Obuom; 12 = Banora; 13 = Jean-Gobel6; 14 = M6dinandi; 15 = Kalana; 16 = Sabodala; 17 = Lateritic ore--Ity. Other commodities ( 18-27 ): 18 = Fe:
Fal6m6; 19 = Mn: Nsuta; 20 = Mn: Tambao, Mokta; 21 = Mn: Zi6mougoula; 22 = Zn-Ag: Perkoa; 23= Cu: Zeitouo; 24 = Diamonds: Birim river
(Akwatia), Bonsa river; 25 = Diamonds: Tortiya; 26 = Archean BIF: Nimba, Klahoyo, Simandou, Wologisi Range, Bie, Bagla, Bong range, Putu
range; 27 = N i - C o - P t Biankouma (Archean).
312 J.-P. MILESI ET AL.

1985 ). Geochronology does not, at present, re- penetrative, according to the competence of the
solve the problem: numerous Rb/Sr ages fa- rocks.
vour polycyclism (Lemoine et al., 1985 ), plac- The basis for the polycyclic evolution is the
ing the first cycle between 2.3 and 2.1 Ga (but characteristic polyphase structural and meta-
the error margin is wide and a more precise age morphic sequence, recognized throughout the
for the deposits remains uncertain), whilst re- Ivory Coast (Bard, 1974; Bard and Lemoine,
cent isotopic data, including 2°7pb/2°6pb on 1976; Lemoine et al., 1985; Lemoine, 1988;
single-zircons (Mil6si et al., 1989b; Calvez et Feybesse et al., 1989, 1990b; Fabre et al.,
al., 1990), conventional U / P b determination 1990), Mali-S6n6gal (Ledru et al, 1989b,
on zircons (Boher, written commun., 1990), 1991b), and Burkina Faso (Ouedraogo and
and N d / S m results (Abouchami, 1990), indi- Prost, 1986; Feybesse et al., 1990a), which in-
cate that accretion was very rapid---detrital dicates a major phase of deformation (D1) be-
zircons of the sedimentary basins have either a tween the Upper and Lower Birimian. The
localized Archean source (2.93 Ga in Guinea) major arguments supporting this model are:
or a Proterozoic source of between 2.16 and (a) the presence of foliated B1 clasts and in-
2.09 Ga, whereas B2 volcanism took place be- clusions in the fluvio-deltaic conglomerate and
tween 2.09 and 2.06 Ga. in the B2 intrusions; (b) B2 dykes cutting the
foliation of the B 1 unit; and (c) the consistent
synclinal position of the B2 units and the ab-
Structural evolution
sence in them of any early D l-related structure
(even in the fine-grained volcano-sedimentary
A fundamental factor in the interpretation facies with similar competence to the B1
of the Birimian in terms ofa monocyclic or po- rocks).
lycyclic evolution is the interpretation of the The polycyclic evolution is most controver-
structural evolution of the Early Proterozoic of sial in Ghana. According to Ledru et al.
West Africa. (1988), Cozens (1988), and Mil6si et al.
The basis for the monocyclic interpretation ( 1991 ), two major phases of deformation ex-
is either the geosynclinal model (Arnould, ist--pre-Tarkwaian (DI) and post-Tarkwaian
1959; Bassot, 1969; Tagini, 1971 ) or the Pha- (D2). Leube et al. (1990), on the other hand,
nerozoic plate-tectonic model (Bertrand et al., although recognizing the existence of two
1989; Abouchami et al., 1991 ) with the Biri- schistosities (S~-$2), lineations and thrust
mian volcanic series at the base of the Biri- zones in the Birimian, consider the compres-
mian succession and in general concordance sive deformation to have been strictly pre-
with the Archean greenstone belts. The argu- Tarkwaian and deny the existence of a dis-
ments supporting this model are essentially cordance between the Lower and Upper Biri-
isotopic (Abouchami, 1990); namely, a very mian; they consider the deformation of the
small age range around 2. l Ga, and little or no Tarkwaian to be associated with a tension-re-
sign of reworking or recycling of the Archean lated gravity folding. The discrepancies be-
basement. Leube et al. (1990) consider the tween the two interpretations are fundamental
sedimentary basins and volcanic belts of Ghana as they constrain any discussion about the ori-
to be lateral, time-equivalent facies variants. gin of gold mineralization in the Gold Coast
A monocyclic evolution implies that defor- Range.
mation of the series would have occurred after As far as the present authors are concerned,
the major phase of accretion and before the de- the lithologic, structural and metamorphic fea-
position of the fluvio-deltaic formations; tures that they have observed in the Birimian
structures would therefore be late and variably of Ghana are consistent with a polycyclic evo-
THE BIRIMIAN OROGENIC BELT, WEST AFRICA 313

lution, and this is presented here as a basis for and D2 structures. In addition, the contact be-
limited discussion. Thus: tween Lower and Upper Birimian is com-
( 1 ) Concerning the existence of a discord- monly highly sheared (representing a major
ance between the Lower and Upper Birimian, lithologic discontinuity) and some Upper Bir-
polyphase deformation structures, such as fold imian-related dykes observed in the Ashanti
interference patterns and the development of and Prestea mines (Adadey, 1985 ) cut the first
two schistosities (Fig. 5), exist in the Lower foliation of the Lower Birimian (Ledru et al.,
Birimian sedimentary rocks. The first schis- 1988 ). The metamorphic grade is generally of
tosity ( D I - S l ) was related to initially flat-lying greenschist facies, grading locally to the bio-
isoclinal folds, with the first tectonic event tite-garnet zone.
being very intense in the southeastern part of (2) Concerning the deformation that affects
Ghana where the metamorphism grades from the Tarkwaian, it can be seen that:
biotite-garnet to kyanite-staurolite and finally (a) the Tarkwaian conglomerates contain
migmatite. The second schistosity (D2-$2) was metamorphic pebbles from the Lower Biri-
subvertical with a NE-SW trend, and was as- mian (Hirst, 1938; Junner et al., 1942), some
sociated with regional anticlinal and synclinal of which are foliated (Ledru et al., 1988),
folding; high strain gradients are observed in whereas the granitic pebbles from the Upper
the vicinity of SE-verging D2 thrust zones and Birimian plutonic and volcanic suite are
NNE-SSW striking sinistral D2 strike-slip unfoliated;
faults in the Bibiani area. (b) the Tarkwaian sediments were foliated
The Upper Birimian, on the other hand, and recrystallized under prograde metamor-
which is composed mainly of coarse-grained phic conditions, from the sericite-chlorite zone
plutonic rocks and locally associated volcanic up to the chloritoid and kyanite zone;
rocks, only shows signs of syn-emplacement (c) the structures in the Tarkwaian are geo-

Fig. 5. D2 folds in Lower Birimian micaschist, Konongoarea. Plane light (X25). S~: So-~foliation 1; $2: cleavage 2 in
axial plane of DEfold; 3: biotite blasts (syn-foliation 1 and pre-cleavage2).
314 J.-P. MILESIETAL.

metrically and kinematically compatible with tary Lower Birimian (B1), with basic tholei-
the structures developed during the D2 defor- itic rocks preserved locally at the base, and
mation of the Birimian series; and tholeiitic volcano-sedimentary intercalations
(d) reverse faults are abundant in the Tark- and carbonate formations well developed at the
waian, with some of them (observed in mines; top. This represents a first Early Proterozoic
Cooper, 1934) showing a displacement of more accretionary stage with most of the detrital in-
than 450 m, and overturned strata are fill derived from Early Proterozoic material,
common. apart from rare Archean zircons found in
Such observations indicate that the Tark- Guinea near the contact with the Archean
waian rests unconformably on the Lower Biri- nuclei.
mian and that it was involved in the second (2) A first (D 1) tectonic phase at ,-, 2.1 Ga,
compressive phase of the Birimian. Moreover, which contributed to the cratonization of the
the metamorphic conditions that were at- terrane around the Archean nuclei. The Early
tained (kyanite isograd) imply a thickening of Proterozoic was placed in thrust contact with
the series of as much as 15 km which can be the Archean basement (Feybesse et al., 1989,
correlated with the SE-verging thrusts of the 1990b; Figs. 1 and 6), resulting in a tectonic
Lower Birimian over the Tarkwaian (Cooper, Archean-Proterozoic boundary for West Af-
1934; Hirst, 1938). In that no evidence of ma- rica. This phase is attributed to collision
jor extensional tectonics has been shown, the tectonics.
model of tension-related gravity folding is un- (3) Deposition, over a period of ~ 40 Ma,
likely and the deformation of the Tarkwaian is of the Upper Birimian (B2) with (a) numer-
attributed to compression tectonics (D2). ous separate volcanic troughs developed
Thus the data imply that the sedimentary mainly in ensialic sites of different composi-
fluvio-deltaic rocks of the Tarkwaian are at the tion (tholeiitic and rare komatiitic volcanism,
same structural level as the Upper Birimian, bimodal tholeiitic to calc-alkaline volcanism,
which is composed mainly ofplutonic and rare calc-alkaline volcanism, volcano-plutonic
volcanic rocks associated with minor sedimen- zones ), and (b) Tarkwaian clastic-infill basins
tary horizons--i.e, later than the Lower Biri- (syn- to post-calc-alkaline volcanism and pre-
mian (B1) cycle and the first (D~) deforma- to syn-D2 tectonics). This period corre-
tion event, The Tarkwaian is thus considered sponded to a second accretionary stage attrib-
as representing the Upper Birimian (B2) cycle. uted to extensional tectonics.
Finally, all the units were affected by NE-SW (4) Major transcurrent tectonics (D2-D3)
trending ductile strike-slip faults (Fig. 1 ) cor- corresponding to a new compressive phase and
related with a dextral third deformation event affecting the whole Birimian series. The D2 de-
( D 3 ) that is well defined in Burkina Faso formation is marked by N-S to NNE-SSW
(Feybesse et al., 1990a). sinistral strike-slip faults that are locally asso-
The polycyclic character of the Birimian or- ciated with SE-verging thrust zones; the D 3 de-
ogenic belt can therefore be established from formation is related to NE-SW dextral strike-
the lithologic, structural and metamorphic fea- slip faults.
tures in Ghana and can also be shown for other
areas of West Africa--e.g. the Loulo area in Tectonic setting
Mali (Ledru et al., 1989b, 1991b) or the Per-
koa area in Burkina Faso (Feybesse et al., A tectonic evolution passing from a collision
1990a). Its evolution can be summarized as (D1) phase to a transcurrent ( D 2 - D 3 ) phase
follows: is, according to Shackleton (1986), very typi-
( 1 ) Deposition of the dominantly sedimen- cal of collision belts. However, to what extent
THE BIRIMIAN OROGENIC BELT, WEST AFRICA 315

ZIEMOUGOULA zones. The volcanic rocks contain no trace of

(Ivory Coast)
major tangential tectonics, nor any high-pres-
a - 2480Ma sure relicts and, although the tectonic evolu-
,1I
tion now appears to be clearer, too many data
G 8 are still missing to be able to apply the modern
concepts of plate tectonics.
~~_ . ,~, - - -~' - - ~ ~ ~_./_.~_
- _ ~.~ ~
u1 thru st
----~_ ~-~-_-~'~7-
_- --~_.~j • zone
6 - - ~. . . 2. " ----- -: " 2 Metallogeny of the Birimian
Mn 7 ~ ~ l . , ~ r ~ t 2935Ma
6 ~ ~ --~2880Ma
5 --Fr.~^ ~ r ~ p "
Main economic mineralization
q12100Ma~4 ~ 1 1 • - - 1 .3041Ma
......
-12115Mat /]Ip~~ ~ ~ .........
From an economic point of view, the south-
ern part of the West African craton contains:
Fig. 6. Lithostructural reconstruction of Zi6mougoula ( 1 ) Gold, which is actively explored for and
(Ivory Coast ) showing D~ thrust zone and Mn formation.
1, 2. Archean basement: l = A r c h e a n granite-gneiss;
mined within Birimian terrane. Mining of gold
2=Archean granite with increasing rotational deforma- in West Africa dates back to pre-history, with
tion toward the D~ thrust zone. 3-9. Early Proterozoic total production up to the beginning of the in-
formations: 3=syn-D1 granite. 4-7. Mesothermal vol- dustrial era (end of the 19th century) being es-
cano-sedimentary formations with increasing rotational
deformation toward the D~ thrust zone: 4 = B1 tholeiitic
timated at about 1000 t (Bache, 1984), since
lava; 5 = Early Proterozoic BIF; 6 = B 1 sedimentary rocks; when a further ~ 1000 t of gold have been pro-
7= Zi6mougoula Mn-formation; 8 = Epizonal B 1 argillo- duced from the Ghanaian deposits alone
siltite; 9= B2 conglomerate including B 1 schists and gran- (Bache, 1984; Kesse, 1985; Cappendell,
ite boulders: (a) foliated granite boulder (2480 Ma) (b)
unfoliated granite boulder (2096 Ma). Ages: U / P b and
1987 )--thus greatly exceeding the production
P b / P b on zircons by Boher and Calvez in Feybesse et al., from other West African countries where ex-
(1989), Mil6si et al., (1989b). tensive gold panning is still active. In Ghana,
two types of gold deposit (Fig. 3) are distin-
can plate-tectonic models be applied to the guished: (a) the auriferous quartz-pebble con-
Early Proterozoic? According to Windley glomerates of the Tarkwa district, generally in-
(1984), the Archean-Proterozoic boundary terpreted as paleoplacers (Junner et al, 1942;
defines the stage at which modern-style plate- Sestini, 1973; Kesse, 1985), and (b) the As-
tectonic processes were able to begin; this as- hanti-type gold deposits (Junner, 1932; Leube
sumption is based on several features of Early et al., 1990) that are well developed along a
Proterozoic terranes in the North American major strike-slip fault system in the Gold Coast
and Australian shields--features such as (a) Range. Auriferous quartz-vein deposits have
the presence of a rigid crust, (b) the recon- also been described and mined in other regions
struction of paleo-environments similar to of West Africa (Sonnendrucker, 1969; Blagon-
Phanerozoic environments (rifts, volcanic adezdhin, 1975; Pal6, 1979; Kesse, 1985; Huot
arcs, accretionary prisms, etc.), and (c) the et al., 1987; Mil6si et al., 1989b). Several oc-
existence of Himalayan-type collision belts. currences of Au mineralization associated with
In the Early Proterozoic Birimian of West disseminated sulfides are reported from the
Africa it is possible to determine (a) rift zones Ivory Coast, Mali and Burkina Faso. To com-
or oceanic plateaus corresponding to a period plete the picture, mention should be made of
of crustal growth (Patchett and Arndt, 1986; locally exploitable laterite deposits, the best
Abouchami et al., 1991), (b) flysch-basins, known example being Ity in the Ivory Coast
and (c) collision tectonics, but not volcanic (Lajoinie and Fonteilles, 1968) grading 16
arcs or oceanic crust subduction/obduction g/t Au with reserves of about 20 t gold metal.
316 J.-P. MILESI ET AL.

(2) Predominantly stratiform Mn, Fe, Zn- tectonic contexts, described here as:
Ag deposits that are either being mined (e.g. ( 1 ) Pre-orogenic: Pre-D~ mineralization re-
the Nsuta Mn mine in Ghana) or under devel- lated to early extension zones. The minerali-
opment (e.g. the Perkoa massive Zn-Ag sul- zation is diversified--(a) stratiform Au tour-
fide and Tambao Mn mines in Burkina Faso, malinite deposits (type 1 Au) in sedimentary
and the Fal6m6 Fe mine in S6n6gal). settings (Loulo in Mali), (b) stratiform
( 3 ) Reputedly Birimian diamonds (Bardet, Fe + Cu (Fal6m6 in S6n6gal) and Mn (Nsuta
1974; Kesse, 1985 ) which are mined from sev- in Ghana, Tambao in Burkina Faso) deposits,
eral alluvial and eluvial deposits mainly in and (c) a single massive Zn-Ag sulfide de-
Ghana (Birim and Bonsa rivers) and the Ivory posit (Perkoa in Burkina Faso)--and occurs
Coast (Tortiya) and, with an estimated weight in tholeiitic volcano-sedimentary rocks with
of slightly more than 1O0 t carats, have a not commonly associated carbonated hydrother-
inconsiderable economic significance. mal-sedimentary (Mn formations, chert) re-
gional stratigraphic marker beds.
Control of the economic mineralization (2) "Syn-orogenic": Post-D~ to syn-D2 min-
eralization associated with the individualiza-
Analysis of the Early Proterozoic gold de- tion and subsequent deformation both of the
posits in relation to the polycyclic interpreta- troughs of B2 tholeiitic volcanism (dissemi-
tion of the Birimian, which appears to better nated Au-sulfide deposits or type 2 Au) and of
satisfy the constraints of the field data, shows the Tarkwaian clastic infill extension basins
the distribution of gold between different Bir- and their auriferous paleoplacers (type 3 Au).
imian lithologic units to be very unequal (Mi- (3) Late orogenic: Post peak-Dz/D3 miner-
16si et al., 1989b; Figs. 2 and 3). Unit B1 con- alization with emplacement of discordant me-
tains by far the largest gold metal reserves sothermal Au deposits as auriferous arsenopy-
(close to 1200 t), followed by the B2 conglom- rite and gold bearing quartz veins (type 4 Au)
erates of the Tarkwaian Banket (about 250 t; and gold bearing quartz veins with traces of
Bache, 1984), and then the volcano-plutonic Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag-Bi (type 5 Au).
formations of unit B2 (about 110 t); the gran-
itic rocks contain only a minor proportion of Pre-orogenic mineralization
the total (less than 50 t). These figures must,
however, be considered in relation to the fact Stratiform Mn, Fe, Cu, Au, and Zn-Ag min-
that the Ashanti mine, with 710 t of gold, rep- eralization took place during the deposition of
resents almost 60% of the total attributed to the Lower Birimian (B 1 ) and is found prefer-
unit B 1. entially in the upper part of the unit in settings
This skewed gold distribution is equally ap- that were characterized by sedimentary and
parent when the main deposits and occur- paleotectonic instability, as well as by associ-
rences with more than 1 t of gold metal are ated hydrothermal and tholeiitic volcanic ac-
considered. Unit B1 contains about 50% and tivity (Fig. 4). Examples of this mineraliza-
the B2 volcano-plutonic rocks between 25 and tion are: (a) the Mn layers that are widely
30% of the reserves. Finally, it should be distributed throughout West Africa; (b) the
pointed out that 25-30% of the gold deposits Perkoa massive Zn-Ag sulfide deposit in Bur-
occur at structural contacts between the B 1 and kina Faso; (c) the Fal6m6 iron deposits of
B2 units. S6n6gal; and (d) the Loulo tourmalinized
The lithologic, structural and metamorphic sandstones of Mali which host the type 1 Au
controls of the economic gold and base-metal gold mineralization characterized by an Au-B-
mineralization can be ascribed to three main Fe (Ni-Co) association. All these deposits,
THE BIRIMIAN OROGENIC BELT, WEST AFRICA 317

whose main features are outlined below, were (Ledru et al., 1988; Milrsi et al., 1991),
formed prior to the first tectono-metamorphic whereas the association with black shale could
phase (D 1 )" be interpreted according to the Force and Can-
non ( 1988 ) model of"shallow marine chemi-
Manganese deposits and beds cal sediments on the margin of black-shale
(and related) facies of stratified seas" such as
Most of the geological (Bessoles, 1977; Mi- has been invoked for the Moanda mineraliza-
16si et al., 1989b) and geophysical maps avail- tion of Gabon. However, their common spa-
able for West Africa show the extent of the tial association with tholeiitic volcanoclastite
(B1) manganiferous beds that are widely de- and/or siliceous beds and their presence in the
veloped in the central and eastern parts of the vicinity of Perkoa favour the sedimentary hy-
Proterozoic domain where they form useful drothermal model in combination with Kim-
stratigraphic marker horizons appearing at, but berley's ( 1989b ) hypothesis, based on the "Fe-
not exclusive to, the top of unit B 1. They rep- formations", expanded to include the "Mn-
resent true "manganese formations" in the formations".
sense of Kimberley (1989a, b), comprising A spatial relationship between the Mn beds
schist, phyllite, quartzite, gondite and carbon- and certain gold deposits has also been pro-
ates (Tagini, 1971 ), which may pass laterally posed, especially in Ghana (Leube et al.,
into essentially siliceous beds similar to those 1990), and will be discussed later.
hosting massive sulfide deposits in numerous
The Perkoa (Zn-Ag) massive sulfide deposit
provinces (e.g. South Iberia; Routhier et al.,
1978). The Nsuta (Ghana), Tambao (Bur- The Perkoa massive Zn-Ag sulfide deposit
kina Faso), and Zirmougoula (Ivory Coast; in Burkina Faso (Ouedraogo and Franceschi,
Fig. 6) Mn deposits are located in carbonate 1982 ) has been dated by the Pb/Pb method on
beds within unit B 1. galena at 2120 + 41 Ma (Marcoux et al., 1988 ).
The presence of manganese has also been re- The reserves of this deposit, the only one of its
ported in the vicinity of the Perkoa massive type in West Africa, have been estimated at 4.5
Zn-Ag sulfide orebody (Napon, 1988; Oued- Mt of ore at 17% Zn and close to 60 g/t Ag
raogo, 1989), whereas various sulfides having (Ouedraogo, 1989 ). The host rocks, metamor-
a Ni _+ Co signature (millerite, linnaeite, pen- phosed to amphibolite facies and showing St
tlandite) have been reported in the primary and $2 deformation in the Perkoa area (Fig. 7 ),
ores and host rocks at Nsuta (Milrsi et al., have been assigned by Ratomaharo et al.
1989b ) where reserves are estimated at around (1988) and Feybesse et al. (1990a) to the
5 Mt of secondary oxide ore with 48.9% Mn Lower volcano-sedimentary Birimian (B1)
and close to 28 Mt of primary carbonate ore that underlies the tholeiitic volcanic rocks of
with 15.30% Mn (Kesse, 1985). the Upper Birimian (B2). According to Rato-
It is still unclear whether the manganese de- maharo et al. (1988), the B1 and B2 volcanic
posits have a predominantly sedimentary ori- and volcanoclastic rocks belong to a TiO2-poor
gin or a predominantly exhalative-sedimen- tholeiitic series similar to modern continental
tary origin due to chemical precipitation from basalts or back-arc basin volcanic suites.
hydrothermal solutions. They show associa- The B1 and B2 formations are cut by var-
tions with turbidite (mass flow) deposits con- ious intrusions, including a granodiorite show-
taining intercalations of more volcanogenic ing a dextral D3 mylonitic zone (Feybesse et
layers (tuff, epiclastite), and also with varia- al., 1990a) that was emplaced in the footwall
bly graphitic black shale. The first association of the deposit (Fig. 8 ). The host formation it-
would reflect the existence of a talus slope self ( 100-150 m thick) consists mainly of me-
318 J.-P. MILESI ET AL.

Fig. 7. Dt and D2 deformation at Guido, close to Perkoa (Burkina Faso). So-So: Foliation So-S> Py: Pre-S~ sulfides
(pyrite). $2: Cleavage2 in axial plane of D2 fold.

tasedimentary rock, having the composition of rich magnesian volcanoclastic rocks in the in-
subgraywacke (Ratomaharo et al., 1988) and terval between the two orebodies, and (c) dis-
with volcano-sedimentary and pyroclastic in- seminated sulfides in a quartz + chlorite +
tercalations, that had been affected by early white mica gangue in the hanging wall of the
hydrothermal alteration (Ratomaharo et al., deposit. The hanging wall rocks also contain
1988; Ouedraogo, 1989 ) as shown by the pres- reworked fragments of pyrrhotite (Ouedra-
ence of (a) manganiferous garnet and gahnite ogo, 1989).
in the footwall of the deposit, (b) chloritic The mineralization itself (Napon, 1988;
stockworks with disseminated sulfides and Ba- Ouedraogo, 1989) occurs as two lenses (20.0
THE BIRIMIAN OROGENIC BELT, WEST AFRICA 319

PERKOA mit a comparison of the Perkoa deposit with

syngenetic sedimentary-hydrothermal or vol-
CROSS-SECTION 10075 E
// canogenic deposits (Franklin et al., 1981;
Om Pouit, 1984) in spite of numerous post-depo-
sitional mineralogical transformations of the
syngenetic ores, such as (a) in situ recrystalli-
-fO0
zation; (b) expulsion of the trace elements Pb,
Cu, Ag and Sb during remobilization, indi-
-200 cated by the crystallization of galena, chalco-
pyrite, tetrahedrite and dyscrasite in sphaler-
ite; (c) the crystallization of magnetite at the
-300
expense of inclusions of pyrrhotite in the
sphalerite, molybdenite and gudmundite; and
":÷ +
MASSIVE \ iF,i,
SULFIDE \ /J I / ++
"
-4OO (d) late emplacement of slightly ferriferous
sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite,
LENSES ~ !t ** pyrrhotite, ullmannite and pyrite in fissures.
-5OO
-o- .... :. The/.t (238U/2°4pb) (Fig. 9) and W (232Th/
2°4pb) ratios, characterizing the deposit's lead
7"-. 2 -600 evolution from 3.7 Ga to 2.12 Ga, are respec-
MYLONITE / tively 9.11 and 34.8 in the Stacey and Kramers
/ GRANODIORITE
(1975) model; according to the standard
Fig. 8. Perkoa massive sulfide deposit: simplified cross- curves of the Zartman and Doe ( 1981 ) model,
section 10075E after Napon (1988) and Ouedraogo these values indicate that the lead records a
(1989). D3: Dextral N70°E strike-slip fault. B2: Tholei-
significant mantle contribution (Marcoux et
itic and mafic to pyroclastic rocks and lavas. B l: Hy-
drothermalized metasedimentary rocks; subgraywacke al., 1988).
with volcano-sedimentary rocks and pyroclastic interca- Finally, it appears that the Early Proterozoic
lations. In black: the main massive sulfide lenses. of the southern part of the West African craton
is abnormally poor in polymetallic volcano-
and 5.8 m thick, respectively) separated by genic mineralization, and especially in Au-
barren hydrothermally altered volcano-sedi- massive sulfide deposits. Apart from the Per-
mentary layers (Ratomaharo et al., 1988 ). The koa massive Zn-Ag sulfide deposit hosted
paragenesis is sphalerite, pyrite and pyrrhotite within Early Proterozoic manganiferous vol-
with accessory galena, chalcopyrite, tetrahed- cano-sedimentary units, the only notable ex-
rite, magnetite, ilmenite, molybdenite and ample is the Tessalit zinciferous deposit (Ad-
barite. The orebody also appears to have been rar des Iforas in Mali) that is of Late
partially offset by D 3 synmetamorphic shear- Proterozoic age (Leblanc and Sauvage, 1986).
ing in such a way that it is difficult to recon- This latter deposit shows a sulfide association
struct its original shape with any precision. with carbonates and magnetite that is reminis-
Napon (1988) and Ouedraogo (1989) show, cent of, and of the same age as, the zinciferous
however, that the mineralized bodies consist of and manganiferous deposits of the Khnaigui-
locally banded massive ore overlying strati- yah district in Saudi Arabia (Sabir and Pouit,
form breccia facies (locally upward fining in 1984). Tessalit is considered to have been em-
the drill holes) composed of fragments of py- placed in an island-arc setting (Leblanc and
rite or polymetallic ore in a chloritic or sulfide Sauvage, 1986) and Perkoa to have been de-
matrix (Ouedraogo, 1989). posited in an intercontinental rift or back-arc
The paragenesis and nature of the ore per- basin setting (Ratomaharo et al., 1988 ).
320 J.-P. MILESI ET AL.

15.3
I ' ' ' I ' / ~-/ '

207pb / 2 0 4 Pb

15.2
OZ~

15.1
Fym'', 7

15
Perkoa

i.-",/,/ I I |
.--"l I I I I

14.5 15 15.5

Fig. 9. Initial isotopic composition of lead from Birimian mineralizations (from Marcoux, written commun., 1990).
Symbols with arrows represent calculated initial isotopic compositions--i.e, intersection of the line of radiogenic enrich-
ment (arrow indicating the slope R) with the primary isochron (age of the deposit established by U/Pb and Pb/Pb on
zircon). No isotopic data on galena are available from these deposits, so it was necessary to use radiogenic-rich sulfides
whose isotopic composition defined good radiogenic enrichment lines. Circles represent mesothermal mineralization.
Asterisks represent stratiform mineralization. The "Loulo" asterisk represents the initial isotopic composition of the
disseminated sulfides hosted by the tourmalinized sandstone at Loulo. The triangle marks the isotopic composition of the
Loulouie mesothermal mineralization (Guyana) The dashed line relates to the late-D2 mineralized quartz-carbonate
stockworks at Loulo.

The Fal@md iron deposits mated at 340 Mt with an average grade of 58%
Fe. The primary magnetite ores show grades in
The Falrm6 district in Srnrgal, with a poten- the order of 40-45% Fe, with the two largest
tial o f more than 800 Mt o f iron ore (Combes, orebodies (Farangalia and G o t o ) containing
1980; Milrsi et al., 1989b) is, together with the 300 Mt at an average grade o f 43% Fe
F e - T i - V mineralization of Tin Edia in Bur- (Combes, 1980; Milrsi et al., 1989b).
kina Faso (Neyberg et al., 1980), one of the The Falrm6 orebodies occur in the top part
largest Early Proterozoic iron districts of the of unit B 1 (Fig. 10), systematically showing
West African craton. The Falrm6 iron district, carbonate-bearing rocks in their footwall (Mi-
55 km long by 15 km wide, contains 12 ore- 16si et al., 1989a). Both the host formation and
bodies in eastern Srnrgal and one in Mali. the mineralized bodies were affected by D i de-
Where outcropping, they consist o f altered ore formation and then intruded by microdiorite
enriched in martite and iron hydroxides with dykes of the (B2) calc-alkaline D a l r m a series;
grades o f between 55 and 60% Fe; the reserves andesite dykes from this suite have been dated
of the three main orebodies ( K o u d r k o u r o u , at around 2.07 Ga ( P b / P b on zircon) by Cal-
Karaka~ne and K o u r o u d i a k o ) have been esti- vez (in Milrsi et al., 1989b). Finally, the
THE BIRIMIAN OROGENIC BELT, WEST AFRICA 321

Fe FALEMI~-GOTO Cross-sections
ORE DEPOSIT W E
GOT.
GOT.24 23-21-3 GOT.14 GOT.29

Schematic map
l J"
"' Z/I II "/I

W E
GOT.18 GOT.9 GOA

J,-

W E
GOT.13 GOT.8 GOT.7
.i-. :.:.:." .':':':" ':-i-:-"

- ,~,'~.: ,~ ,'-".

O ~ O m

0 100 200 500m ~ Superficial formations

I I I I

B 1 UNIT

Hornfels ~ Dolomite carbonate

Iron ore ~ Granite

Fig. 10. Fal6m6-Goto Fe-ore deposits: schematic map and cross sections (A, B, C), modified from Combes (written
commun., 1984).
322 J.-P. MILESI ET AL.

succession was intruded by a granite complex by tourmalinized turbidite formations (sand-

(Boboti) synchronous with D2 deformation stone and rare conglomerate), and thus iden-
(Ledru et al., 1989b, 1991b). tifiable with gold deposits of the "stratiform
The orebodies in the contact aureole of the tourmalinite" and/or "turbidite-hosted de-
Boboti granite intrusion comprise a series of posit" types, which are common in Precam-
magnetite-bearing magnesian skarn lenses with brian shields, particularly in the Proterozoic
thicknesses from a few meters to as much as (Slack, 1982; Taylor and Slack, 1984; Keppie
200 m and lengths of several hundred meters. et al., 1986; Plimer, 1986; Hutchinson, 1987).
The primary ores are generally banded and The gold potential of the Loulo district is sev-
contain magnetite associated with sulfides eral tens of tonnes of gold metal; geological re-
(around 15%) enclosed in a complex gangue serves in the Loulo 0 deposit are 28.2 t of gold
of phlogopite, diopside, serpentine, quartz, metal in ore with an average grade of 4.38 g/t
carbonate, tremolite, chlorite, ilmenite, pla- between the surface and 150 m depth, and with
gioclase, magnesian hornblende, garnet (gros- the deposit still open downdip (Dommanget
sular andradite ) and spinel. The main sulfides et al., 1985).
are pyrite and pyrrhotite, with accessory Cu, The tourmalinized turbidite deposits reflect
Ni, Ni-Co, Zn, As, Mo, and Bi sulfides also an important change which occurred toward
present (Wade, 1985; Mil6si et al., 1989b). In the end of the sedimentation in the extensive
spite of the absence of any direct association Lower Birimian (B1) basins (Fig. 11 ). They
of mafic lithologies with the deposits, this sed- mark the top of the B1 flyschoid formations
imentary setting shows a persistent "mafic sig- (thus forming a lithostratigraphic marker) and
nature" which is reflected by the crystalliza- precede variably carbonate-bearing fine-
tion of pentlandite, smythite, millerite, grained sedimentary rocks (argillo-siltite) that
bravoite and nickeline.
The origin of the Fal6m6 deposits is contro-
versial. They were initially interpreted as con-
tact skarn deposits, but it appeared that the //, l l / / i / / i
,,,,,~,,,,,/, ,,
v v ,¥ "

:.
. ," ":~" ,";~" ',',"; , ..,
contact metamorphism was in fact only re- /<z/I///I~ I//H;IZ 7-
"~ i,/Z lltl/ll,,
sponsible for an in situ transformation of the
pre-existing stratiform mineralization (Ma- ,_L O__
U L O 0 ';'~
,-~A. ; /
" I .....,",~ .....
,,,;!~,: .

ruejol, 1977; Combes, 1980). Wade (1985) "9 _

has interpreted the early mineralization as BIF

type deposits, whereas Mil6si et al. (1989b),
due to the presence of intermediate to silicic i / E233
tholeiitic volcanic rocks in the carbonate-bear- t'- I*
ing formations and the existence of lenses of
massive banded pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite ore,
assign the mineralization to an Fe _+ Cu vol-
canogenic type. Fig. 11. Loulo 0 (Mali) tourmalinized turbidite-hosted
gold deposit (type 1 Au): schematic map (a) and cross
section (b) showing D: fold, completed from Domman-
Tourmalinized turbidite-hosted gold deposits get ( 1985 ). 1 = Late dolerite (post Eburnean). 2 = B 1 do-
(type 1 Au) lomitic carbonate and carbonate-bearing sedimentary
rocks including tholeiitic volcanoclastic rocks. 3=B1
hanging wall: hydrothermalized (chlorite, albite, carbon-
Throughout the whole of West Africa, only
ate) argillo-siltite. 4 = B 1 gold deposit within tourmalin-
the Loulo district of Mall and S6n6gal contains ized turbiditic sandstone. 5 = B 1 footwall: green flyschoid
gold deposits (Loulo 0, Loulo 3, P64) hosted sandstone. 6 = Location of section.
THE BIRIMIAN OROGENIC BELT, WEST AFRICA 323

were followed by the dolomitic carbonates conglomerate beds, and extend for as much as
(Dommanget et al., 1986) which host the Fa- several hundred meters from their edges. This
16m6 stratiform iron deposits (Figs. 4 and 1 l; pattern, along with the general distribution of
Mil6si et al., 1989a, b). the deposits, reflects a control by syn-sedimen-
A roughly N-S trending talus slope con- tary paleofractures. It should be mentioned that
trolled the general distribution of the turbidite less-developed tourmalinite stockworks also
deposits, which are found along a zone over 200 occur locally in the hanging wall formations of
km long (Mil6si et al., 1989b). This area of in- the tourmalinized sandstones.
stability is also marked by numerous highly The early development of host-rock tour-
tourmalinized hydrothermal zones in which malinization in the feeder zones is confirmed
hydrothermal activity commonly preceded the by the presence of tourmalinite pebbles (Fig.
intermediate to felsic tholeiitic volcanic activ- 12 ) in the non-tourmalinized volcanoclastic
ity (dykes, pyroclastic rocks and volcanoclas- hanging wall, and locally (Loulo 3) of re-
tic rocks) that persisted during subsequent worked tourmalinized pebbles within con-
carbonate sedimentation. The tourmalinized glomerate of the host formation.
detrital layers were later affected by two phases The gold deposits consist of mineralized
of synmetamorphic deformation (D~ and D2 ) bodies in which the highest gold grades corre-
and, like the Fal6m6 deposit, are cut by Dal- spond to (a) highly tourmalinized sulfide
6ma-type calc-alkaline dykes that were them- zones fed by pipes with early tourmalinite
selves foliated by D2 deformation. (Loulo 0, Loulo 3, P64), and (b) zones with a
The tourmalinized turbidite-hosted gold de-
posits reflect two superimposed types of mi-
neralization (Mil6si et al., 1989b): (a) a pre-
tectonic disseminated sulfide mineralization
associated with a gangue of pre-D~ cryptocrys-
talline Mg-tourmaline (dravite) + silica _+
carbonate _+ magnesian chlorite _+ white mica;
and (b) a late-D2 Au stockwork sulfide miner-
alization that overprints the D2 foliation and
is cut by polyphase quartz + carbonate _+albite
stockworks. The age of the disseminated mi-
neralization has been established at ~2085
Ma, and between 2098_+ I l Ma and 2072 + 9
Ma by the U / P b and Pb/Pb ages of the young-
est detrital zircons of the B 1 host rocks and by
the Pb/Pb age of zircons from the B2 Dal6ma
series dykes cutting the tourmalinized sand-
stone (ages respectively from Boher and Cal-
vez in Mil6si et al., 1989b).
The highly tourmalinized zones correspond
to pipes ( 1 to 100 m in diameter) containing
pre-tectonic veinlets of tourmalinite in net-
works (commonly controlled by the strata
themselves) and hydraulic breccias that pre-
Fig. 12. Conglomerate, showing black tourmalinite peb-
date foliation. The pipes are associated with bles (To) intercalated in tourmalinized sandstone--Loulo
massive tourmalinization of the sandstone and (Mali) (×25).
324 J.-P. MILESI ET AL.

variable density of late-D2 quartz-carbonate gold-bearing tourmalinites" (Slack, 1982; Pli-

and sulfide stockworks. The gold may be dis- mer, 1986) and the "turbidite-hosted gold de-
crete (P64) or well developed (Loulo 0) posits" (Boyle, 1986; Keppie et al., 1986 ). The
whereupon it is preferentially located in the in- former, common in the Proterozoic (Slack,
tensely tourmalinized areas (Loulo 0 ). In both 1982 ), are considered to be indicators of sub-
ore types, the sulfide paragenesis contains few marine hydrothermal systems generally asso-
mineral species, but is characterized by traces ciated with exhalative deposits of Pb-Zn, Cu-
of Ni-Co sulfides; the sulfides are essentially Zn, Cu-Co, Sn, W and Au (Slack, 1982; Tay-
(Dommanget et al., 1985) pyrite, pyrrhotite, lor and Slack, 1984; Plimer, 1986; Bone, 1988 );
pentlandite, gersdorffite and arsenopyrite. The modern analogs would be hot-spring centers or
gold is very pure (Ag< 1%) and forms fine geothermal systems. This submarine hydro-
particles ( 10-40/.tm) in fissures or at the sur- thermal model presumes the early introduc-
faces of pyrite crystals with which it is gener- tion of boron-rich fluids into the deposits.
ally associated; it is, however, coarser in the The "turbidite-hosted gold deposits", also
quartz and carbonates of the stockworks (0.5- common in the Proterozoic (Hutchinson,
1.0 mm) and in the oxide ore. 1987), contain quartz-carbonate veinlets
The ratio/~ (238U/2°4pb) is 9.35 (Fig. 9) in characterized by variable amounts of tourma-
the Stacey and Kramers (1975) model, using line, chlorite and mica. Certain authors
an age of 2085 Ma for the disseminated miner- (Haynes, 1986 ) consider such mineralization
alization; this value, according to the Zartman to derive from syngenetic deposition, although
and Doe ( 1981 ) model, indicates a greater de- it is more generally interpreted as epigenetic
gree of crustal involvement than for the Per- mineralization post-dating the deposition of
koa massive Zn-Ag sulfide orebody, and the the host rocks (Keppie et al., 1986; Boyle,
same procedure applied to the sulfides of the 1986 ); the Passagem de Mariana gold miner-
Fal6m6 iron deposits, which are of roughly the alization in Brazil has, for example, been con-
same age as Loulo, confirms this trend sidered as both epigenetic (Vial et al., 1988)
(/t=9.41). It can be suggested that the circu- and syngenetic (Fleischer and Routhier,
lation of mineralizing fluids in a setting con- 1973). This debate could be enlightened by
sisting of unstable flyschoid basins with little considering the additional factors controlling
tholeiitic influence would bring about a mix- stratiform and late-tectonic mineralization
ture between the lead of the fluids and that of (multi-stage model) as shown by the poly-
the host rocks through which the fluid circu- morphic character of the Loulo district depos-
lated. This tendency is even more apparent its. Finally, it should be noted that the Au-B-
with the sulfides of the late-D2 stockworks, as Fe-Ni-Co-As mineralogical association at
indicated in Fig. 9 by the position of the line of Loulo is similar to that of the Dorlin gold de-
radiogenic enrichment. Thus it can be con- posit in Guyana, which is hosted by Paramaca
cluded that the fluids giving rise to the miner- volcanic formations--the probable Early Pro-
alization were subjected to crustal influence terozoic equivalent of unit B I in West Africa
and were controlled by (a) active syn-sedi- (Ledru et al., 1991a).
mentary paleofracturing within an unstable
flyschoid sedimentary basin, leading to early "Syn-orogenic" mineralization
disseminated mineralization, and (b) late-tec-
tonic D2 fracturing controlling the late sulfide No gold deposits appear to be directly re-
and subsequently quartz-carbonate stockworks. lated to the first orogenic phase (D1), but var-
The two types of mineralization would ap- ious types of auriferous mineralization took
pear to belong respectively to the "stratiform place in localized extensional or transtensional
THE BIRIMIAN O R O G E N I C BELT, WEST AFRICA 325

B2 environments following the D1 phase (Fig. However, as at Yaourr, the mineralization was
4). The first of these was the late-B2 Au + Cu relatively well preserved by the D: deforma-
mineralization in B2 tholeiitic volcanic to vol- tion which here was of moderate intensity.
cano-plutonic areas situated in the hinterland The mineralization at Syama (Mali), like
of the major DI thrust zone, and can be as- that at Yaourr, occurs within a mafic tholeiitic
signed to the "greenstone-hosted gold depos- volcanic setting rather similar to that at Ango-
its" as described by Hutchinson (1987). It via. However, it seems also to be partly con-
should be noted that (as far as is known) no trolled by D2-D3 faults (Pohl, oral comm.,
significant gold or base-metal deposit was em- 1990).
placed during the deposition of the B2 calc-al- The disseminated gold and sulfide mineral-
kaline series. However, between 2081 and 1968 ization at Yaourr-Angovia is associated with
Ma (Leube et al., 1990 ) the gold was reworked locally brecciated hydrothermal zones cutting
and deposited in Tarkwaian conglomerate both the volcanic rocks and the suites of dacite
again in close spatial association with vol- to rhyodacite dykes and sills (Fig. 13). The
cano-plutonic systems that, according to Leube mineralization gangue is characterized by the
et al. (1990), are mainly tholeiitic with, ac- association quartz _+ white mica __+carbonates
cording to Milrsi et al. (1989b), local pre- _ tourmaline + chlorite, all deposited before
Tarkwaian calc-alkaline dacite. the D2 deformation since this affected both the
sulfides and the gangue. The sulfide minerali-
Disseminated Au-sulfide deposits (type 2 Au) zation is characterized by an absence ofPb, Sb,
and As minerals (Lafor~t, written comm.,
Several occurrences of Au _+ Cu minerali- 1989); the main sulfides are pyrite (abun-
zation associated with disseminated sulfides dant), chalcopyrite (common) and rare pyr-
are hosted by B2 tholeiite or intrusions (sub- rhotite, pentlandite and magnetite, with traces
volcanic diorite, rhyodacite). They have been of sphalerite, cubanite, bravoite and linnaeite,
reported from Burkina Faso, Mali, and the and the Bi, Ni, Hg tellurides (tetradymite, me-
Ivory Coast and constitute an insufficiently lonite, coloradoite). The presence of exsolu-
studied but promising type, with several de- tion blades of cubanite in the chalcopyrite in-
posits containing geological reserves of be-
tween 5 and 10 t of gold metal.
The Yaourr-Angovia gold mineralization, in YAOURI~ 380N
the center of the Ivory Coast is hosted by mafic YAC7 YACI
SE
tholeiitic volcanites (Fabre, 1987; Fabre et al.,
AC38
1987) with siliceous and manganiferous inter- Ba
calations. The B2 volcanic rocks are overlain
by conglomerate containing clasts of calc-al-
kaline volcanic rocks and were deformed by the
0 -
D2 phase that produced an anticlinorium and
NNE-SSW striking sinistral strike-slip faults
Ore
(Fabre et al., 1990).
The D i r n r m r r a sulfide mineralization in Mineralized quartz feldspar porphyry
Burkina Faso (Ouedraogo, 1989) is more cu-
priferous, but can also be assigned to this type. Fig. 13. Yaour6 (Ivory Coast) Au disseminated sulfides
It is distinguished mainly by its dioritic host (type 2 Au): schematic cross section along profile 380 m,
modified from Trrhin (written commun., 1991). B2:
rocks that intrude the B2 tholeiitic succession, Tholeiitic pillow lava and rare pyroclastic rocks. So-$2:
but which have also been deformed by D2. Dip of bedding and cleavage 2 (D2-$2).
326 J.-P. MILESI ET AL.

dicates formation temperatures between 250 Tarkwaian gold-bearing conglomerate (type 3

and 300 ° C. au)
The gold occurs (a) in particles varying in
size from 1 to 150/zm which may be present as The deposits of the Tarkwa district in Ghana
inclusions in the gangue minerals (white mica, (Junner et al., 1942) are located close to the
quartz or carbonates), and (b) as fine inclu- southern end of a northeast-striking D2 syncli-
sions ( 1-50 pm) in pyrite (and exceptionally norium where they are hosted by quartz-peb-
chalcopyrite) or at the edges of pyrite crystals. ble conglomerate of the Banket formation (Fig.
With the exception of As, Cu, and Bi, the 14); total reserves of gold metal are around
geochemical signature of the Yaour6-Angovia 250 t (Bache, 1984). From 1878 to 1955 the
deposit more closely resembles Loulo with its cumulative production of the Tarkwa and
Au, B, Fe, + Ni-Co, than the late-orogenic me- Abosso mines was 87 t at a grade of 9.8 g/t,
sothermal gold deposits described below; there while between 1969 and 1983 the Tarkwa mine
is also a difference in the abundance of carbon- produced 23.1 t. Present annual production is
ate in the gangue. around 600 kg with an average ore grade of
It should here be pointed out that the Pb iso- about 4.7 g/t (Suttill, 1989; Mil6si et al.,
topic compositions (2°6pb/2°4pb and 2°Tpb/ 1989b).
2°4pb) of the pyrite and chalcopyrite at Di6n6- At Tarkwa, the mineable reefs consist of len-
m6ra (Burkina Faso) define a line of radi- ses of quartz-pebble conglomerate averaging
400 m length by 100 m width with orientation
ogenic enrichment which is very close to that
being controlled by paleochannel directions
of the disseminated sulfides at Loulo, and
(Sestini, 1973 ). The lenses are separated from
which would hence appear to support this
each other by intervals of virtually barren
comparison between the geochemical signa-
sandstone.
tures of the two deposits (Marcoux, written
Sestini (1973) considered the mineraliza-
commun., 1990).
tion to be of paleoplacer type, based on obser-
The disseminated mineralization and asso-
vations of the lithologic control of the gold en-
ciated alteration at Yaour6 and Di6n6m6ra oc-
richment and a positive relationship between
curred before the syn-D2 metamorphism and the abundance of gold and iron oxides. The
so cannot be regarded as comparable with a matrix of the conglomerate consists of sand-
"stratabound" epigenetic mineralization stone with iron oxides and, to a lesser extent,
(Phillips et al., 1984). However, a hydrother- ilmenite, rutile and zinciferous chromite
real origin can be envisaged for the pre-schis- (Hirdes et al., 1988) with additional quartz,
tose disseminated mineralization, with precip- carbonates, sericite, chlorite, chloritoid, epi-
itation of the metals in early fractures before dote, tourmaline, zircon and garnet (Mil6si et
metamorphic recrystallization; in this respect, al., 1989b). However, some sulfides (pyrite,
they can be assigned to the "greenstone-hosted chalcopyrite) associated with quartz veins are
lode deposits" (Hutchinson, 1976; Valliant and seen to cut the matrix. It must be kept in mind
Bradbook, 1986). For other deposits such as that the matrix in the Main Tarkwa Reef is
Syama, however, it cannot be excluded that composed largely of syn-D2 to post-tectonic
enrichment was either "multistage" (Hutch- minerals (Ledru et al., 1988; Mil6si et al.,
inson, 1987), with early mineralization fol- 1991b).
lowed by subsequent preferential concentra- Pre-D2 zircons (dated at 2128___ 14 Ma by
tion during De-D3 tectono-metamorphic the Pb/Pb method; Calvez, written commun.,
events, or else purely epigenetic and related to 1990), chromite grains and ilmenite are the
Da-D3 faulting. only residual detrital components preserved.
THE BIRIMIAN OROGENIC BELT, WEST AFRICA 327

NW SE
150m-

90m - -
3Om -- - -- - - . . . . . . - ~ ~-- ..... :.*-.':~.'."

"~;:'~,:':".. ..2"1"1"]~1".'"" ~ 2
250m .................. *..- I 3

"""."Y'.'.'.;"-.... ~ 4
500m ~ 5

Fig. 14. Tarkwa goldfields: geological cross section of D2 syncline, simplified after Kesse and Barning ( 1985 ). 1-5. Banket
Group: 1 = Tarkwa phyllite; 2 = hanging wall quartzite; 3 = banket series gold-bearing conglomerate; 4 = footwall quartz-
ite; 5 = Kawere conglomerate; 6 = fault. MR = Main Reef gold-bearing conglomerate.

The ilmenite represents only about 20% of the circulation of fluids after deposition of the sed-
iron and titanium oxides, the majority (80%) iments (Phillips and Myers, 1987; Phillips et
being in fact represented by late-D2 euhedral al., 1988).
crystals of magnetite and mushketovite. It With respect to the proposed transtensional
should also be pointed out that the mafic to in- geotectonic setting of the Early Proterozoic au-
termediate dykes cutting the conglomerate are riferous conglomerate, the most compelling
also locally auriferous and have post-D2 min- evidence has been found in Guyana (Ledru et
eral assemblages comparable with those in the al., 1991 a): "en echelon" basins were formed
gold reef--namely Fe and Ti oxides (in places along the North Guyana Fault Zone where the
almost 1 cm in length), chlorite, white mica, dynamics of clastic infill appear to be related
quartz, albite and carbonates. to the second phase of Guyanaian transcurrent
Consequently, although some kind of lithol- tectonics. In Ghana and the Ivory Coast (Bon-
ogic control seems to have existed since the au- doukou), the only well documented feature
riferous concentrations are restricted to cer- consistent with an extensional setting is the
tain paleochannels within the conglomeratic early intrusion of certain sills and dykes within
lenses of the Banket, the origin and timing of the B2 conglomeratic sandstone. Moreover,
gold mineralization remains open to question. considering the style and intensity of defor-
It is possible that the present distribution of mation observed in the Tarkwaian deposits, it
gold in the ore is in part dependent on syn- to is natural to conclude that the formation of the
late-D2 Eburnean tectono-metamorphic phe- basins preceded the peak activity of D2 tran-
nomena that also affected the matrix of the scurrent tectonics which obscured the original
conglomerate and the volcanic dykes. This idea characteristics of what have generally been in-
does not, however, exclude the hypothesis of terpreted as paleoplacers (Junner et al., 1942;
an original paleoplacer which would then have Sestini, 1973; Kesse, 1985).
been modified by late phenomena. It is essen- Most authors, such as Kesse (1985), con-
tial to examine the relative feasibility of sev- sider the source of gold in the "quartz-pebble
eral alternative mechanisms, and in particular conglomerates" to have been derived from As-
that which caused, as at Witwatersrand, the hanti-type mineralization localized in the au-
328 J.-P. MILESI ET AL.

riferous shear zones bordering the Tarkwaian are also known from the Ivory Coast (Asupiri
deposits. This hypothesis appears to be unreal- and Aniuri), within extensions of the Ghana
istic because the Ashanti-type mesothermal faults and in Mali (Sanoukou district ).
deposits were formed after the D2 deformation The type example of this type of minerali-
affecting the Tarkwaian sediments and attend- zation is the Ashanti deposit, famous in West
ant mineralization (Mil6si et al., 1991). Africa for having provided (between 1898 and
Therefore, a gold provenance from B1 sedi- 1986) 584 t of gold metal; production in 1988
mentary rocks and/or B2 volcanic rocks and was 9.69 t of gold metal (Suttill, 1989) with
intrusions must be considered, particularly remaining reserves evaluated at 126 t of gold
since these sequences are known to contain metal (Cappendell, 1987).
type 1 and type 2 gold mineralization, albeit in The type 4 Au mineralization occurs within
regions far from Ghana. tectonic corridors (such as the Gold Coast
Range) several tens of kilometers long with a
Late-orogenic mineralization general NE-SW strike, and commonly several
kilometers wide. These zones show a complex
A large number of discordant, mesothermal structural evolution marked by the superposi-
gold deposits were emplaced following the peak tion of several phases of deformation (Ledru
metamorphism of the orogeny and after the et al., 1988; Mil6si et al., 1991 )---e.g. D2 thrust
most intense stage of compressive deforma- faults, D3 dextral strike-slip faults, and late
tion in the craton which gave way to brittle de- brittle faults.
formation towards the end of the D2 and D 3 The host rocks of the mineralized bodies are
tectono-metamorphic phases. The emplace- most commonly metasediments of unit B 1, but
ment occurred during two main episodes of may also be mafic to intermediate or (rarely)
mineralization, probably partly in continuum, silicic B2 intrusions cross-cutting the first fol-
that show a paragenetic evolution from dis- iation of the B1 sedimentary rocks (Ledru et
seminated auriferous arsenopyrite mineraliza- al., 1988). The BI metasediments are com-
tion in columns (type 4 Au), which is partic- posed mainly of argillite, graywacke or epiclas-
ularly well developed in Ghana (Ashanti- tic deposits, commonly with intercalations of
type), to a gold-bearing "mesothermal quartz siliceous or manganiferous "chemical sedi-
lode" mineralization with C u - P b - Z n - A g - B i ments" and black sediments with graphite and
(type 5 Au) which formed ~2.0 Ga (Pb/Pb pre-D2 disseminated sulfides (pyrite and non-
on galena) at Poura and Kalana. Both type 4 auriferous arsenopyrite at Konongo ). They are
and type 5 mineralization commonly appear to locally cut by pre-D2 veins consisting of quartz
be restricted to unit B 1 and along structural + (Fe, Mn) carbonates + pyrite + pyrrhotite
contacts between units B 1 and B2. and rare chalcopyrite, and commonly contain-
ing post-Dl/pre-D2 carbonate porphyroblasts.
Mesothermal auriferous arsenopyrite and Au- The B2 dykes commonly show chlorite + white
bearing quartz vein mineralization (type 4 Au) mica + carbonate alteration.
The Ashanti gold field is almost 7000 m long,
Discordant mesothermal mineralization which gives some idea of the size of the host
(auriferous arsenopyrite + Au-bearing quartz structures of the mineralization (Hussey,
vein lodes) in West Africa includes the Ghan- 1988 ). The mineralized bodies themselves are
aian deposits such as Ashanti, Prestea, Marlu, as much as 500 m long with thicknesses up to
Bogosu and Konongo and, with 1100 t of gold 25 m (Kesse, 1985 ), lying along the host struc-
metal, represents the economically most im- tures in columns that can be several hundred
portant mineralization type. Similar deposits meters deep (Fig. 15). Most authors (Kesse,
THE BIRIMIANOROGENICBELT,WESTAFRICA 329

N $wAsTE BETA NORTH S

SHAFT SHAFT SHAFT

go JE. "rJ ' 8m l l j l ,

0 0.5 1kin ~.J Ore

~J Possible conjectural ore

Fig. 15. Prestea goldfield (type 4 Au): longitudinal section simplified after Adadey ( 1985 ).

1985; Leube and Hirdes, 1988; Mil6si et al., microprobe analysis also reveals a zoning of As
1991 ) agree in distinguishing two common as- in certain crystals, analogous to that of the gold-
sociations of ore in the mineralized columns: bearing arsenopyrites in French Hercynian de-
(a) disseminated gold-bearing arsenopyrite, posits (Bonnemaison and Marcoux, 1987,
which provides about 60% of the Ashanti pro- 1990; Marcoux et al., 1989; Johan et al., 1989)
duction, and (b) quartz veins and stockworks and in synthetic gold-bearing arsenopyrites
with free gold and polymetallic sulfides, which (Wu and Delbove, 1989 ). The composition of
truncate the disseminated mineralization. the Ashanti arsenopyrite shows the tempera-
Mineralogical and structural observations ture of the fluid to have been below 350°C,
indicate that the two types of ore were em- providing the arsenopyrite-pyrrhotite equilib-
placed successively during the later stages of D2 rium was attained (Mil6si et al., 1991 ). The
deformation (Mil6si et al., 1989b, 1991). arsenopyrite may be accompanied by chlorite,
Thus, at Ashanti and Prestea, two principal white mica, (Fe, Mg) carbonate and quartz.
parageneses belonging to the two ore types can (2) The later paragenesis is seen in quartz
be clearly distinguished: veins or veinlets as an association of native gold
( 1 ) The first contains disseminated arseno- + pyrite with traces of Ni + chalcopyrite +
pyrite where gold is incorporated into the crys- tetrahedrite + pyrrhotite + sphalerite (rare)
tal lattice of the mineral and where the arse- _+ dolomite _+ graphite It caused, over a dis-
nopyrite itself crystallized as a static fabric tance at least 1 cm from the quartz veins, cor-
overprinting the $2 foliation (Fig. 16); this rosion of acicular gold-bearing arsenopyrites
clearly took place before the formation of the and the appearance of micron-size patches of
quartz veins since the veins enclose fragments native gold within or in contact with the arse-
of country rock containing disseminated arse- nopyrite crystals. Gold which is variably ar-
nopyrite. The arsenopyrite occurs as clusters of gentiferous also appears commonly as milli-
crystals or as isolated acicular euhedral crys- meter-size patches in late fractures within the
tals up to 5 mm long and may include small quartz veins. Leube et al. (1990) mention a
patches of pyrrhotite. ICP analysis of arseno- "vein-related alteration" with paragonite,
pyrite concentrates from Ashanti, Prestea and ferro-dolomite, kaolinite and gibbsite. Accord-
Sanoukou, and microprobe studies of the crys- ing to Leube and Hirdes (1988) and Leube et
tals show that they contain in the order of 150- al. (1990) the temperature of the fluids giving
500 ppm of gold, with traces of Ni and Co. The rise to the deposition of this second paragene-
330 J.-P. MILES1 ET AL.

Fig. 16. Gold-bearing ( 150 ppm Au) arsenopyrite (As) overprinting D2 foliation--Prestea mine (Ghana) ( × 80).

sis would have been between 300 and 400 oC. cuts across an ENE-striking dextral D 3 shear
This succession of a paragenesis with auri- zone, and (b) a paragenesis with polymetallic
ferous arsenopyrite followed by a paragenesis (Pb, Cu, Zn ) sulfides and cupro-argentiferous
with quartz and native gold, has also been de- sulfosalts. The galenas show the highest Pb iso-
scribed in several deposits of the Hercynian of topic compositions of the Eburnean cycle and
Europe (Bonnemaison and Marcoux, 1990), give a Pb/Pb model age of 2001 _+ 17 Ma (Mi-
and will be discussed later. It must be men- 16si et al, 1989b) confirming their late em-
tioned here, however, that the second parage- placement, whilst the 238U/2°4pb ratio lz
nesis is comparable to that which characterizes (characteristic of the evolution of Pb) varies
type 5 described below. between 9.00 (Diabarou in Mali) and 9.44
(Poura in Guinea) in the Stacey and Kramers
Mesothermal Au-quartz vein deposits with ( 1975 ) model and, according to the standard
rare polymetallic sulfides (type 5 A u) curves of Zartman and Doe ( 1981 ), indicates
substantial crustal involvement.
The type 5 gold mineralization occurs in The type 5 gold mineralization does not at-
various host sequences--B1 metasedimentary tain the economic significance of type 4 (auri-
rocks (Kalana in Mali; Banora in Guinea), B2 ferous arsenopyrite + Au quartz vein) depos-
volcanic and sandstone-conglomeratic se- its. The total reserves of the main deposits
quences (Poura in Burkina Faso [ Fig. 17A, B ]; (Poura, Kalana, Sabodala) are about 70 t of
Sabodala in S6nrgal), and granite (Hir6 in the gold metal.
Ivory Coast). However, they all show com- The mineralized bodies consist of
mon characteristics, such as (a) having formed quartz _+ carbonate veins, lenses or stock-
during the last brittle to brittle-ductile stages works with disseminations of polymetallic sul-
of the Eburnean orogeny, as is evident from the fides and native gold. The gangues show a ca-
N150°E-striking vein system at Poura which taclastic to mylonitic texture and may be
THE BIRIMIAN OROGENIC BELT, WEST AFRICA 331

"PLAINE" 2000 m long

EIN ~< 2.5 m thick

I Quartz vein (outcrop) SCHEMATIC CROSS-SECTION

Workings ( o l d and recent)

WSW THROUGH "PLAINE" VEIN ENE
$32 $31 $27 B7
.& 0ooo0~o0 . . . . : .... L, L' ~0o°, '? ~"
o 3o~o o o % C// . L \ ,Oo ~, ,

":o:°°o.°'o.Ooo~:/~. , ~ ,,'b,'.'. ", -

ooOO ooooooQoOj, I/\ / ,/\ ~ ¢ \ ,/ .
ooO°ooo0oO°°oO01'\ / \ \ \ ioll / -/ \ / "
"MONTAGNE" VEIN
300 m long
.8-6 m thick
° ° ooOr
Conglomerate~,~ o O / \ lz/ // / \ ~
I . . ~ . , ('°,, 2 ~ z \ , l vein /
o o o o o~ ~ x / / / ~ '0/ / \
0ooo ol/ ~, t \ t~ /
o o °o I \ / / \ \ /~1 \ \ / \ '~ /, [ -
"WEST" VEIN
250 m long 0~1~ . / ~ ,ol, \_Hydrothermal
. \ ,, / alteration
0.8-3 m thick

/
\ / i /

0 50 lOOm
sed=mentary rocks " / ~ ,
/ / \\//
o 5o 100m \~
A. ' / \ B.

Fig. 17. Poura ore deposit: schematicmap (A), modifiedfrom Ouedraogo (1989), and cross section (B), modifiedfrom
L6zier (written commun., 1975). (A) Schematicmap. Black: Quartz vein (outcrop). Hachured:Old workings. Dashed:
Proved extensionof the "Plaine" and "West" veins. (B) Cross section. Black: Quartz vein. Hachured:Localizedhydro-
thermal alteration.

banded due to the presence of white pyrite, and rare tetrahedrite, as well as a sec-
mica + chlorite _+ carbonate _+ rutile, and/or ond generation of more argentiferous gold. At
tourmaline, a n d / o r graphite (locally with sty- Kalana, the paragenesis is completed by mag-
lolith structures). netite and, in the latest stages, by accessory
At Poura, the mineralization was emplaced minerals such as native bismuth and matildite
in two main stages, the first of which was the (Blagonadezhdin, 1975 ).
more significant, with successive deposition of
pyrite, non-auriferous arsenopyrite and native Discussion on late-orogenic gold
gold, occurring as patches (several to 500/lm ) mineralization
within the quartz or in fractures within pyrite
and arsenopyrite. The second stage was more In mesothermal gold deposits characterized
discrete and followed an episode of fracturing by brittle-ductile rheology, by the element as-
with, successively, sphalerite, galena, chalco- sociation of Au, B, W, As, Sb, Se, Te, Bi, Mo,
332 J.-P. MILESI ET AL.

with traces of Cu, Pb, Zn, and by a gangue of manganiferous chemical sediments is well
quartz, albite, carbonate, muscovite, pyrite and documented in the B 1 units of Ghana and the
tourmaline (Kerrich, 1989a, b; Bursnall et al., Ivory Coast, as in other Precambrian gold
1989 ), the Au occurs: (a) in the form of native districts.
gold; (b) finely disseminated as inclusions According to Oberthiir et al. (1988, 1990),
within the base-metal sulfides or the gangue; the Archean BIF that are richest in pyrite, pyr-
and (c) exceptionally in composite forms with rhotite and arsenopyrite are those with associ-
Ag, Cu, Pb, Sb, Te and Se. In certain districts ated carbonates and oxides. Applied to Ghana,
of West Africa (Ashanti-type deposits) and this hypothesis appears to take into account a
France (Le Chhtelet, Villeranges), however, definite spatial relationship between the man-
the gold is contained within auriferous arse- ganese deposits and the auriferous arsenopy-
nopyrite (Bonnemaison and Marcoux, 1987, rite gold deposits. It does not, however, ex-
1990; Johan et al., 1989), probably in a non- plain the post-D2 timing of the auriferous
metallic chemical state (Marion et al., 1986). arsenopyrite deposition, nor does it account for
Moreover, in West Africa it is evident that two the fact that manganese layers are widely dis-
types of post peak-metamorphic discordant tributed throughout West Africa whereas As-
mesothermal mineralization succeeded (in hanti-type mineralization is rare (Milrsi et al.,
continuum ) and locally superposed each other, 1989b).
with the auriferous arsenopyrite mineraliza- In considering the role of the host rocks in
tion (type 4 Au) being followed by the gold- controlling mineralization, it must first be
bearing quartz lodes (type 5 Au) character- pointed out that there is no direct evidence of
ized by native gold-Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag and Bi the presence of gold (visible or microscopic)
(Milrsi et al., 1989b, 1991 ). in the pre-tectonic mineral assemblages of the
Numerous authors consider that the As- Ashanti and Konongo regions. It is true that at
hanti-type mineralization (type 4 Au), which Konongo, arsenopyrite associated with pyr-
is recognized as having the highest gold poten- rhotite pre-dates foliation development and
tial in West Africa, is located within shear zones metamorphism, but unlike the arsenopyrite of
(Junner, 1932, 1935, 1940; Kesse, 1985; Hus- the ore mined at Ashanti, it is almost totally
sey, 1988; Milrsi et al., 1989b) that are broadly devoid of gold. It is possible, though, that the
similar to those which controlled Archean me- B I volcano-sedimentary and chemical sedi-
sothermal gold deposits (Colvine et al., 1984, mentary rocks, like the B2 dykes, acted as me-
1988; Roberts, 1987; Barley and Groves, 1987, chanical barriers to fluid flow due to compe-
1990; Bursnall et al., 1989; Eisenlohr et al., tence contrasts; certain graphitic and
1989). According to Ntiamoah-Agyakwa manganiferous layers could also have acted as
(1979) and Leube et al. (1990), however, the chemical barriers and favoured the precipita-
distribution of disseminated sulfide ores would tion of gold, as was envisaged by Leube et al.
have been controlled by manganese-rich litho- ( 1990 ) in Ghana and by Colvine et al. (1984)
facies and other chemical sediments such as in Canada.
chert and sulfide layers; Ntiamoah-Agyakwa
( 1979 ) assigns the mineralization directly to a Conclusion
volcanogenic origin, whereas Leube et al.
( 1990 ) invoke the influence of a fluid, formed Metallogenic evolution of the southern part of
by metamorphic dehydration, expelled on the the West African craton
submarine floor close to a boundary between a
sedimentary basin and a volcanic edifice. The The metallogenic (gold and base metal)
presence of sulfide sediments and of variably evolution (Fig. 18) of the Early Proterozoic of
THE BIRIMIAN OROGENIC BELT, W E S T A F R I C A 333

LATE TECTONO-THERMAL EVENTS AND 2.2 2. 2.0 Ga

ASSOCIATED MINERALIZATION = ~ J =l LI IL L L L
Mesothermal g o l d ( T y p e 4 a n d 5) . . . . . . . . . . ~I---TigT5
Late granitoid emplacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D 2 , D 3 transcurrent tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . .
I
CLASTIC BASINS AND "PALEOPLACERS" j
"Tarkwaian" fluvio-deltaic formation T3 I
+ Au "paleoplacers" (Type 3) . . . . . . . . . . .

VOLCANO-SEDIMENTARY TERRANES,
MINERALIZATION AND EARLY TECTONO-
THERMAL EVENTS
Calc-alkaline volcanism . . . . . . . I - - -O
Komatiites ( N i a n d a n , G u i n e a ) ........... I. . . . . -O?
Gold (Type 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . I -- - DT2
Tholeiite volcanism (B2) . . . . . . . . . . . . ~[. . . . ~
D 1 thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I ..... I
Fe F a l e m e - t y p e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I ..... D
Gold (Type 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I ..... JT'I
Mn formations (B1. B2) ................. l ........ lid
I
P e r k o s massive sulfide ( Z n - A g ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . [ .... •
F ysh-type sedimentary rocks + t h o l e i i t e B1)-j---? 1 ~
Early granitoid emplacement . . . . . . . . . . . .

PRE-

OROGENIC MINERALIZATION

Fig. 18. Interpretative timing and setting of Au and base-metal deposits of the West African craton. Black circles= ore
deposits; white circles and areas= events; size of circle (large, medium, small) relative to size of deposit or event.

West Africa represents a period of less than 150 16m6 stratiform Fe + Cu mineralization of
Ma, ranging from the Perkoa massive Zn-Ag probable volcanic origin ) took place in pre-or-
sulfide deposit dated at 2120_+41 Ma ( P b / P b ogenic extensional zones and quite clearly oc-
on galena; Marcoux et al., 1988) to the late curs within the predominantly sedimentary
gold-bearing veins dated at ~ 2000 Ma (Miltsi Lower Birimian (B 1 ) formations (Fe of Fa-
et al., 1989b). Three broad successive stages 16m6; Mn of Nsuta-Tambao) and associated
are recognized, responding to the evolution of rare (Au of Loulo) to more c o m m o n (Zn-Ag
Eburnean tectono-thermal events and corre- of Perkoa) amounts of tholeiitic volcanoclas-
sponding approximately to three major groups tic material.
of mineralization: (a) pre-orogenic (pre-D]) One of the significant features c o m m o n to
stratiform (or stratabound) Au, Mn, Fe and most West African mineralizations within this
Zn-Ag mineralization; (b) "syn-orogenic" gold first group is a close association with siliceous
mineralization within B2 volcanic areas and a n d / o r carbonate "chemical" sediments (or
the Tarkwaian gold-bearing conglomerates that facies). These are generally manganiferous and
formed within extensional B2 clastic infill bas- constitute the "Mn-formations" that are widely
ins; and (c) late-orogenic discordant mesoth- distributed throughout West Africa (with the
ermal gold mineralization emplaced after D2- exception of the Krdougou inlier) and contain
D3 deformation and associated tectono-ther- the tourmalinized Loulo deposits. The depos-
real events (Fig. 19 ). its may also be associated with variably gra-
The stratiform a n d / o r stratabound miner- phitic and pyritic black shales to form the
alization of the first group (Perkoa massive "volcano-sedimentary complexes" (Tagini,
Zn-Ag polymetallic sulfides; Mn-formations; 1971 ) which occur principally in the upper part
stratiform Au-tourmalinites (type 1 Au); Fa- of the Lower Birimian (B1), although also
334 J.-P. MILESIET AL.

A SIGUIRI basin LOULO district PERKOA

Fe (Cu) Folerna
Ziemougoula (Mn) P64 Loulo 0 Perkoa

......"i ~.~ ,;.,~.,,'~,i~

...... .~-~-..~.~....: ~,b:: ...:
" ~\~. ~.- ."-: <_'. : "." .'7 ~ 3 y,
GOLD C O A S T
RANGE TARKWA Klbi
B ..0z ~o3 D2 r D2 oa D2_ _. D21 D2

• ' , i : ".. '...~.: ' . " . i .

.'; I :'-J'
, ' , / ~ [ . ' ~'-.~ :..''4./.
: / ~ ~ ~ , . . ,t feal ~ '* : l /,' / ) '- - ' .'' " ,,','.':" a~o "......
,., / ; ~ - /.~~ i~.'.
. ~ . I'. ~ ~' : , , , ~ m ~ - ~ . - . ..-<.
.. ~• .".J'.
. ~ _ \,~",lZ"
..:. o'~ ".
:. ."b---z2) : ; ~ ':/:'.: .>7 . ~ . ' , : ~ .! :/4
,,~.. "r..'.'. 7....... %.~... "_I,'.7;'--'.:: ." +
• ~. •~ . . • - ~ /. . ~
. . . . I . ~ . . . . f;, .. ;~ ++*
, + +

I:ASHANTI (Au)- 2:PRESTEA(Au) - :5 : B I B I A N I (Au) - 4:TARKWA (Au] - 5:NSUTA (Ms)

Fig. 19. Pre- and late-orogenic metallogenic periods. (A) Pre-orogenic period (pre-Di). (B) Late-orogenic period (D2-
D3 ). 1 = Man Archean granite-gneiss complexes with BIF, greenstone belts and ultrabasic-basic complexes; 2 = Early Pro-
terozoic granites; 3=composite crust (including I and 2 above); 4. Lower Birimian formations: 4=undifferentiated,
mainly sedimentary formations; 4a=tholeiitic volcanic rocks; 4b=flysch-type rocks (Zr: rare Archean zircons);
4c="volcano-sedimentary complexes" with: (a) tourmalinized-sandstone (white), (b) chert, (c) Mn-formations;
4d= carbonate-bearingformations; 5. Upper Birimianformations:5 = undifferentiatedvolcanicformations;5a= tholeiitic
volcanic rock; 5b---calc-alkalinerocks--rhyodacite dome; 5c=volcano-plutonic zone; 6=Tarkwaian clastic formations
(Tarkwa, Bondoukou); 7= syn-D2granite; 8 = undifferentiatedgranite.

known in other lithostratigraphic positions, 16m6) deposits: a similar feature is present in

and generally seem to indicate periodically ac- the late-orogenic gold mineralization, but is less
tive unstable zones: e.g. the turbidite distribu- marked and could possibly represent a mantle
tion around talus-slope deposits, the extrusion influence. The low/z (238U/2°4pb) ratios of the
of tholeiitic volcanites and the irregular distri- Perkoa massive sulfides confirm a strong man-
bution of the submarine hydrothermal systems tle affinity, which is consistent with the thol-
that gave rise to the highly tourmalinized and eiitic environment, whilst the higher ratios at
sulfide-rich zones, indicate the unstable exten- Loulo and Fal6m6 suggest a greater crustal par-
sional paleogeographic setting the Loulo gold ticipation, possibly reflecting the influence of
mineralization (stratiform tourmalinite). the flyschoid deposits (with only a small thol-
It should also be mentioned that the dissem- eiitic component) accessed by the mineraliz-
inated sulfides of this first mineralization ing fluids.
group, even though hosted by sedimentary and The mineralization of the second group
in some instances volcano-sedimentary for- ("syn-orogenic"), formed during the Ebur-
mations, have a distinctive Ni-Co signature nean ( D r D 3 ) tectono-thermal evolution, took
which possibly indicates a mafic affiliation and place in extensional environments that gave
which is equally apparent in the gold deposits rise to extensive tholeiitic volcanism and then
(Loulo) as in the Mn (Nsuta) and Fe (Fa- to the Tarkwaian clastic infill basins that ac-
THE BIRIMIAN OROGENIC BELT, WEST AFRICA 335

companied or followed a less voluminous phase aian shear zones since gold was introduced into
of calc-alkaline volcanism. It should be pointed these D2-D3 tectonic structures at a late stage
out that no mineralization has been found in and forms the source of the mineralization of
the calc-alkaline environment which, although the third group.
still poorly defined, doubtlessly reflects either The mineralization of the third group con-
convergent or transcurrent tectonics. The type sists of two types of late-orogenic discordant
2 gold mineralization and associated hydro- mesothermal gold that are locally superposed:
thermal alteration of this second group, which (a) mineralized columns with disseminated
is commonly more cupriferous than the miner- auriferous arsenopyrite and Au-quartz veins
alization of the first group, was emplaced late (Ashanti type or type 4 Au), and (b) quartz
in the B2 tholeiitic sequences (with rare Mn- veins containing free gold and traces of Cu-Pb-
formations such as at Yaourr) and occurs in Zn-Ag-Bi (type 5 Au) whose emplacement
early (pre-D2) fractures cutting the late, com- would have occurred at ~ 2 Ga. In general such
monly sill-like intrusions. The mineralogical mineralization formed after the metamorphic
and chemical paragenesis (Au, B, Fe, Ni-Co) peaks of the D2-D3 tectono-thermal phases,
is more reminiscent of the pre-orogenic group and not at the end of phase 1, as evidenced by
1 gold mineralization within disseminated sul- the auriferous arsenopyrite blasts (Fig. 16), the
fides than of the late-orogenic group quartz veins, and the overprinting and cross-
mineralization. cutting fabrics formed during the transcurrent
The second group also includes the gold- deformation.
bearing conglomerate (type 3) of the Tarkwa The type 4 Au mineralization is restricted to
district (Ghana); deposits, generally inter- tectonic corridors exhibiting multiple D2-D 3
preted as "paleoplacers" (Sestini, 1973; activity (thrust faulting, strike-slip faulting and
Hutchinson, 1987) and marking a turning late brittle faulting) where Au-arsenopyrite
point in the Eburnean evolution. The clastic crystallized in a static fashion, overprinting the
in fill basins containing the gold-bearing con- D2 foliation. The mineralizing fluids appear
glomerate occur in pre-D2 extension (Tarkwa) also to have been subjected to lithologic influ-
zones, some of which experienced bimodal ence where they crossed (a) B1 deposits rich
volcanism before or contemporaneous with the in Mn-formations and graphitic sediments, and
clastic deposition (Tarkwa; Bondoukou). The (b) zones rich in B2 intrusions. Although such
clastic deposits and their paleoplacers were also mechanical-chemical lithologic factors would
affected by the paroxysmal Eburnean (D2 and have apparently favoured precipitation from
D3) tectono-thermal phases, which consider- the fluids, this does not imply that these units
ably modified their primary characteristics. were the source of the gold; on the other hand,
Thus, only certain gross lithologic controls are it would explain the spatial Au-Mn relation-
recognizable today, such as certain quartz- ships observed in Ghana (Ntiamoah-Agyakwa,
pebble conglomerates of the Banker formation 1979; Leube et al, 1990).
controlling the gold mineralization at Tarkwa The type 5 Au mineralization occurs within
(Sestini, 1973; Kesse, 1985 ). Consequently, if late-orogenic brittle faults cutting various lith-
the paleoplacer hypothesis is accepted, the or- ologic units (sedimentary and volcanic rocks,
igin of the gold must be sought in older for- granite ) and shows parageneses comparable to
mations (B 1, B2, pre-orogenic D1 granite) or, certain epigenetic types (e.g. Loulo stock-
more probably, in the mineral deposits of the work). It should, however, be noted that, like
first group. Moreover, and contrary to the most the type 4 Au mineralization, the type 5 is
commonly accepted ideas, the Tarkwa gold common within tectonic corridors cutting the
could not have been derived from the Ghan- B 1/B2 contact which itself already contains al-
336 J.-P. M1LESI ET AL.

most 30% of the West African gold deposits. with those at Tarkwa; (c) the edge of the North
The observed evolution of the mesothermal Guyanan Trough has several late-orogenic me-
mineralization from auriferous arsenopyrite sothermal gold deposits being either mined or
and Au-quartz lode (type 4) to quartz lode developed (Lasserre et al., 1989); and (d)
(type 5 ) with free gold and traces of polyme- meta-kimberlite has been reported (Marot,
tallic sulfides (especially galena and late cu- written commun., 1989). However, certain
pro-argentiferous solutions) is similar that de- differences are also to be noted between the
scribed from the auriferous shear zones of the West African and Guyanan mineralizations,
Hercynian of Europe (Bonnemaison and Mar- especially with respect to the auriferous con-
coux, 1987, 1990). glomerate which in Guyana is contained in
transtensional syn-D2 basins where the distri-
Comparison with other Precambrian shields bution of the gold was controlled by debris
flows (Manier et al., 1992).
The review of Birimian mineralization of In Brazil, the same craton contains the Serra
West Africa can be concluded by a comparison Pelada gold deposit, which is hosted by siltite
with the mineralization of Proterozoic shields while having a component of structural con-
that were formerly contiguous with the West trol in the gold enrichment (Ga~ll and Teix-
African craton--the Guyanan, Sa6 Francisco eira, 1988).
and Congolese cratons. Correlations with the main mineralization of
The Guyanan craton is the extension of the the Congolese and Brazilian (Sa6 Francisco)
Man Shield on the South American continent
cratons, where a collision-type orogenesis is
(Bullard et al., 1965; Onstott and Hargraves,
dated at 2 Ga (Feybesse et al., 1986; Ledru et
1981; Matheis, 1987; Caen-Vachette, 1988 ). It
al., 1989a; Figueiredo, 1989), are more tenta-
has a comparable lithology (Ledru et al.,
tive because the cratons are separated by the
1991 a) of flyschoid sedimentation with vol-
Pan-African mobile belt. Nevertheless, gold
canic intercalations (Paramaca) overlain by a
and Mn deposits are again present, as for ex-
fluvio-deltaic formation deposited in transten-
sion or transpressure basins (North Guyana ample: (a) the late-orogenic mesothermal gold
Trough). The Guyanan Shield shows the same of the Dondo-Mobi-Et6k6 district in Gabon
crustal growth between 2.2 and 2.1 Ga (Bosma (Prian et al., 1988) hosted by a Proterozoic
et al., 1984; Gruau et al., 1985 ) associated with greenstone belt (Ledru et al., 1989a); (b) the
the Trans-Amazonian orogeny (Gibbs and O1- auriferous conglomerate and Mn-shale at Ja-
szewski, 1982; Jegouzo et al., 1990) which, like cobina in Brazil (Ga~il and Teixeira, 1988);
the Eburnean orogeny in Africa (Bonhomme, and (c) the Mn district at Moanda in Gabon
1962), was a period of collision tectonics be- (Leclerc and Weber, 1980) hosted by Early
tween 2.1 and 2.0 Ga. Proterozoic black metapelite of the Francevil-
The mineralization in Guyana is also simi- lian B (Azziley-Azzibrouck, 1986).
lar in that: (a) the Paramaca volcanic forma- Also formed during this epoch was the
tions contain a stratabound gold deposit (Dor- Mounana uranium district of Gabon situated
lin ) associated with disseminated sulfides in an in Early Proterozoic sandstone of the Francev-
M g - F e tourmaline, quartz and Mg-chlorite illian A (Gauthier-Lafaye, 1986 ) and contain-
gangue (Mil6si, written commun., 1987); (b) ing the Oklo Uranium deposit's natural reac-
the North Guyanan Trough (Ledru et al., tor, in which spontaneous fission occurred at
1991 a) contains auriferous conglomerate in- 1.97 Ma (Bonhomme et al., 1982), contem-
tercalated in fluvio-deltaic formations (Man- poraneous with the last stages of the Eburnean
ier et al., 1992) that show certain similarities orogeny.
THE BIRIMIAN OROGENIC BELT, WEST AFRICA 337

Specific metallogenic characters of the Early Birimian of the West African and Guyanan
Proterozoic cratons is unusually poor in iron formations.
This, moreover, appears to be a distinctive
From the economic point of view, the Early characteristic of the Birimian, in comparison
Proterozoic Birimian can be characterized as with a number of other Precambrian shields
being rich in gold and manganese mineraliza- (see the review of Kimberley, 1989a, b; Thur-
tion and poor in volcanogenic and BIF miner- ston and Chivers, 1990).
alization. An attempt has been made to show The litho-tectonic history of the West Afri-
that various patterns within the Birimian mi- can Early Proterozoic shows characteristics
neralization form excellent time markers for that relate it to that of certain Archean prov-
the main stages of Eburnean orogenic evolu- inces. For example, like the Archean Superior
tion between 2.1 and 2.0 Ga. Province of Canada (Thurston and Chivers,
From a metallogenic point of view, the Early 1990), the Birimian contains sedimentary de-
Proterozoic of the West African craton (Man posits with carbonate-bearing sequences, es-
Shield, Reguibat Shield), as well as its Guy- pecially at the base, and sandy conglomeratic
anan-Brazilian counterpart, is comparable to deposits at the top associated with calc-alka-
other Precambrian cratons with its high gold line volcanism. Another similarity with the
potential and diversity of gold deposit types Superior Province is that the Birimian is rich
(stratiform tourmalinite, disseminated Au- in basic tholeiitic volcanic rocks reflecting ex-
sulfide deposits, paleoplacers, mesothermal tension environments. However, the interpre-
lodes) but contrasts with the abnormally Au- tation of these volcanic rocks still vacillates be-
poor Archean of West Africa. tween oceanic plateau basalt (Abouchami et
Like the Proterozoic of South Africa and al., 1991) and/or intracontinental rift basalt
Central Africa (Gabon), the Birimian of the (Deschamps et al., 1986) with a composite
Man Shield contains numerous manganese de- crust consisting of Archean and pre-orogenic
posits associated with siliceous and/or car- Proterozoic granite and B 1 sedimentary rocks
bonate "chemical" sediments and resulting in and tholeiites (Milrsi et al., 1989b).
extensive Mn-formations which are widely The Birimian, however, is poor in BIF and
used as regional marker horizons: the presence komatiite when compared to the Superior
of the Perkoa massive Zn-Ag sulfides and vol- Province, and shows a polyphase granite em-
canoclastic rocks in such an environment placement. Another characteristic that even
shows resemblances to other provinces such as more clearly distinguishes the Birimian from
the "South Iberian pyrite belt" (Routhier et al., the Superior Province is that, in West Africa,
1978) and favours a hydrothermal-sedimen- the tectono-thermal events began very early
tary origin incorporating Kimberley's (1989b) with a phase of D I overthrusting, possibly re-
hypothesis for the Fe- and Mn-formations. On flecting collision prior to the initiation of both
the other hand, the Birimian seems to be ab- individual bimodal volcanic troughs and the
normally poor in polymetallic volcanogenic Tarkwaian clastic infill basins. Finally, as in
mineralization (massive sulfide or SEDEX numerous Archean to Phanerozoic provinces,
deposits) in comparison with other Precam- transcurrent tectonics accompanying a granite
brian cratons (Rickard, 1987; Hutchinson, formation were followed by a major metallo-
1987 ), in particular given the absence of auri- genic event responsible for the mesothermal
ferous or volcanogenic mineralization in the gold lodes that comprise the most economi-
calc-alkaline volcanic formations. cally significant mineral deposits in West
Finally, in comparison with the Archean Africa.
segments of the Man and Reguibat shields, the It should also be noted that the West African
338 J.-P. MILESI ET AL.

and Guyanan Birimian shows types of deposit tism in West Africa: an early stage of crustal accretion.
J. Geophys. Res., 95(B11 ): 17,605-17,629.
that are very typical of the Proterozoic and Pa- Adadey, E., 1985. Geology of Prestea goldfields. In: G.O.
leozoic (although certain were already present Kesse and K. Barning, (Editors), Technical report on
in the Archean): such are the stratiform tour- Ghana: UNESCO geotraverse of the Birimian system
malinites (Slack, 1982; Taylor and Slack, in southern Ghana. UNESCO and Geol. Surv. Dept.
Rep., Accra, Ghana, Appendix 2, pp. 37-55.
1984), the gold-bearing conglomerates con- Alric, G. and Vidal, M., 1990. Sur la signification des car-
taining oxides but lacking sulfides and ura- act6res du Prot6rozo'fque inf6rieur en Afrique de
nium (Hutchinson, 1987), and the Au-arse- l'Ouest. Le cas des unit6s birrimiennes de Como6 et de
nopyrite-bearing shear zones. These Haute-Como6 (C6te-d'Ivoire). In: 13~ r6union des
Sciences de la Terre, Grenoble, p. 3.
characteristics indicate that the major global Arnould, A., 1959. Compte rendu des principaux r6sul-
pulse of crustal growth ,,- 2.1 Ga (Patchett and tats acquis par l'analyse lithologique des s6ries birri-
Arndt, 1986) was, in West Africa, accom- miennes des r6gions voisines de Bouak6. Soc. G6ol.
panied by metallogeny that is notably different Prosp. Min., Bouak6, 10 pp.
Azziley-Azzibrouck, G., 1986. S6dimentologie et g6o-
from that of the Archean. chimie du Francevillien B (Prot6rozo'fque inf6rieur).
M6tallog6nie des gisements de mangan6se de Moanda,
Acknowledgements Gabon. Th~se Doct., Univ. Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg,
201 pp.
Bache, J.J., 1984. World gold deposits. An essay on quan-
The authors would like to thank the techni- titative typology. BRGM and North Oxford Acad.
cal directors of the BRGM who supported the Company, 179 pp.
work as part of BRGM scientific project RM Bard, J.P., 1974. Remarques ~l propos de l'6volution g6o-
tectonique du craton ouest-africain en C6te-d'Ivoire.
25 "Lithostratigraphy and evolution of the C.R. Acad. Sci. Fr., 278 (D): 2405-2408.
Birimian cycle of West Africa; assessment of Bard, J.P. and Lemoine, S., 1976. Phases tectoniques su-
its mineral potential". perpos6es dans les m6tas6diments pr6cambriens du
They would also like to thank all those who domaine c6tier occidental de la C6te-d'lvoire. Pre-
cambrian Res., 3: 209-229.
helped further this work, in particular the West Bardet, M.G., 1974. G6ologie du diamant. M6m. BRGM,
African authorities from the various Geologi- 83(2): 224 pp.
cal and Mining Surveys; the geologists of the Barley, M.E. and Groves, D.I., 1987. Hydrothermal alter-
mines visited; the West African and French ge- ation of Archean supracrustal sequences in the central
Norseman-Wiluna belt, Western Australia: a brief re-
ologists from various universities with whom view. In: S.E. Ho and D.I. Groves (Editors), Recent
the project was discussed; and all the BRGM Advances in Understanding Precambrian Gold De-
colleagues who gave invaluable support, as well posits. The University of Western Australia, Publ. 11 :
as C. Heinry, Ph. Lagny, S. Matin, and J. 51-66.
Barley, M.E. and Groves, D.I., 1990. Deciphering the tec-
Payen. tonic evolution of Archean greenstone belts: the im-
Finally, the authors would like to thank Sir portance of contrasting histories to the distribution of
Patrick Skipwith for his translation of this mineralization in the Yilgarn craton, Western Aus-
tralia. Precambrian Res., 46: 3-20.
contribution and the journal's reviewers, in
Bassot, J.P., 1969. Aperqu sur les formations pr6cam-
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Bassot, J.P., 1987. Le complexe volcanoplutonique calco-
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