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EVS-Notes-BCA - EVS notes for BCA 1st sem

enviromental science (Dayananda Sagar University)

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LESSON-1

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Dr. Mayank Pandey
Assistant Professor,
P.G.D.A.V. College (Eve),
University of Delhi

INTRODUCTION
The term Environment is derived from French word ‘Environ’ which literally means
‘surrounding’. Anything and everything which surrounds us i.e. all living beings or biotic
components (microbes, plants and animals) and non-living or abiotic components (air, water,
sunlight etc.) present in the nature, form the environment. The Environmental Protection Act,
1986 defines Environment as “environment includes water, air and land and the inter-
relationship which exists among and between water, air and land, and human beings, other
living creatures, plants, micro-organism and property”. Interactions between the biotic and
abiotic components lead to a functional ecosystem and sustainable life on the planet earth.
We get all the basic goods and services (clean air and water, food, fodder, medicines, raw
materials for the industries, tourism etc.) from the environment. It is a well-known fact that
the anthropogenic activities and unsustainable consumption of natural resources by the
human race have significantly damaged the environment and mother earth and the
degradation is still going on at a fast pace. Therefore, it is our responsibility to protect the
environment from getting degraded and polluted. Environmental education is indispensable
to create environmental awareness which ultimately will lead to environmental conservation.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 To make the reader aware about the environment, its importance and basic components.
 To develop an understanding about the concept, scope and importance of the discipline
Environmental Studies
 To discuss the concept and necessity of multidisciplinary approach of the subject.
 Readers will be aware of the historic milestones of the environmentalism and
environmental education
 To make the readers know about the origin of the concept of ‘Sustainability’ and
‘Sustainable Development’.
1. Components of Environment
Planet earth is the only known planet in the universe having diversity of life. As earlier
mentioned, life could have been possible on the planet only because of the healthy

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interactions between biotic and abiotic components in such a manner where the flow of
energy and biogeochemical cycle follows a well-defined path. The planet earth is categorized
into different spheres which represent solid (rock/soil), liquid (water) and gaseous (air)
phases. The overlapping zone of the three spheres, where life is available, is called the
biosphere. A brief description of the spheres is given below:
Lithosphere: (Greek: Lithos means rock) Earth’s structure can be stratified into outer crust,
middle mantle and inner core regions (Fig. 1). Lithosphere is the outermost layer of the crust
which represents the land mass of the planet. It consists of rocks, soil, sediments and
minerals. Various geological structures or landforms like high mountains, plateau, deep
valleys and sea beds make the surface of lithosphere uneven. Mount Everest is the highest
point on the lithosphere. Various geological processes like weathering & erosion, volcanic
eruptions, biogeochemical cycles take place at the lithosphere. Different terrestrial
ecosystems like forests, grasslands, deserts etc. are found on the lithosphere.

Figure 1: Cross section of Lithosphere

(Source: https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/lithosphere/)
Hydrosphere: (Greek: Hydor means water) Hydrosphere represents water masses on the
planet present in solid (ice cover, glaciers etc.), liquid (water bodies) and gaseous (water
vapors) phases. Hydrosphere covers almost three-fourth of the total surface area of the earth.
Oceans and seas represent marine ecosystem which contains 97 percent of the total water
content (having very high concentration of salts) of the planet. Remaining 3 percent of the
water resources are freshwater present in the form of glaciers, rivers, lakes, ponds etc. (Figure
2). Hydrosphere is an integral part of the water cycle and plays a crucial role in maintaining
normal climatic, meteorological, physical, chemical and biological functions on the planet.
Oceans and seas are the largest sink of carbon in the environment.

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Figure 2: Distribution of Water Resources on the Earth

Atmosphere: (Greek: Atmos means vapor) the thin sheet of gaseous mixture which envelops
the planet earth is called atmosphere. Content of water vapor, density of the air mass and
atmospheric pressure decreases rapidly with the increase in altitude. The composition of dry
air is as follows:
Table 1: Composition of dry air
Component Volume (%)
Nitrogen 78.084
Oxygen 20.946
Argon 0.934
Carbon di oxide 0.04
Gases in traces Remaining

The rate of change of temperature with the altitude is called lapse rate. The atmosphere has
been stratified into major four layers where temperature decreases (negative lapse rate) or
increases (positive lapse rate). Brief description of atmospheric layers is as follows:
 Troposphere: the altitude of this layer varies from 16 km at equator to 8 km at poles.
Largest percentage of the air mass found in this region. The upper layer is called
tropopause. Temperature decreases with increase in altitude (-6.4 0C per km) in this layer
and varies from 15 0C (ground Level) to – 56 0C (tropopause).
 Stratosphere:temperature starts rising in this layer from tropopause (-56 0C) to
stratopause (-2 0C)as ozone (O3) layerin the upper stratosphere absorbs solar radiation
and temperature rises. Ozone layerin this region absorbs harmful UV radiation,
particularly UV-B radiation (280 nm to 315 nm), because of which life is possible on
earth’s surface. However, the ozone layer is depleting at a fast pace due to the presence of
ozone depleting substances (like chlorofluorocarbons- CFCs). Ozone holes are the places
in the upper stratosphere where the concentration of ozone has depleted drastically.
 Mesosphere: temperature starts decreasing again and reaches at -96 0C at the upper
boundary of the layer i.e. mesopause. Density of air is very low and important chemical
species found in this region are O2+ and NO+ which do not absorb much solar radiation.
This causes the decline in ambient temperature in this region.

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 Thermosphere: ionic oxygen atoms and other ions in this layer absorb short wave solar
radiation which increases the temperature in this layer rapidly from -96 0C (lower
boundary) to 1200 0C (upper layer).
Table 2: Layers of atmosphere and their composition (Source: Environmental
Chemistry by A.K. Dey)

Layer Average Altitude Temperature Variation Prominent Chemical

(km) (0C) Species

Troposphere 0 - 11 15 to (-56) N2, O2, Ar, CO2, H2O

Stratosphere 11-50 (-56) to (-2) O3

Mesosphere 50-85 (-2) to (-96) O2+, NO+

Thermosphere 85-500 (-96) to 1200 O2+, O+, NO+

Figure 3Layers of atmosphere and temperature change with latitude (Source: Britannica
Encyclopedia; https://www.britannica.com/science/ozone-layer)

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Biosphere:(Greek: Bios means life) this is the self-regulating overlapping region of

atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere in the environment where life sustainably exists,
nourished and flourished by the healthy interaction between biotic (autotrophs and
heterotrophs) and abiotic components (air, water, sunlight, soil, rock etc.) of the nature.

Figure 4: Biosphere (Source: Britannica Encyclopedia;

https://www.britannica.com/science/biosphere)

2. Environmental Education
In the second half of the twentieth century, global concerns were raised to make people
environmentally aware. This was the time when it was recommended to design separate
course for environmental education and establish an independent and multidisciplinary
discipline, commonly called as Environmental Science or Studies. According to UNESCO
(1971), the objectives of environmental studies are:
 Creating the awareness about environmental problems among people.
 Imparting basic knowledge about the environment and its allied problems.
 Developing an attitude of concern for the environment.
 Motivating public to participate in environment protection and environment
improvement.

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 Acquiring skills to help the concerned individuals in identifying and solving

environmental problems.
 Striving to attain harmony with Nature.
UNESCO and UNEP jointly organized first intergovernmental conference on environmental
education in 1977 at Tbilisi, Georgia. The goals of the conference were:
 To foster clear awareness of, and concern about, economic, social, political, and
ecological interdependence in urban and rural areas;
 To provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values,
attitudes, commitment, and skills needed to protect and improve the environment;
 To create new patterns of behavior of individuals, groups, and society as a whole
towards the environment.
The categories of environmental education objectives are:
 Awareness—to help social groups and individuals acquire an awareness and
sensitivity to the total environment and its allied problems.
 Knowledge—to help social groups and individuals gain a variety of experience in,
and acquire a basic understanding of, the environment and its associated problems.
 Attitudes—to help social groups and individuals acquire a set of values and feelings
of concern for the environment and the motivation for actively participating in
environmental improvement and protection.
 Skills—to help social groups and individuals acquire the skills for identifying and
solving environmental problems.
 Participation—to provide social groups and individuals with an opportunity to be
actively involved at all levels in working toward resolution of environmental
problems.
Environmental Education in India: India also started taking significant steps to propagate
environmental education. At post-graduation level, the environmental education was started
by many central and state universities in India during 1985-2000. In 1991, Hon. Supreme
Court of India gave historical ruling to implement environmental education at all the levels
and gave directions to make Environmental Studies a compulsory paper for all the streams at
under-graduate levels in Indian universities. At present, various short-term and regular
courses on environment and its various dimensions are being run in various universities in
India.

3. Difference between Environmental Science and Environmental Studies

Environmental Studies: Environmental studies is multidisciplinary subject which studies
about various dimensions (scientific, social, cultural, economic, political etc.) of the
environment, its issues and challenges and tangible solutions in a holistic way. It studies the
human-environment interaction and its results at micro and macro level.

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Environmental Science strictly deals with the scientific aspects of the environment, its
complex problems and the tangible solutions whereas Environmental Studies, in addition to
the scientific aspects, also deals with the socio-economic, cultural, traditional, legislative and
historical dimensions of the environmental issues. For example, suppose a river is getting
polluted due to discharge of untreated wastewater into the river. The student of
Environmental Science will observe the causes, physico-chemical and biological changes
within the river water, its effect on aquatic and adjoining ecosystem and scientific mitigation
measures for the river pollution. In addition to the above dimensions, Environmental Studies
will also observe the impact of the pollution on the nearby population, their livelihood and
culture etc.

4. Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies

Multidisciplinary means interaction of various subjects or disciplines. Environmental studies
deal with all the aspects of biotic and abiotic components of the environment. Also,
Environment and environmental issues are complex in nature. Therefore, expertise from
different subjects or disciplines is required to understand different aspects of the
environment. We may require expertise from different disciplines to resolve various
environmental issues.
Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies may be understood by a small case study.
Suppose a developmental activity (Dam, Mining, Highway etc.) is proposed within a given
region. Before starting such projects, an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is
conducted to assess and mitigate the possible degradation to the environment and population
living within the region. To effectively conduct the EIA, expertise from the following
disciplines will be required:
 Life Sciences (Zoology and Botany): to assess the biodiversity richness and
endemism of the given region and possible reversible or irreversible changes in the
biological diversity of the region by the anthropogenic activities. An expert from life
sciences will also assess the ecosystem goods and services being provided by the
nature in the specific region.
 Earth Sciences (Geology, Geography, Geochemistry etc.): Earth Sciences will
study about the details of geological and geographical terrain, soil/rock profile,
tectonic and seismic activity in the region etc.
 Chemical Sciences: it will be helpful in understanding various chemical processes
and reactions taking place in different matrices of the environment. It is also
important to understand the fate and effect of pollutants on air, water, soil and
 Anthropology, History and Archaeology: to assess the historical or archaeological
importance of the monuments, tribal population, traditions or practices in a region or
at the site of the construction.

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 Social Sciences, Sociology and Economics: to assess the socio-economic stature of

the population and possible changes the same with on-going developmental projects.
 Law and Legal Aspects: expertise from legal background is also required to satisfy
different legal aspects during a developmental project activity (like land acquisition,
relocation and rehabilitation etc.).
 Mathematics, Computer Modelling and Statistics: we need different statistical
tools and models to statistically validate the obtained data from the study. Also, we
are using numerous mathematical and computational models in day-to-day activities
like meteorological predictions.

Figure 5: Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies

5. Scope and Importance of Environmental Studies
The multidisciplinary approach of the subject can be implemented in wide range of
applications and fields related to the environmental awareness, education and conservation.
Hence, the subject has a vast scope and the expert of the subject can serve in numerous ways
in different spheres of the society. Students may opt the subject and make a professional
career in Environmental Studies or Environmental Science. The experts and professionals of
the subject are required and recruited in various sectors like:
 Academics: as discussed above, the subject has been introduced in numerous schools,
colleges and universities in India and abroad, at school, under-graduation and post-
graduation levels. The student may pursue the subject. Worldwide, large number of
dedicated departments, centers, universities and institutions have been established for
the subject. An interested professional may join the teaching and academics and make
the next generation aware about the environmental issues and its tangible solutions.
Many dedicated institutes, like WII Dehradun, FRI Dehradun, IIFM Bhopal etc., have
been established to propagate education in specialized fields of the environment.

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 Research & Development: research and post-doctoral works have been going on
worldwide to understand the environmental mechanisms and to get cost-effective
cutting-edge technologies to mitigate environmental issues and challenges.
 Industries: in order to effectively implement the environmental guidelines and
technologies and to mitigate the environmental degradation directly or indirectly
caused by the industries, a large number of industries have been recruiting
environmental engineers/scientists/experts.
 Ministries and Agencies: ministry of environment and various environmental
agencies & conventions of national and international repute frequently create
vacancies for the environmental experts. Few of the examples of such agencies are
UNEP, IPCC, CITES, RAMSAR, USEPA etc.
 Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Consultancy: a large number of
national and international NGOs and consultancies are working as an extended hand
to conserve the environment and its various components. Most of the NGOs and
consultancies are old and have an experienced workforce. Some of the examples are
Bombay Natural History Society, IUCN, Conservation International, World Wide
Fund for Nature, Wildlife Trust of India, Centre for Environmental Education, Centre
for Science and Environment, Kalpavriksha, Madras Crocodile Bank Trust etc.
 Green Journalism: environmental awareness is indispensable for the environmental
conservation and media (print, electronic and social media) is the strongest medium to
propagate the awareness. Green journalism is the term given when media raises the
environmental issues and its practical solutions suggested by the experts of the
subject.
 Environmental legislation and Green Advocacy: for an effective environmental
conservation, it is indispensable to have stringent legislative provision and effective
implementation of the same. Legal experts specialized in environmental law may act
significantly in environmental conservation.
In the last five decades, Environmental Studies or Environmental Science has emerged as an
important multidisciplinary subject dealing with all the aspects of issues and challenges of the
environment and it also suggests practical solutions to the environmental problems. The
subject is still evolving as the environmental problems are also growing in intensity and
magnitude at a fast pace. Anthropogenic activities have created the issues like pollution
caused by conventional and emerging pollutants, biodiversity loss, global warming-climate
change, growing global energy demands, utmost pressure on the natural resources etc., which
are causing serious threats to the life on the planet. Environmental Studies has given tangible
solutions to the environmental problems. Some of the prominent fields, which the subject
addresses may be summarized as Environmental Education and Ethics, Ecosystem and
ecology, Natural Resources Management, Energy Efficiency and Audit, Renewable sources
of energy, Global warming-climate change, Biodiversity Conservation, Pollution monitoring
and mitigation, Population and Environment, Waste management etc. Hence, it is necessary
to make the newer generations aware about the basics and details of the subject.

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6. Important landmarks in Environmentalism

In the western world, first ever concern about the environmental degradation was raised after
publication of the book ‘Silent Spring’ by Rachael Carson in 1962. This book raised the issue
of excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the U.S. and its impact on different
biotic and abiotic components of the environment. In 1970, book ‘Limit to Growth’ by the
Club of Rome attracted the global attention. Ramsar Convention came into existence on 02nd
February 1971 with the aim to conserve wetlands globally. Hence, World Wetlands Day is
observed every year on 02nd February. In 1972, United Nations Conference on Human
Environment was organized at Stockholm between 5th June – 16th June where India also
presented its view on environmental degradation. In the remembrance of this conference,
World Environment Day is celebrated every year on 05th June. India started Project Tiger
in 1973 to save is national animal of India. In between, India and the world witnessed worst
industrial disasters, Bhopal Gas Tragedy (02nd and 03rd December, 1984) and Chernobyl
Nuclear Disaster (26th April, 1986), which taught many lessons to globe. Vienna
Convention (1985) and Montreal Protocol (16th September 1987) were signed to protect the
Ozone layer from getting depleted by the ozone depleting substances (ODS). The concept of
Sustainable Development was introduced to the world by Brundtland Commission Report
(Our Common Future) in 1987. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) came
into the existence in 1989 to formulate the framework to combat global warming-climate
change. The Agenda 21 was adopted in the Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro in 1992. UN trio
sister conventions (UNFCCC, UNCBD and UNCCD) were also signed in 1992. In 1997,
Kyoto Protocol was signed to curb down the emission of greenhouse gases responsible for the
global warming. The World Summit on Sustainable Development (Rio + 10) was conducted
in 2002 at Johannesburg. The Govt. of India took the initiative to form the International Solar
Alliance (30 November 2015; headquartered at Gurugram, India) during the famous Paris
convention of UNFCC, in order to motivate the tropical and sub-tropical countries to
maximize the use of solar energy instead of the conventional sources of energy. A large
number of organizations of national and international repute, working in the field of
environmental awareness, education and conservation have also been established in the last
one century.

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Figure 6: Important Milestones in the history of Environmentalism

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7.Concept of Sustainability and Sustainable Development

It was the global perception that the environmental conservation and economic development
cannot be pursued together. With the onset of 1980s, the world started finding the middle
path so that the long-term economic development may be pursued without harming the
environment. With this aim, the United Nations established World Commission on
Environment and Development (WCED), under the chairmanship of Geo Harlem Brundtland
(former Prime Minister of Norway) in December 1983. Hence, this commission is commonly
known as the Brundtland Commission. The task of the commission was to formulate “A
global agenda for change”. Brundtland Commission submitted its report entitled “Our
Common Future” in 1987 which gave the concept of Sustainable Development to the world.
Report defines Sustainable Development as “development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
Sustainability (Latin: sustinere means to hold up) is a long-term idea that means making the
entire world sustainable. However, sustainable development refers to pathways by which the
goal of sustainability and sustainable world can be achieved.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): these are the seventeen goals set as the ‘2030
agenda for sustainable development’. It was adopted by the United Nations state members in
2015 as ‘a blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and planet, now and into the future.’
All the developed and developing countries have been called to achieve the goals by global
partnership.
Society, environment and economy, collectively considered as the three pillars of sustainable
development. When the three pillars harmonically interact with each other, sustainability and
sustainable development is achieved. A brief description of the three pillars is given below:
 Environmental Sustainability: it means that we should consume the environmental
goods and services in a sustainable manner. Mahatma Gandhi, once rightly said “Earth
provides enough to satisfy every man’s need but not everyone’s greed”. The present rate
of over-exploitation of natural resources exceeds manifolds the rate of replenishment of
the same, which is causing environmental degradation at an exponential rate. Therefore,
the natural resources should be utilized sustainably. Sustainable Development Goals 6
(Clean Water and Sanitation), 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), 13 (Climate Action), 14
(Life below Water) and 15 (Life on Land) indicates environmental sustainability.
 Social Sustainability: it defines a society having fair and equal opportunities for its
population with gender equality, good health and education facilities and people’s
participation in nation building. Sustainable Development Goals 3 (Good Health and
Well-Being), 4 (Quality Education), 5 (Gender Equality), 7 (Affordable and Clean
Energy), 16 (Peace, Justice and strong Institutions) and 17 (Partnerships for the Goals)
indicates social sustainability.
 Economic Sustainability: economic sustainability means the equitable distribution of the
resources. No one should be deprived of the basic needs to sustain a healthy life. Benefits
should be earned from the resources but not at the cost of irreversible loss to the

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environment. Sustainablee Developm ment Goals 1 (No Pooverty), 2 (Zero Hun nger), 7
ffordable annd Clean Ennergy), 8 (D
(Aff Descent Wo
ork and Ecconomic Grrowth), 9 (IIndustry,
Innoovation andd Infrastruccture), 10 (Reduced
( Inequalities)
I ), 11 (Susttainable Citties and
Commmunities) and 12 (R Responsible Consumption and Prroduction) iindicates ecconomic
susttainability.
The thrree pillars intersect
i eaach other giiving the concept of bearable,
b eqquitable and
d viable
globe, which
w collecctively form
ms sustainabble world.
 Social Susttainability + Economiic Sustaina
ability = Eq
quitable
 Social Susttainability + Environm
mental Susstainability = Bearable
 Economicaal Sustainability + Ennvironmental Sustainaability = Viiable
 (Social + Econom mical + Environme
E ental) Susstainabilityy = Susttainable
Developmeent

o Pillars off Sustainable Developm

Figgure7: Vennn Diagram of ment

ure 8: Sustaainable Dev

Figu velopment Goals
G
(Sourcee: https://ww
ww.un.org/ssustainableddevelopmennt/blog/20155/12/sustainnable-develo
opment-
gooals-kick-off
ff-with-start--of-new-yeaar/)

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QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

One-word answer type Question

1. Title of the Brundtland Commission Report was _____________
2. Number of Sustainable Development Goals are _______
3. World Environment Day in observed every year on _________
4. Lowest layer of the atmosphere is _________
5. Bhopal Gas Tragedy took place on _______________
Answers: 1- Our Common Future; 2- Seventeen; 3- 05th June; 4- Troposphere; 5- 02nd – 03rd
December, 1984
Match the following

A. Silent Spring 1. Stratosphere

B. Sustainable Development 2. 1972

C. Ozone layer 3. Wetlands Conservation

D. UN Conference on Human Environment 4. Brundtland Commission

E. Ramsar Convention 5. Rachael Carson

Answers: A- 5; B- 4; C- 1; D- 2; E- 3
Short answer type Question
 Define sustainable development
 Define Biosphere
Long answer type Question
 What do you understand by the multidisciplinary nature of Environmental Studies?
How the multidisciplinary approach is helpful in solving various environmental
problems?
 Describe the various components of atmosphere
 Discuss Sustainable Development. Write a short note on Sustainable Development
Goals.

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GLOSSARY
 Atmosphere: thin blanket of gaseous mixture which envelops the planet and essential
for the survival of biotic components on earth
 Biosphere: sphere on and around the earth having life
 Brundtland Commission: World Commission on Environment and Development,
commonly known as the Brundtland Commission, gave the concept of sustainable
development to the world.
 Environment: Every biotic and abiotic component that surrounds us forms the
environment.
 Environmental Studies:Environmental studies is multidisciplinary subject which
studies about various dimensions (scientific, social, cultural, economic, political etc.)
of the environment, its issues and challenges and tangible solutions in a holistic way.
It studies the human-environment interaction and its results at micro and macro level.
 Hydrosphere: depicts the area on earth covered with water
 Lithosphere: solid surface part of the earth
 Multidisciplinary: interaction of various subjects or disciplines to address a complex
issue or subject
 Sustainable Development: development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

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LESSION-2

ECOSYSTEM: STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM

Dr. Nibedita Khuntia
Assistant Professor,
Maharaja Agrasen College,
University of Delhi.

INTRODUCTION
We are not alone in this world. We share our resources with other life forms. There are non-
living things around us as well. Throughout our lifetime we keep on interacting with other
living beings and non-living things.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this lesson, you will be able to
1. Know the concept, definition and structure of ecosystem.
2. Distinguish between biotic and abiotic components of ecosystem.
3. Explain the different types of ecological pyramids.
4. Understand the term ecological succession.

1. CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem is the basic structural and functional unit of the environment. Both the living and
non-living component of the nature, when interact with each other to establish a stable living
community, it is called as Ecosystem. That means there is a constant exchange of something
between these living & non-livings, is called an Ecosystem. Without the living component,
establishment of an ecosystem is not possible and vice versa. Both are two sides of a coin or
very much complementary to each other.
The study of ecosystem includes complete analysis of the structure, regulation and the role of
each and every component functioning there. Once we know it, in detail, the study of the
ecosystem and its importance to the equilibrium of environment will be understood easily.

2. DEFINITION OF ECOSYSTEM
The study of all the physical as well as biological processes including the distribution and
abundance of living organisms and the interaction in between them with their surrounding
environment is known as Ecosystem. In simpler words, if any environmental changes occur
in the physical or abiotic factors, they in turn change the type and number of the organisms
that is both the plants and the animals, present in that particular area.

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The ecosystem is very complex in nature and human beings are a part of the ecosystems also.

The theme of the ecosystem is “energy flow”. Sustenance of ecosystem is possible due to the
energy dependence as well as energy transfer between various components of an ecosystem
may it be living or non-living.

Examples of Ecosystems: Terrestrial or land-based ecosystem, Aquatic or water-based

ecosystems etc.

3. STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM
It is very easy to study or understand the structure of ecosystem from the flow chart described
(Fig.1) below.

ECOSYSTEM

BIOTIC COMPONENTS ABIOTIC COMPONENTS

LIGHT
PRODUCERS
CLIMATIC FACTORS
TEMPERATURE

CONSUMERS
WATER

DECOMPOSERS EDAPHIC FACTOR SOIL

Fig.1.Schematic Representation of Structure of an Ecosystem

3.1. BIOTIC COMPONENTS

Biotic components are also divided into 3 categories basing upon their food-fed relationships
(Fig.2).
3.1.1. PRODUCERS: Producers are the autotrophs (auto means self, troph means to
nourish) of the ecosystem. They are the green plants and green microorganisms who
can make their own food material by using carbon dioxide and water in presence of
sunlight with the help of chlorophyll present in them.
Ex. All green plants, Algae, Cyanobacteria,

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3.1.2. CONSUMERS: Consumers are the heterotrophs (hetero-not self troph to nourish) of
an ecosystem. They depend on the producers of the nature to get energy. Consumers
are also different types like
a) Primary Consumers – They are the herbivores who eat directly the autotrophs /
plants. They cannot eat any animals.
Ex. Grasshoppers, Rabbits, Goats.
b) Secondary Consumers – They cannot directly eat the producers of the
ecosystem, that is the plants. They can eat only herbivores.
Ex. Frogs, Jackal, Snakes
c) Tertiary Consumers – They are carnivores in nature means they are the meat
eaters. Thus, they depend on the secondary consumer for their food. They are the
top-level carnivores.
Ex. – Tigers, Lions, Vulture, Kite
3.1.3. DECOMPOSERS: Decomposers are also to some extent heterotrophic in nature.
They do not contain chlorophyll, so depend on other material for food and energy.
These organisms can grow on the dead and decay materials of the environment. That
is why they are known as the decomposers or saprophyte, or scavengers of the nature
or they can be called as the detrivores (Detri means dead particulate organic material).
They can live in any type of soil with organic waste. They play a very important role
for the completion of the Biogeochemical Cycle in the environment.
Ex. Bacteria, Fungi, Earthworm

Sr.No. Type of Primary Consumer Secondary Tertiary Consumer

Consumer
Ecosystem

1 Grassland Grasshoppers, Rabbits, Frogs, Lizards, Hawks, Eagle, Tiger

Ecosystem Deer, Sheep, Goats etc Birds, Snakes Etc
2 Forest Leafhoppers, Bugs, Flies, Birds, Owl, Tiger, Lion etc
Ecosystem Squirrels, Insects, Deer, Lizards, Wolves,
Fruit bats, Nilgai, Jackals, etc.
Elephants etc.
3 Desert Insects, Rats Birds Camel, Scorpions, Fox, Snakes, Fox, Striped
Ecosystem Squirrel Jackal, Rattle Hyena, Sand Cats, Viper,
Snakes, Mongoose Saharan Cheetah, Eagles,
etc Kites etc.

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4 Pond or Insects, Frogs, Larvae, Insects, Larger Largest Fishes, Water

Lake Beetles, Zooplanktons, fishes, Cranes, Snakes, Hawks etc.
Ecosystem Crustaceans etc Other Birds

5 Marine Zooplanktons, Crustaceans, Bigger Fishes, Giant Carnivorous Fish,

Ecosystem Small fishes Mackerel etc Sharks,
Whales, Snakes,
Hawks etc

Table-1: Different living organisms or biotic factors in consumer forms in different

Ecosystems

Fig.2. Relation between Producers, Consumers and Decomposers

Ref: https://archive.bigelow.org/bacteria

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3.2. ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:

These are the non-living factors in form of solid, liquid or gas found in the nature (ice, water,
moisture). They can be categorised into 2 types.
I) Climatic factors
Ex. Light, Temperature, Humidity, Rain etc.
II) Edaphic factors
Ex. Soil, Organic and Inorganic components of the soil, Substratum etc.
Let’s discuss importance of each abiotic factors and their limitations in an ecosystem.

3.2.1. CLIMATIC FACTORS

3.2.1.1. Light – It is an essential factor for all the living organisms like producers, consumers
as well as decomposers. In presence of the sunlight plants are able to prepare their
food material, which in turn eaten by the heterotrophs & ultimately by the
decomposers. Without sun light photosynthesis is not possible thus it is one of the
most important abiotic factors of an ecosystem. Quantity as well as quality of light
has different impact on different organism. Let’s discuss.
i) Importance of light for plants
a) Chlorophyll production
b) Distribution of plants: The vegetation or the types of plants grow on the
earth depends on the amount of sunlight they are getting. Thus the
vegetation of temperate, tropical as well as Tundra regions are different from
each other.
c) Light thus decides the physiology of the plants of different regions.
d) Temperature: When light increases, temperature also increase and vice
versa. When temperature increases rate of transpiration in the plants
increases. Thus, the absorption of water from the underground also
increases. It clearly explains that temp also plays an important role and
decides the type of plants to grow in a particular area.
e) Stomatal Movement: The stomata are present in the leaves of the plants.
They control the evaporation of water from a plant body. Thus, by opening
and closing, stomata keeps the plant body in a stable physiological status.
f) Duration of Light: During summer and winter months the type of flowers,
what we can observe in the nature are different. The basic theory behind it is
some plants can bloom in summer months are long day (basing on the
exposure to the sun light) plants and some are short day plants (less exposure
to sunlight or natural light).

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ii) Importance of Light for animals

a) Metabolism: Light controls the physiology & metabolism of animals by
affecting it’s enzymatic activity.
b) Vision: Without light it is very difficult to see anything. So it is required by
all animals.
c) Pigmentation: The process of pigmentation on the skin color depends on the
natural light source.
d) Reproduction: Different animals respond to different duration of light
exposure for their breeding activities.
e) Circadian Rhythm: Daily response of the animals towards the light condition
are known as circadian rhythm. This is an important physiological action of
all the living organisms. Thus, it is a light dependent process.
3.2.1.2 Temperature: Temperature affects animals and plants in following ways.
i) Importance of temperature for plants
a) Metabolism: Temperature increase the physiological activity. Thus, the
types of plants grow in a desert ecosystem are different from the type of
plants of a forest ecosystem and an aquatic ecosystem.
b) On Growth & Development: Different types of plants need different range of
temperatures for their growth. Summer growing plants are different from
winter season growing plants. This is self-explanatory.
c) Thermal Stratification: Best example is an aquatic ecosystem. The organism
growing at surface layer are different as they need more temperature and
light than the organisms grow at a deeper level in an aquatic ecosystem.
ii) Importance of Temperature for Animals
Basing on need of the temperature, animals are categorised into two types. Like:
a) Warm-Blooded or Endo- thermic animals
b) Cold – Blooded or Ecto-thermic Animals
Warm blooded animals maintain their body temperature at a constant level. Their body
temperature does not change with the environment temperature.
Ex. Mammals, Birds, etc.
The body temperature of the organism when changes with the temperature of the
environment, then they are known as Cold Blooded animals.
Ex. Frogs
c) Migration: Temperature is also a factor for migration of animals. It is
known as thermal migration. If temperature changes the locomotory animals
or birds may change their places for a temporary period & them comeback to
their original ecosystem when the weather changes.

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3.2.1.3. Water: Life is never possible without water. So, water is a very important abiotic
factor in an ecosystem. The amount of water present in an area decides the type of
ecosystem to be developed there. In this regard sometimes aquatic ecosystems also
develop for ex. Pond & Lake ecosystems. If for a longer period of time, due to any
reason, a huge amount of water got deposited & replenished repeatedly due to rainfall
etc., then through the process of succession an aquatic ecosystem develops and get
established there.
Beside for photosynthesis & other metabolic activity plants needs water for
circulation of minerals throughout its body.
Water is also an essential requirement of the animals for their metabolic activity.
Water regulates the body temperature of both plants and animals.
Water in forms of rainfall also needed by the ecosystem. It maintains the humidity &
content of moisture in the atmosphere. Amount of rainfall also decides the kind of
plants to grow over there.
Ex. Deciduous forest, Evergreen forest, Deserts etc.
With the type of vegetation, different types of animals also started living in that
particular geographic area.
Water in form of humidity also affects plants and animal lives. Some plants can grow
in less humid area where some other plants need more moisture in their environment.
Some plants can use atmospheric moisture directly from the environment.
Ex. Epiphytes, Orchids, Lichens, Mosses etc.
Some other needs it in liquid form from underground by the process of absorption.
Ex. Higher plants.

3.2.2. EDAPHIC FACTORS

3.2.2.1. Soil: Soil is a natural resource and provides platform for the plants to grow &
animals to dwell on it. Thus, the fertility and quantity of soil decides the type of
vegetation in that area. To be more specific, pH of the soil is the deciding factor. If pH
of the soil is less than 7, then it is acidic soil & if pH is more than 7 it is alkaline.

Fig.3: Schematic representation of different texture of the soil

(Ref:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Horizons.gif)

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Thus, the acidity

T a & alkalinity
a off the soil decides
d the number & kind of plantsp &
animals to stay over thhere (Fig.3)). But needless to say, neutral soiil, i.e. when
n the pH
ranges from
m 6.5 -7.5 iss the preferrred conditio
on for most of the livingg organism..
Soil is also associated with different kinds off minerals & nutrients.. Some are required
r
in more quuantity, are called maccronutrient and some are micronnutrients wh hich are
required inn a small quantity. TheyT also play a vittal role in developm ment and
sustenance of an ecosyystem.
Texture of the soil is also playinng a key ro
ole. For ex. Rocky areeas, Swamp
py areas,
Mining areas etc.
Different teextured soil will allow different ty
ypes of biotiic factors orr organisms to grow
and establissh in that eccosystem.

4. ECO
OLOGICAL
L PYRAMIIDS
By noww we are cleear that the ecosystem can sustain ns itself, if there
t is a bbalance betw
ween the
produceers, the connsumer andd the decom mposers. En nergy is a major
m link wwhich bindss all the
above components
c s in an ecosyystem. Thuss, there is a fixed positiion or level of a particu
ular type
of orgaanisms in ann ecosystem m. How we can know or decide that t positioon? To expllain it, a
graphiccal structuree has been proposed
p byy the enviro onmental bioologists, knnown as pyrramid or
Ecologiical Pyramid (Fig.4).

Fig.4: Schem
matic repressentation of an Ecologgical Pyram
mid
mids)
(Ref:htttps://sites.google.com/sitte/vhs2015ennvironmentallscience/bioddiversity/ecological-pyram

Definitiion: An ecoological pyrramid is a graphical

g reepresentatioon of the reelationship between
b
various trophic levvels organism
ms in a Foood Chain.
It was first
f designeed by Charlees Elton andd are called Eltonian Pyyramid or F
Food Pyram
mids.
Ecologiical Pyramids are threee types:
1. Pyrramid of Nuumber

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2. Pyramid of Biomass
3. Pyramid of Energy
A. Pyramid of Numbers:
As the name says, in this type of pyramid number of organisms are counted and accordingly
respective volume to each trophic level is allotted in the pyramid. Characteristic features of
pyramid of number are.
1) Number of producers are higher in number than the consumers present in other trophic
levels.
2) Number of individuals in each trophic level decrease when we go from bottom to top
in a pyramid.
3) Collectively the living organisms present in each of the trophic levels are known as
standing crop.
4) Normally the pyramid of number is an upright (Fig.5) one Ex. Grassland ecosystem,
Aquatic ecosystem.
5) Sometimes inverted pyramids (Fig.6) are also found in this case.
6) A mixed or spindle shaped pyramid is also observed in case of forest ecosystem.

Fig.5: Upright Pyramid of Numbers

(Ref: https://www.pmfias.com/ecological-pyramids-pyramid-numbers-biomass-energy/)

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Fig.6: Inverted and Spindle Shaped Pyramid of Numbers

(Ref: https://www.pmfias.com/ecological-pyramids-pyramid-numbers-biomass-energy/)

B. Pyramid of Biomass: Biomass is the total dry weight of the animals as well as plants
present in the ecosystem at any point of time.
Like pyramid of numbers it may be upright one or inverted one. In case of a forest
and grass land ecosystem it is upright and in cases of a pond ecosystem inverted
pyramids (Fig.7) are observed.

Fig.7: Upright and Inverted Pyramid of Biomass

Ref:https://www.tutorialspoint.com/environmental_studies/environmental_
studies_ecological_pyramid.htm

The figures show the position of different organisms in different trophic levels.

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C. Pyramid of Energy
As already mentioned, the Food Chain and Food Web systems are existed for the energy
requirement and energy transfer between the living organisms in an ecosystem. It is the
most important type of ecological pyramid. The amount of energy being transferred from
the lower trophic level towards the upper ones become less and less. Thus, longer the
pyramid in height, lesser will be the amount of energy to reach the organisms present in
the topmost trophic level. Only 10% of the energy is being transferred to the subsequent
upper trophic level organisms (Fig.9). For example, if the producers generate 1000 kilo
calorie amount of energy, the primary consumers will receive 100 kcal, the secondary
consumer will get 10 kcal and only 1 kcal amount of energy will reach to the tertiary or
topmost level of consumers.
In this way a pattern of upright Pyramid of Energy (Fig.8) will be developed for all types
of ecosystems found in the Nature. This is the universal formula. Energy pyramid can
never be an inverted one or spindle shaped found in other types of ecological pyramid
structure. The shape of the pyramid of energy is not affected by the size, biomass, number
or the metabolic rate of the organisms.

Fig.8: Structure of Pyramid of Energy

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Fig.9: Energy Flow 10% rule in an Ecosystem.

(Ref:https://www.tutorialspoint.com/environmental_studies/environmental_studies_ecological_pyramid.htm)

Some limitations are also observed in the studies of ecological pyramids. That can be
described as follows:
1. The position of certain organisms are not fixed in one ecological pyramid. That may vary
in same or may be in a different ecosystem.
2. There is no consideration of seasonal changes, while studying the pyramids
3. Role of detrivores are not represented in an ecological pyramid.
At last it can be said that the pyramid of energy is very accurate and gives a true picture of
the ecosystem.

5. ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological succession term was coined by Hult (1885). Famous ecologist Clement defined
Ecological Succession as “the natural process by which the same locality becomes
successively colonised by different groups or communities of plants”.
Characteristics of Ecological Succession:
1) The species types and the community changes in an orderly process
2) The physical structure of a community changes by the biological action of the biological
factors grow there.

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3) At last a stable ecosystem m gets estabblished in an

n area. Withh both biotiic as well ass abiotic
facctors interaccting there to establish equilibrium
m in that ecoosystem.
4) Thhen the cliimax commmunity getts establish
hed there, which in turn main
ntain an
equuilibrium with
w the enviironment.

Scheematic Reprresentation of a Forest Successionn

(https:///upload.wikkimedia.org//wikipedia/commons/4
4/41/Forest__successionn_depicted_o
over_ti
me.png:)

Causess of Ecologiical Successsion

a) Initial causess: It happens for the destruction off an existingg habitat. It is two types.
i)) Climatiic Factors:
E Soil Eroosion, Soil deposition
Ex. d d to heavy
due y wind, Conntinuous floood, Heavy rainfall,
Fire, Drrought, Lannd Slides, Oil Depositio
on etc.
iii) Biotic Factors:
F
Ex. Defforestation, Over grazinng, Jhum cu
ultivation ettc.
b) Coontinuous Causes:
C It is
i responsibble for the changes
c in population
p ccompositionn in that
areea. The facctors responnsible for population
p compositioons are, miigration forr safety,
miigration duee to urbanizzation, miggration due to industrialization, m
migration foor better
life
fe etc.

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c) Stabilizing Causes: Stabilization of an ecosystem happens due to the climatic condition

of that area, availability of minerals, fertility of the land for agriculture as well as growth
of different types of producer for a continuous flow of food and energy as discussed
earlier.
Types of Ecological Succession
1) Primary succession: It begins from the primitive substation where there was no living
factor before.
Ex. Volcanic eruptions, Rocky Areas etc.
2) Secondary Succession: It begins from a previously sustained living matters, but the
vegetation got damaged due to any climate factors like flood, fire, acid rain etc.
3) Autogenic Succession: (Auto means self or same, and genic means producing / causing)
The developing plant community brings a change in the condition of a particular place,
which is not suitable for them, but creates or produces an environment for the growth of
a different community. It is a succession driven by biotic components of an ecosystem.
4) Allogenic Succession: (It is caused by abiotic factors) In contrast to autogenic
succession, allogenic succession is an abiotic factor driven condition. The habitat of the
ecosystem is changed due to volcanic eruption, climate change, comet strike, earthquake,
flood, drought etc.
5) Induced Succession: It is a man-made process, developed for the benefit of the
humankind.
Ex. Cultivation of Crops in a field.
6) Autotrophic Succession: When a place is rich in inorganic content & poor in organic
matter, the development of succession of plants over that area is called as autotrophic
succession.
7) Heterotrophic Succession: If a succession begins in an area which is rich in organic
contents like forest litter, sewage etc, and dominated by saprophytes like fungi,
mushrooms etc is called heterotrophic succession.
8) Retrogressive Succession: Sometimes due to heavy biological or biotic interferences, the
succession goes backward instead of progressing. Ex. Forest community changes to a
shrub land or grassland or to a barren land due to deforestation and overgrazing.

LEARNING OUTCOME
Ecosystem is the study of living organisms with its surroundings. Thus, it’s an
interdependence of biotic and abiotic factors in an area. Presence of only one factor cannot
create an ecosystem. In an ecosystem position of different organisms are different. This has
been explained through ecological pyramids. The principle of ecological pyramid depends on
the food habit of the organisms present in that ecosystem. The development of a new

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ecosystem on a barren land is known as succession. Sometimes reverse succession also

happen that is a well-functioning ecosystem may get destroyed due to some artificial i.e.
manmade or due to some natural calamities and gets converted into a barren land.
Some Important Terms used in the Lesson

Allogenic Succession Ecological Pyramid

Autogenic Succession Ecological Succession
Autotrophs Ecosystem
Autotrophic Succession Edaphic Factors
Abiotic Components Heterotrophic Succession
Biotic Components Heterotrophs
Biomass Induced Succession
Climatic Factors Primary Succession
Decomposers Retrogressive Succession
Detrivores Secondary Succession

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

I. Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which one of the following is a biotic factor in an ecosystem.
a) Oxygen, b) Soil, c) Rocks, d) Lizard
2. ---------------- is an autotroph.
a) Fungi, b) Tiger, c) Rabbit, d) Algae
3. Which one of the following is decomposer in an ecosystem.
a) Squirrel, b) Insects, c) Earthworms, d) Lizard
Ans-1(d), 2(d), 3(c)
II. Write Short Notes on:
1. Consumers
2. Pyramid of Energy
3. Water as an abiotic factor
III. Long Questions:
1. What do you mean by an Ecosystem.
2. What are the ecological pyramids in an ecosystem.
3. What is succession in an ecosystem. Explain in detail what you know about it.

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LESSION-3

ECOSYSTEM: FUNCTION OF THE ECOSYSTEM

Dr. Nibedita Khuntia
Assistant Professor
Maharaja Agrasen College
University of Delhi

INTRODUCTION
Function means the working of a particular ecosystem of a particular area in. It includes the
interlinking of organisms, their nutritional requirements, the circulation of nutrients, energy
flow, and again decomposition of all the chemicals, both organic as well as inorganic and
their release to the atmosphere. Mainly all these activities have been explained under three
major categories as follows
1. Biogeochemical Cycle
2. Food chain and Food Web
3. Energy flow in the Ecosystem
4. Productivity

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this lesson, you will be able to
1. Know the categories and their respective sub-categories of biogeochemical cycle.
2. Understand working of food chain.
3. Distinguish between grazing and detritus food chain.
4. Give schematic representation of food web.
5. Explain energy utilization in an ecosystem.
6. Know the various concepts of productivity.

3.1 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE

As the name indicates, in an ecosystem, both biological as well as physical components,
passing/rolling through the underground and above the ground to complete a cycle. Through
Nutrient Cycling various, inorganic and organic compounds are formed and decomposed
(normally forty elements are required by the living organisms in the nature). This is also
called as nutrient cycles of the ecosystem. "Nature is self-sufficient by nature".
Biogeochemical Cycle has been divided into two major categories like atmospheric and
edaphic cycling based on the types of the substance they are dealing with.

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I) Atmospheric Nutrient Cycle

a) Water Cycle
b) Carbon Cycle
c) Oxygen Cycle
II) Edaphic Nutrients Cycle
a) Nitrogen Cycle
b) Sulphur Cycle
c) Phosphorous Cycle

3.1.1. Atmospheric Nutrient cycle

a) Water Cycle: Water is an essential compound for the photosynthesis in plants. Plants
absorb water from the underground through the roots, to its upper or aerial parts. This
water is used for the process of photosynthesis. Some water gets back to the atmosphere
from the plant body through the process of transpiration and some are utilized by the
plants for its metabolic activity(Fig.1).
The driving force for a water cycle is the solar radiation which is 15% of the total radiation
reaching on the earth. Though the radiation water gets evaporated from the surface of the
waterbodies, it comes back to the surface of earth as rain. The above figure clearly teaches us
how the cycling of this vital resource occurs on the earth.

Fig.1: The Water Cycle

(Ref: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons /9/94/Water_cycle.png)

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b) Carbon Cycle: Carbon Dioxide is an important gas present in the nature Plants needs it
for the process of photosynthesis to prepare the food material that is carbohydrates for its
own as well as for heterotrophs. That means it gets locked into the organic matter
through the process of photosynthesis. Carbon Dioxide released to the atmosphere by
respiration of all the living organisms on the earth. Earth’s Crusts also releases carbon
which is present in forms of Calcium Carbonates (CaCO3) and Magnesium Carbonates
(MgCO3) which comes from the skeletons of marine organisms in the process of
mineralization. By subsequent weathering these Calcium Carbonates and Magnesium
Carbonates get mixed with the soil and add to the soil nutrition. In this way ultimately
these carbon rich organic matters accumulate in the ecosystems.

Fig.2: Carbon Cycle

(Ref: https://d32ogoqmya1dw8.cloudfront.net/images/clean/literacy/tlp
/carbocycle/carbon_cycle_diagram_1466775306722780178.jpg

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By burning of fossil fuel, coal & wood large amount of carbon dioxide get released to the
atmosphere. These carbon dioxides get assimilated by the plants. The animals consume these
carbohydrates, that is the photosynthetic products. The carbohydrates consumed, in this way
reach to the heterotrophs. When these heterotrophs die, carbon again goes back to earth’s
crust. Through the process of respiration also carbon dioxide released from the biotic
components to the atmosphere (Fig.2).
c) Oxygen Cycle: In the atmosphere the dry air contains 20.94% of oxygen. Oxygen is
required by all the living organisms for respiration. It is also associated with the moisture
content. It is the simplest but inevitable nutrient cycle in the ecosystems (Fig.3) .

Fig.3: Oxygen Cycle

(Ref:https://www.universetoday.com/61080/oxygen-cycle)
3.1.2. Edaphic Nutrient Cycle:
a) Nitrogen Cycle: It is a complex cycle occurs in nature through various steps. About
79% of the atmospheric air is Nitrogen. It enters to the biotic world and got assimilate
then again goes back to the atmosphere. Following steps are involved for the completion
of Nitrogen cycle (Fig.4).
A. Nitrogen enters to the living organisms: Pure nitrogen gas cannot be used by the
green plants. Only Nitrate & Ammonium forms of Nitrogen can be utilized by them.

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Thus, nitrogen gas first fixed into Nitrous Oxides, Nitric Oxides and Ammonium in
the nature. The production of nitrates from nitrogen is called nitrification.
Production of ammonia is called ammonification.
1. Nitrification: It can be done both by non-biological (physical) and biological
way.
i) Non- Biological fixation of Nitrogen or Nitrification: During lightening,
nitrogen gets combined with the oxygen in nature as this reaction needs a
high amount of energy.
ii) Artificially nitrogenous compounds also get produced in industries.
They are the chemical fertilizers. Farmers use these fertilizers to
enhance the yield of the crops and soil fertility.
iii) Biological Nitrogen Fixation: As name indicates biological nitrogen
fixation is carried out by the living organisms known as nitrogen fixing
organisms.
Ex. Blue-green algae, Bacteria, Fungi etc.
Biological Nitrogen Fixation are of two types.
i) Non-Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation: It is carried out by organisms, who
live freely in the soil or water.
Ex. Azobacter, Anabaena, Nostoc etc.
ii) Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation: Some microorganisms live inside the
root nodules of different plants in a symbiotic association. They have
the capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen. This process is called
symbiotic nitrogen fixation. In the roots of the higher plants, primarily
in legumes (beans, peas, soybeans), the nitrogen fixing organisms form
nodules, multiply inside these nodules and carry out the process of
nitrogen fixation.
Ex. Bacteria, Rhizobium etc.
The nitrogen gas from the atmosphere gets converted into Ammonia (NH3)
which in then converted into amino acids. Amino acids are the building blocks
of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Due to the symbiotic association legumes
are regarded as a good biofertilizer for other crops which in turn reduces the
use of chemical fertilizer in the crop fields.
Without root nodules also some symbiotic association are there for nitrogen
fixation in the nature.
Example:(i) Anabaena – Azolla association
(ii) Cycas Coralloid roots etc.

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B) Ammonification: Ammonification is an important step in the nitrogen cycle. It is

the process of production of ammonia (NH3) or ammonium (NH4) compounds
from the decomposition action of bacteria on organic matter. Thus, on the death
and decay of the plants as well as animals the complex organic compounds are
released into the soil where they are again decomposed into simpler compounds
by the microorganisms and release energy.
Examples of bacteria – Nitrosomonas bacteria, Nitrosococcus bacteria

Fig.4.: Schematic Representation of Nitrogen Cycle

(Ref:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Nitrogen cycle #/media/File:Nitrogen_Cycle_2.svg)
C) Nitrification: When ammonium gets converted into nitrates, it is called nitrification.
Nitrates can be directly absorbed by the plants & incorporated into proteins, nucleic
acids & other nitrogenous organic compounds. Some nitrates may be stored in the
humus of the soil, immobilized by the bacteria & some may reach into the waterbodies
with the runoffs.
2) Nitrogen Gas back to the Atmosphere: Through the process of denitrification nitrogen
gas goes back to the atmosphere. Some bacteria are there, who can convert Nitrates
(NO3) to Nitrites (NO2).

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They are called denitrifying bacteria. Ex. Pseudomonas

Ultimately Nitrates, Nitrites & gaseous Nitrogen then released to the atmosphere.
b) Sulphur Cycle

Fig.5: Schematic Representation of Sulphur Cycle

Like other Nutrient Cycles, the movement of sulphur in the biosphere and the underground is
called “Sulphur Cycle” (Fig.5). Sulphur Cycle is a sedimentary type of nutrient cycle as the
reserve pool is buried underground in rocks, minerals as well as sulphates (SO4) in sea
sediments.
Sulphur found in nature in following form.
i) Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
ii) Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
iii) Sulphates (SO4)
It enters to the living system as
i) Soluble form presents in the soil and pass on to the plants through the plants roots.

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ii) It is assimilated by the plant to synthesize protein, vitamins & same other important
products.

Fig.6:Schematic representation of Sulphur Cycle in detail

(Ref:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_cycle#/media/File:SulfurCycle_copy.jpg)
iii) Then the above compounds passed to the animal bodies through food chain.
Within plants & animal bodies the organic sulphur decomposed by aerobic bacteria to
sulphate (SO4) or hydrogen sulphides (H2S). Hydrogen Sulphides then get converted
into elemental sulphur by anaerobic bacteria (these bacteria do not require oxygen).
In this way sulphur gets back to the soil & sulphur cycle gets completed. Sulphur
Dioxide (SO2) is also released to the atmosphere by vehicular exhaustion i.e. the
burning of fossil fuels (Fig.6).
Example: Petroleum, Coal etc.
j) Phosphorus Cycle: In the ecosystem, more phosphorous is available in plants and
animal bodies in comparison to the abiotic system. In abiotic system phosphorous is
abundant in rocks and other natural deposits, formed during geological processes.
Phosphorous is desired for the structure of DNA, as coenzymes and for the conversion of
foods to release usable energy.
It is a simpler cycle.
Roots of the plants absorb Phosphorous present in a soluble form in the soil and assimilate it.
Through food chain it then gets transferred to the animal bodies and by the death and decay
of the plants and animals, or animal excreta it goes back to the atmosphere (Fig.7).

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The runoff from the soil and the loss of phosphorous to the sea is greater than the availability
of it to the land. Only 60,000 tons of phosphorous is returned to the soil through the birds,
fishes of the sea and the algae. A major amount of phosphorus gets lost to the sea.

Fig.7: Schematic representation of Phosphorous Cycle

Ref:https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phosphorus_Cycle_copy.jpg

3.2.1. FOOD CHAIN

Definition: The transfer of food energy from the source in plants through a series of
organisms with repeated eating & being eaten is referred to or called as food chain (Odum,
1971).
How Food chain works:
The green plants are the autotrophs or the producer of the ecosystem. With the help of
chlorophyll, and by using CO2 and H2O from nature in presence of sunlight the plants can
prepare their own food known as carbohydrates. The process is known as photosynthesis
Sunlight
Plants CO2 + H2O + Chlorophyll Carbohydrates
(Photosynthesis Process)
That’s why plants are called autotrophs (auto-self; troph-to nourish)
Thus, plants are the first step in a food chain.

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The heterotrophs (hetero= other; troph = to nourish) are the organisms who depends on the
autotrophs for food and energy.
Heterotrophs are two types – Herbivores and Carnivores
Herbivores are the herb/plant eaters. They can only eat the green plants/autotrophs.
Ex. Grasshoppers, Rabbits, Goats etc.
Carnivores are the meat eaters in an ecosystem. They cannot have the ability to eat herbs.
For example, Frogs, Snakes, Hawks, Lions, Tigers. Thus, in an ecosystem a chain like
structure is found based on “-to eat and being eaten “scheme, which is also called “Pray-
Predator relationship” in an ecosystem (Fig.8).
Plants (Autotrophs) Herbivores (Heterotrophs ) Carnivores
(Heterotrophs)
or
Plants Primary consumers Secondary consumer Tertiary consumers

Fig.8: Schematic representation of a Food Chain

(Ref:https://www.ck12.org/biology/food-chain/lesson/Food-Chains-and-Food-Webs-BIO/)

Types of Food Chain:

Two types of food chains are observed in different ecosystems, known as
1. Grazing Food Chain
2. Detritus Food chains

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Grazing Food Chain – It is recognized by the starting level organisms of a food chain. They
are the living green plants. Then if we see the examples, in a grassland ecosystem the chain
will be starting with Greengrass, then Grasshoppers, then Frogs then Snakes then Hawks as
shown in the above figure.
Detritus Food Chain – Here the starting point is dead plants or animals. This type of Food
chain does not depend on the sunlight.
Ex- Dead plants and animals, Scavengers, Micro organism
This should be noted that the Grazing and Detritus Food Chain perform independent to each
other but different parts of a single ecosystem. More energy is transferred in a grazing food
chain than in a detritus one. Combinedly the grazing and the detritus Food chain complete the
nutrient cycle in an ecosystem.

3.2.2. FOOD WEBS

In a natural system the linear structured food chain does not happen always. Sometimes, if a
particular species is absent in a particular area, that species is replaced by another species so
that
the “to eat and to be eaten” system will be maintained. For example, in a grassland
ecosystem, if
frogs will remain constant and for the eagle, food will also be available.

Fig.9: Schematic representation of a Food Web

(Ref:https://www.tutorialspoint.com/environmental_studies /environmental_ studies
_functions_of_ecosystem.htm

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Additioon to this, inn Nature, a more compplicated nettwork of foood chains iss existed which
w are
interconnnected. Thhat is knownn as Food Webs
W (Fig.9)).
Thoughh Food Webbs are very complex inn nature. It playsp a signnificant rolee in the balaance and
stabilityy of an Ecosystem. If deer
d will bee eliminated
d from the nature,
n thenn number off grasses
i will invadde to the crooplands. In turn area off the croplannds will be reduced
will inccrease, and it
resultinng reduced products.
p Siimilarly, the upper trop phic level animals
a likee tigers willl not get
their foood and will die ultimattely.
So, the Food Web networkingg is an impoortant creatiion of the naature to maaintain and sustain
s a
balancee in the ecossystems.

3.3. EN
NERGY FL
LOW IN AN
N ECOSYS
STEM
According to first law of therrmodynamics, energy cannot be created
c or ddestroyed. It
I can be
transferrred from onne form to another.
a
In an eccosystem thhe energy geets fixed or in other woords in preseence of sunlight the au
utotrophs
or the producers
p prrepare their food materrial. The hetterotrophs get
g their foood / energy from
f the
autotropphs that is the
t plants. Energy is required
r by all the livinng organism
ms to perform their
work orr metabolism m (Fig.10).

Fig.10: Relationsh
hip between
n producerr, consumerr and decom
mposers

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Energy utilization in an ecosystem occurs in two ways.

i) Quantity of solar energy the plants receive from the sun for photosynthesis
ii) Quantity of energy flow occurs from the plants to the consumers.
This behaviour of energy transaction in an ecosystem is known as energy flow.
Energy flow occurs in two models within the ecosystem
a) Single Channel Energy Flow Model
b) Y- Shaped Energy Flow Models
a) Single Chain Energy Flow Model: This type of energy flow works as per the food
chain of the ecosystem. For example, in a grassland ecosystem, grasses are the
producers. They fix carbon dioxide2 from the atmosphere and produce carbohydrates as
the gross productivity. It is a one-way direction of energy flow. This clearly indicates
that, if the food chain is longer in length then the energy reaches to the top carnivores are
less and if the food chain is a shorter one, more energy will be available to the topmost
trophic level organisms.
b) Y – Shaped Energy Flow Model: In nature besides the single chain model, another way
of energy transfer is found. Food web shows the realistic picture of flow of energy which
is more complex with more combinations.
The Y-model explains the connection between a grazing & a detritus food chain (Fig.11).

Fig. 11: Y – Shaped Energy Flow Model

Ref:https://eco-intelligent.com/2016/11/17/y-shaped-model-of-energy-flow-who-eats-whom-
in-nature/
In this above figure at every stage the two food chains are linked. The herbivores can be eaten
up by the decomposer or the top predator in the detritus food chain. The other links are, when

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the herbivore or the top predator died. They get decomposed by the decomposer and again
used up as nutrients by the plants. In a nutshell, in balanced ecosystem hardly anything goes
to the waste. Sometimes, the decomposers are also eaten up by the top predators of grazing
food chain.
Ex. Earthworms in a grassland ecosystem can be eaten up by the hawks or eagle.
It is called so, because it looks like the English alphabet ‘Y’.

3.4. PRODUCTIVITY
Concept of Productivity:
The amount of organic matter i.e. the food prepared by a plant is known as productivity.
When it is measured at any unit time, it is known as rate of productivity of that ecosystem.
Productivity are of following types
A. Primary Productivity
B. Secondary Productivity
C. Net Productivity
A. Primary Productivity: The productivity is the production capability of a plant. Thus,
primary productivity is always associated with the autotrophs or the photosynthetic
organisms i.e. the green plants. Some of the microorganisms also can carry out this
process and are known as photosynthetic microorganisms.
Thus, primary productivity is the rate of fixation of solar energy from the sun by the
photosynthesis activity of the organisms.
Primary Productivity are 2 types
1. Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)
2. Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
1. Gross Primary Productivity: It is the total rate of photosynthesis or food
production by a photosynthetic organism. It depends on the chlorophyll content of a
plant. Thus, it is calculated as amount of CO2 fixed per gram of chlorophyll per one
hour. This can be represented as
GPP = amount of CO2 /gm Chl / hr.
2. Net Primary Productivity (NPP): We know, energy is required for each activity
they do, by the living organisms. Thus, for respiration work, plants also need energy.
So, the energy what was fixed during photosynthesis is being used here. As a result,
the remaining energy after loss in the respiration utilization is known as the Net
Primary Productivity. In simple words
NPP = GPP – Respiration energy
B) Secondary Productivity: This is related to the heterotrophs in contrast to the Primary
Productivity. Secondary Productivity is the energy stored at consumer level. Ecologist

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Odum (1971) prefer to use the term assimilation rather than production at this level.
Secondary production is not a fixed level of energy utilization of production rather
moves from one consumer level to the other through the food chain.
C) Net Productivity: Net Productivity is the storage energy of the consumers. That means
it is the energy which remains in the body of the consumer after utilization in respiration
or any other work done by the consumer. Thus, it can be measured as the biomass. Net
productivity can be expressed as production of carbon mg/meter2/day.
It can then be calculated how much energy per/biomass of the consumer gets in a year.

HOMEOSTASIS
Definition of Homeostasis is “The ability to maintain a constant internal environment in
response to the environment changes”. This is an unique principle of biology.
In the same way natural ecosystems are also capable of maintaining their internal regulations
i.e. self-regulations or self-maintenance at any point of time. This is called as stable steady
state of an ecosystem (Homeo means same, stasis means standing) Odum (1971) defined
Homeostasis as the tendency of an natural ecosystem to resist change and to remain in state
of equilibrium, which implies that within an ecosystem there is always stays a balance
between the production, consumption as well as decomposition and in all the living
organisms within a particular ecosystem in a particular time follow this kind of equilibrium.

LEARNING OUTCOME
The abiotic factors in an ecosystem maintains a dynamic role. Different components of the
atmosphere, like oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, Sulphur etc. cannot be used by the
living organisms in their elemental form. Thus, these elements form different compounds as
nutrients for the living world. In that way a cycle of “elements to compounds and again back
to elemental form” happens in the nature. That cycle is known as Biogeochemical Cycle.
Each organism has a place in an ecosystem pyramid. That is based on their food habit. This
characteristic can be easily understood by the food chain of an ecosystem. But if one of the
organisms if absent in an ecosystem. Then some other organism with same kind of food
choice will replace that place. Thus, the chain of” to eat and to be eaten” habit remain
maintained. So, in instead of only one chain, a web like structure found for the self-
sustenance of an ecosystem. That is known as Food Web.
Energy Flow is the theme of the ecosystem. Through different channels energy flow occurs
between the producers, consumers and decomposers.
We know that the external environment or climate has an impact on the living organisms,
growing in that area. But side by side the Nature also provided a system to them that, the
internal environment or the system within the body of the living organisms do not change
with the disturbances of the outside environment. This is a gift of the Nature to the biotic
factors of an ecosystem and called as Homeostasis.

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Some Important Terms used in the Lesson

Ammonification Net Productivity

Biogeochemical Cycle Nitrification

Carbon Cycle Nitrogen Cycle

Detritus Food Chain Oxygen Cycle

Edaphic Nutrients Cycle Phosphorous Cycle

Energy flow Primary Productivity

Secondary Productivity
Food chain
Sulphur Cycle
Food Web
Water Cycle
Grazing Food Chain

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

III. Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Pray – Predator relationship is found in
a) Food chain, b) Atmosphere c) Rocks, d) Homeostasis
2. ---------------- is a Primary Producer.
a) Fungi, b) Tiger, c) Rabbit, d) Green Plant
3. Match the following:
A B

a. Autotrophs v. Living organisms

b. Y-Shaped Model w. Carbon Cycle

c. Detritus Food Chain x. Green grasses

d. Biological nitrogen fixation y. Dead and Decay material

e. Atmospheric Nutrient Cycle z. Energy Flow in an Ecosystem

Answers:
Q.1.a;
Q.2.d;
Q.3. a-x; b-z; c-y; d-v; e-w

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II. Short Questions:

1. Food Chain

2. Food Web

3. Homeostasis

III. Long Questions:

1. What are the nutrient cycle found in an ecosystem.

2. Nitrogen Cycle: Explain in detail.
3. Describe the Food Chain and Food Web in an ecosystem, with proper examples.
4. How energy flows in an Ecosystem.

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LESSON-4
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS AND ECOSYSTEMSERVICES
Dr. Sarthak Malhotra
Assistant Professor,
Dyal Singh College (Eve),
University of Delhi

INTRODUCTION
Ecosystems can range from small water bodies to an ocean, similarly on land from a patch of
woods to a forest. Ecosystems can be natural or anthropogenic (human-created like
farmlands). Broadly Ecosystem is classified into terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, which
are further classified into several kinds.
Ecosystem sustains mankind on earth by providing various products and services. There are
several kinds of ecosystem services which maintain the basic functioning of the planet.
Due to the exploitation of resources by ever-growing human population ecosystems are
getting degraded. Therefore it is essential to understand various concepts of preservation,
conservation and restoration of ecosystem.
Learning Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to
1. Understand the importance and types of various ecosystems. In addition to this threat
to these ecosystems and conservation strategies.
2. Understand concepts of ecosystem services
3. Understand ecosystem preservation and conservation strategies
4. Basics of ecosystem restoration
1. TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS
Tundra, Forest, Grassland, Desert, Aquatic (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries);
importance and threats with relevant examples from India
I. Terrestrial Ecosystems: Diverse kinds of terrestrial ecosystems are present on the earth.
Both climate and relative contribution of general plant life-forms (trees, shrubs, and
grasses) contributes to the diversity.
1. Forest Ecosystem: Forest ecosystem mainly consists of community of plants,
animals and microorganism and their non-living environment functioning
collectively to exchange material and energy, where trees, shrubs, climbers and
ground cover forms the main component. Due to the expansion of human settlements
and industrial areas since the last century, the pristine forest is only left in protected
areas like National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries. The appearance of different types

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of forest differs greatly from each other. Each forest type forms a habitat for a
community of animals that are specifically adapted to live in it.
Forest ecosystem also consists of abiotic or non-living component which includes
factors like temperature, rainfall, topography, soil properties, etc. Due to the
variation of these abiotic factors biotic or living components of the forest also vary in
different types of forest. Forests also differ in their plant communities in response to
the type of soil.
Forest Types in India: Forests in India can be broadly classified into coniferous
forests and broadleaved forests. In addition to this, forest is also classified according
to the kind of tree species they have which includes evergreen, deciduous, xerophytic
or thorn trees, mangroves, etc. Forests are usually named after the most abundant
species of trees such as Sal or Teak forests. In many cases, a forest is named after the
first three or four most abundant tree species.
Coniferous forests are found in the high-altitude Himalayan mountain ranges.
These ranges remain snow-covered for many months of the year with the
temperature dipping below zero. These forests usually have tall trees with downward
sloping branches so that the snow can slip off the branches. Coniferous forest has
trees having needle-like leaves. Many trees are gymnosperms which have cones
instead of seeds. Pine and deodar trees are found in the Himalayan coniferous forest.
Many animals are found adapted to these types of forests. Animal species found in
coniferous forests include wild goat, sheep and Himalayan black bear. Some rare
species of animals are also found in this forest which includes snow leopard, hangul
and Himalayan brown bear.
Broadleaf forests are a category of forest further classified into evergreen forests,
deciduous forests, thorn forests, and mangrove forests.
Evergreen forests are found in the Western Ghats, North Eastern India and the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These regions receive a high amount of rainfall
during long monsoon period. Evergreen forests in southern India receives two
monsoons. Trees in evergreen forest keep shedding some leaves throughout the year
instead of having a dedicated dry leafless phase as in a deciduous forest. This is why
the evergreen forest appears green throughout the year. Evergreen forests have dense
canopy because of a high number of trees are present adjacent to each other with
their branches overlapping. Due to this less amount of sunlight reaches the forest
floor where some shade loving plants grow. Species richness in the evergreen forest
is highest. Several orchids and ferns are found in these forests. High diversity of
mammals, reptiles, insects are found adapted to these forests. Some of the animals
found in the evergreen forest of North-eastern India, Western Ghats and Andaman
and Nicobar Islands include tiger, leopard, sambar, Malabar pied hornbill and tree

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frogs. Rare animals like Pigmy Hog and Lion tailed macaque are also found in the
evergreen forests.
Deciduous forests are found in the regions with a moderate amount of rainfall
during the monsoon season. Deciduous forests are found in central highlands and
Deccan peninsula. These forests have a specific season in which trees shed their
leaves. On the onset of monsoon, they regain their leaves. Appearance of these forest
vary with the season. These forests have thick undergrowth as light easily reaches the
floor. Teak (Tectona grandis), Sal (Shorea robusta) and Ain (Terminalia elliptica)
are some examples of trees found in the deciduous forests of India. Animals like
tiger, cheetal, barking deer, flycatchers and hornbills are also found in the deciduous
forests of India.
Thorn and scrub forests are found in the semi-arid and arid regions of India. These
are regions of low and very low annual rainfall. Here trees are distributed sparsely
and are surrounded by grasslands. Xerophytic plants are found in these forests which
can survive in the scarcity of water Trees have several adaption-like small leaves,
coating wax on their leaves which helps them conserve water. On the other hand,
many trees have long and deep roots which helps them access water below the
ground. Tree species like Babool (Acacia nilotica), Khejdi ( Prosopis cineraria) and
Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) are a few examples of plants found in thorn forest.
Animals like Blackbuck, chinkara, sambar and monitor lizards make the fauna of the
thorn forests.
Mangrove forests consist of trees and shrubs found in coastal-intertidal zones in the
tropics and subtropics. All these trees grow in areas with low-oxygen soil, where
slow-moving waters allow fine sediments to accumulate. In the mangrove forests,
there is a dense web of prop roots that gives the impression of trees standing on stilts
above the water. This web of prop roots allows the trees to withstand the daily rise
and fall of tides. These roots slow the speed of the tidal water, due to this sediment
settle out of the water and build up muddy water bottom. Sundarbans in West Bengal
is an example of a mangrove forest in India. Mangrove forests help in stabilization of
the coastline, prevents erosion from storm surges, currents, waves, and tides. The
dense and complicated root system of mangrove forests makes these forests ideal
habitat for fish and other organisms.
Forests ecosystem provides us with several products for direct consumption like
fruits, medicine, fuelwood. Forest products are also used as raw material for making
furniture and construction material for building. Similarly, forest products are also
used as raw material for medicines and industrial products. In addition to this, the
forest ecosystem also provides us several ecosystem services like purification of air,
regulation of climate, prevention of soil erosion.
We are continuously losing our forests. Major threats to the forest ecosystem include
deforestation and forest fragmentation due to the ever-increasing urbanization,

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industrialization and intensive agriculture. In addition to this, overconsumption or

exploitation of forest resources, invasive species are also some of the treats to the
forest ecosystem. We can conserve the forest ecosystem by afforestation programs,
sustainable use of forest resources and making a network of protected areas.
2. Tundra Ecosystem: Tundra ecosystems (arctic tundra) are found in extreme
northern latitudes where snow melts seasonally. On the other hand, the alpine tundra
is found in the higher elevation of mountains, specifically above the tree line.
Winters in arctic tundra are long and severe on the other hand, summers or growing
season is short. Precipitation is also poor in the tundra ecosystem and mostly occurs
in summers. Tundra ecosystems are characterized by low species richness and low
primary productivity. The dominant vegetation is tundra include mosses, lichens,
grasses and grass-like sedges. Only dwarf willows, dwarf birches and other dwarf
trees found in the tundra. Some of the animals found in tundra includes lemmings,
voles, weasels, arctic foxes and snowy owls. Oil and natural gas exploration and
military use is harming the tundra ecosystem. In addition to this, climate change is
posing a serious threat to the tundra ecosystem. As the temperature is rising, causing
the permafrost to melt resulting in replacement of tundra vegetation by coniferous
trees.
3. Grasslands: A wide variety of landscapes where the predominant vegetation is
grasses and small annual plants present in various climatic conditions are called
grasslands. Grasslands have been given different names in different continents like
prairies in U.S. Midwest, pampas in South America, steppes in central Eurasia and
savannas in Africa. Grasslands are found in regions where rainfall is not adequate to
support forest but now as less as to form a desert. Broadly there are two different
types of grasslands tropical and temperate.
Tropical grasslands remain warm throughout the year. They have a dry and a rainy
season. One of the examples of tropical grassland is Savanna in Africa. Animals like
giraffe, zebra, rhinos, lions, hyenas and elephants are found in these grasslands.
Temperate grasslands, on the other hand, receive less rainfall in comparison to
tropical grasslands. Grasses of short lengths are usually found in these grasslands.
These grasslands also have two seasons growing and dormant. Grasslands have
seasonal appearance because of flowering in the rainy season and during the winter
season, only underground storage organs and thick stem bases remain.
The examples of grasslands in India include the Himalayan pasture belt that extends
till the snowline. They are also found in patches along the coniferous forests or
broad-leaved forests. The Himalayan animals need both grasslands and forests as
their habitat. Another example is the Terai which has patches of tall grasses
interspersed with Sal forest. These grasslands are usually found in the foothills of
Himalaya. Another type of grasslands is found along the thorn forest in semi-arid
plains of western India, central India and the Deccan. In addition to this, India also

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has Shola grasslandswhich consist of patches of grasses on hill adjacent to the Shola
forests on the Western Ghats, Nilgiris and Annamalai ranges.
Grasslands have been used by humans as pasturelands for their cattle. In addition to
this, certain grasses are also a source of fuelwood. They also provide habitats to the
pollinators. Having said that grasslands have been degraded severely as they are
overused or exploited. Ever-increasing population along with conspicuous patterns of
consumption has increased the demand for dairy products, wool and meat.
Consequently, increasing the number of cattle’s resulting in overgrazing. Similarly,
the expansion of agricultural land has also occurred at the cost of grasslands.
4. Desert Ecosystem: Deserts are the ecosystem which receives less or extremely less
(less than 12cm per year) rainfall. Deserts and semi-arid regions in India are found in
western India and Deccan Plateau. The climate in these vast tracts is extremely dry.
The Thar desert of Rajasthan is the example of a typical desert in India which has
sand dunes. Rainfall in these areas is sporadic. Sparse grasses and some shrubs grow
in these arid regions. In the adjacent semi-arid regions some species of shrubs and
trees like Babool (Acacia nilotica) and khair ( Senegalia catechu) are found.
In addition to the Thar desert, India has two more desert ecosystems. Cold desert is
found in Ladakh, which is situated in the high plateau of Himalaya. On the other
hand, highly specialized arid regions are found in the Great and Little Rann of Kutch
in Gujarat. During the summers these regions have conditions similar to a desert but
during the monsoon, these regions get converted into salt marshes because they are
low lying areas adjacent to a sea. In terms of bird diversity Greater and lesser
flamingos are found in Great Rann of Kutch. Similarly, Little Rann of Kutch is the
only region where the wild ass is found in India. highly specialized insects and
reptiles are found in the desert and semi-arid regions. These regions are home to
several species of rare animals desert cat, desert fox, Indian wolf and birds like the
Great Indian Bustard and the Florican.
II. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
Diverse kinds of aquatic ecosystems are present on the earth. Broadly aquatic ecosystems can
be classified as freshwater (ponds and lakes i.e. lentic ecosystems; streams and rivers lotic
ecosystems i.e. lotic ecosystems), brackish water (estuaries) and salt water (oceans)
ecosystems based on the salinity levels of the water.
Ponds and Lakes are called the lentic ecosystems which means stagnant water ecosystems.
1. Pond ecosystem: Ponds are the smallest and simplest aquatic ecosystems. Many pond
ecosystems become dry long after the monsoon is over and terrestrial plants grow on
it till the arrival of next monsoon. As the monsoon arrives organisms like algae,
zooplanktons, insects, snails and worms come out from the bottom of the pond where
they spent the dry phase. Slowly large animals like amphibians, crabs and large fishes
also return to the ponds. In addition to this now, floating weeds and rooted vegetation

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at the periphery of ponds also start growing. Now a large number of food chains are
formed.
2. Lake ecosystem: Lakes on the other hand function like large permanent ponds as
water remains in the lakes throughout the year. Organisms like algae, microscopic
animals, both herbivorous and carnivorous fishes form several food chains in the
lakes. Fishes like catfish are also found in the lakes which specifically feeds on
detritus on the bed of the lakes. These fishes are called bottom feeders.
Both ponds and lakes play a crucial role in the conservation of water and biodiversity.
Pollution from industries and agricultural field are degrading these ecosystems.
3. Streams and rivers: Streams and riversare the example of lotic water ecosystems
which means running water ecosystem. A stream is significantly smaller in size than
the river. These ecosystems are open systems, exchanging nutrients and energy with
larger areas than lentic ecosystems. In these ecosystem currents is an important
ecological factor. Two zones can be identified in these ecosystems which are rapid
zone and pool zone. In the rapid zone, the current is fast which cleans the silt and
other material from the bottom making it firm and hard. On the other hand, in the pool
zone speed of the current is slow, water is deep resulting in the deposition of sand and
silt. Here the bottom is soft. Different kinds of organisms are adapted to these two
zones.
Rivers originate from glaciers on the mountains and carry the sediments enter the
plain areas making the soil fertile with sediments before ending into the oceans.
Rivers provide water for drinking, domestic purpose, industries and agriculture and
power generation to mankind. Pollution originating from the sewage drains (Urban
areas), effluent drains (Industries) and agriculture fields are polluting the river
ecosystems. In addition to this destruction of floodplains and catchment areas are
causing loss of property and life during floods.
4. Estuaries: Estuaries are an example of a brackish water ecosystem where salinity
levels are intermediate i.e more than the freshwater ecosystem and less than the
saltwater ecosystems. Estuaries, where the rivers enter the ocean. It is a complex
ecosystem of high productivity having both salt marshes and mud flat connecting the
freshwater communities and oceans. Estuaries have both plankton and detritus-based
food webs. Most fisheries are directly or indirectly dependent on this ecosystem.
5. Ocean: Indian ocean, Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea are examples of ocean or
marine ecosystems in India. Seventy percent of the earth's surface is covered by
oceans. These ecosystems are extremely deep and living organisms occur at all depth
even beyond 5000 meters. Although density and diversity of organisms in the ocean
in the peripheral zones. All oceans are connected with each other. Oceans have
salinity levels much higher (35 parts per 1000 parts of water (by weight) or 3.5%)
than the freshwater ecosystems (0.5%). Oceans waters continuously move
horizontally by the action of strong winds such as trade winds is called waves. On the
other hand, the ocean water also rises and falls by the action of different interactions

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of gravitational forces exerted between the moon, the Earth and the sun. This vertical
movement is called as tides.
Ocean ecosystem consists of several communities like littoral, marine sandy beaches
and marine mud flat communities. Estuarine, mangrove and coral reef communities
are important both ecologically and economically. In addition to this, Continental
shelf (Neritic) Benthos communities, Marine surface Pelagic communities and Deep
open benthos communities are also found in oceans. Great diversity of organisms is
found in each of these communities.
Littoral communities occur in coastal belts which are continuously affected by waves
and tides. Some of the organisms found in these communities include oyster, brancles,
limpet and kelp.
Coral reef communities are formed by the symbiotic relationship between coelenterate
animal and endozoic algae dinoflagellates. The animals contribute the coral, a
colonial structure embedded in calcium carbonates. The animal gives support
structure and nutrients to the algae. On the other hand, algae form the food. Coral
reefs communities are found in warm waters of tropical and subtropical oceans. These
communities have huge species diversity and richness. Some of the organisms in the
coral reef communities include sponges, molluscs, crabs and snails. Coral reefs
communities in India are found in the Gulf of Kutch, Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
Lakshadweep islands, gulf of Munner near Sri Lanka. World’s largest coral reef is
called great barrier reef in Australia.
Continental shelf (Neritic) Benthos communities are found below the littoral zone on
the bottom. There is variation in the community with changing depth. Since light
penetrates in this part of the ocean, it has several organisms like diverse algal
communities, fish and crustaceans.
Marine surface Pelagic communities have plankton and large swimming animals that
are present in the open waters. These communities are further divided into surface
pelagic and deeper water pelagic communities. Organisms in the surface pelagic
communities include phytoplankton's (dinoflagellates and diatoms) due to the
availability of light. Other organisms existing in these communities include
Zooplankton’s (Copepods) shrimp, arrow worms, comb jellies, tunicates, etc.
As not much of the light reaches the marine deep pelagic communities because occur
below the lighted surface waters these communities have heterotrophic organisms.
The Source of food for these organisms is settling plankton and dead organic
particulate matter from the surface water.
6. Deep open benthos communities: These communities are present between the
boundary of the continental shelf to the deep oceans. Since light does not reach this
region, therefore, only heterotrophic organisms and some bacteria are part of these
communities.

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Ocean ecosystems are a source of marine food for many human communities. In
addition to these oceans are also used for travel and transportation of goods. Ocean
ecosystems are also threatened by water pollution from sewage drains and industrial
drains. Also, waste dumped into the rivers reaches the oceans threating marine life. In
addition to this, many ocean communities like coral reefs are getting degraded due to
climate change.
2. Ecosystem services (Provisioning, Regulating, Cultural, and Supporting); Ecosystem
preservation and conservation strategies; Basics of Ecosystem restoration
Ecosystem services are direct and indirect benefits humans get from nature. These are
essential for the maintenance of the basic functioning of earth and consequently supports life
on this planet. Changes in ecosystem services can significantly affect the quality of human
life on earth. These services can be categorized into four main types
Provisioning services: It includes material and products which we get from nature like fruits,
vegetables, crops, honey, fish, marine food, livestock and other food material, freshwater,
fuelwood, timber for furniture and construction, fibre, medicines, oil, natural gas, plant
material for clothes and genetic resources.
Regulating services: These are the services that humans obtain by the maintenance of the
basic functioning of the ecosystem. It includes purification of air and water, climate
regulation, flood control, carbon storage, prevention of soil erosion, natural hazard regulation,
pollination, pest control and decomposition of waste by microbes. All these processes
collectively work making the ecosystem functional, sustainable and resilient to change which
in turn supports the life of humans on this planet.
Cultural services: Humans live in nature and constantly interact with it. They change it and
in turn are nature changes them. Cultural services are the non-material benefit that contributes
to the progress and cultural advancement of people. It includes the role of ecosystems in
local, national and global cultures. It also includes spiritual enrichment, intellectual
development, recreation aesthetic values and creativity born by interacting with nature like
art, music, architecture.
Supporting services: These services include processes which are essential for the sustenance
of the ecosystems which in turn sustain life on the planet. It includes processes like
biogeochemical cycles, photosynthesis, creation of soils and water cycle. Supporting services
are essential for the existence of provisioning, regulating and cultural services.
3. Ecosystem preservation and conservation strategies
Ecological restoration: It is a process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been
partially or completely degraded. In simple words ecological restoration means restoring the
ecosystem, to a former state or to an perfect condition. Ecological restoration focuses on the
recovery of many aspects of ecosystem which are as following.

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 Health of the ecosystem: purification of air, sequestration of carbon dioxide, filtration

of water
 Integrity of ecosystem: Species composition and community structure
 Sustainability: Resistance and resilience to disturbance
Rehabilitation: It mean returning of a degraded land to a fully functional ecosystem
irrespective of its original state but according to a prior landuse plan. Examples of the
rehabilitation process are partial recovery of species diversity and ecological complexity,
reducing the livestock grazing from riparian zone, allowing natural growth of vegetation or
restoring fluvial processes.
Remediation: It is a process in which using physical and biological methods, chemical
contaminants are cleaned from polluted ecosystem in order to protect human and ecosystem
health.
Reclamation: It is a process by which biotic function and productivity of severely damaged
land is restored.
Mitigation: It is defined as restoration, rehabilitation or reclamation process to reduce the
effect of the source of degradation

LEARNING OUTCOME (Summary)

 Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of nature. There is great diversity of ecosystem
present in the nature.
 Terrestrial ecosystem includes forests, grasslands and deserts. These ecosystems provide
servals products and ecosystem services to mankind. These ecosystems are threatened by
deforestation and forest fragmentation due to industrialization, urbanization and
expansion of agricultural land.
 Aquatic ecosystem is categorized based on salinity level into fresh water and marine
water ecosystem. These ecosystems provide us with water for drinking, domestic purpose,
industries and agriculture. We also get food from aquatic ecosystems. Pollution from
urban areas, agricultural lands and industries are severely polluting the aquatic
ecosystems.
 In addition to the products ecosystem also provides us with serval services which is
essential for the sustenance of the life on the planet. These services inludes Provisioning
Regulating, Cultural and Supporting services.
 It is essential to understand the concept of ecological restoration in order to resotre the
degraded ecosystems.

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QUESTIONS
Q1 Which of the following is the predominant vegetation type present in the forest
ecosystem?
A. Grasses B. Trees C. Shrubs D. Herbs
Q2 Sundarbans is example of which type of forest?
A. Evergreen forest B. Thorn forest C. Deciduous forest D. Mangrove forest
Q3 Savanna is an example of which of the following ecosystem?
A. Forest B. River C. Grassland D. Desert
Answers
Q1. B. Trees
Q2. D. Mangrove forest
Q3. C. Grassland
Q4. Coral reef communities are present in the following ecosystem?
A. River B. Ocean C. Pond D. Lake
Q5. Following is an example of lentic ecosystem?
A. Lake B. River C. Stream D. Grassland
Answers
Q4. B. Ocean
Q5. A. Lake
Q6. Medicines are an example of which of the following type of ecosystem services?
A. Regulating B. Cultural C. Supporting D. Provisioning
Q7. Biogeochemical cycles are an example of ___________ services.
Answers
Q6. D. Provisioning
Q7. Regulating

GLOSSARY
Mangrove forests consist of trees and shrubs found in coastal-intertidal zones in the tropics
and subtropics.
Tundra ecosystems (arctic tundra) are found in extreme northern latitudes where snow melts
seasonally and on the high elevation of mountains.
Lentic ecosystem means stagnant water ecosystem e.g. pond and lake.

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Lotic ecosystem means running water ecosystems e.g. River

Estuaries Estuaries are the region where river meets the ocean and are an example of a
brackish water ecosystem.
Biogeochemical cycles These includes nutrient cycles such as carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle,
Sulphur cycle and phosphorus cycles.

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LESSON-5
NATURAL RESOURCES: LAND RESOURCE
Dr. Ashish Thomas
Assistant Professor,
Sri Guru Nanak Dev Khalsa College,
University of Delhi

INTRODUCTION
Land is one of the most valuable resource for mankind as well as one of nature’s most
precious gifts. It is that part of lithosphere that sustains life as well as provides various
existential resources to human beings. Land is a mixture of inorganic and organic materials. It
provides various kind of resources like food, fibre, medicine, minerals as well as services like
agricultural productivity, biological diversity, carbon sequestration etc. The most basic use of
land is to support vegetation of various kinds, thereby providing a place for all the terrestrial
fauna to exist.
Land resource is under huge threat due to misuse and mismanagement by humans. Various
anthropogenic activities have led to land losing its productivity leading and becoming
degraded and polluted. Land degradation and soil erosion are impacting the various resources
and services that we humans obtain from land. It is impacting our quality of life and in many
cases our very survival, as we are directly and indirectly dependent on it. An extreme case of
land degradation is desertification wherein semidry regions of world are losing their
productive capacity to such an extent that they are becoming barren and desert like due to
anthropogenic activities and climate change issues.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through the lesson, you will be able to
5. Explain the importance, use, threats and problems related to land resource and impact of
dams and mines on forest resource
6. Understand concepts of soil erosion, land degradation, desertification and land use
change
7. Identify the problems of related land misuse and mismanagement, deforestation
8. Seek solution to address how land resource can be managed in a better and sustainable
manner
Land resources: Minerals, soil, agricultural crops, natural forest products, medicinal
plants, and forest-based industries and livelihoods
From a human point of view, land resource includes all those aspects and functions of the
land, which can be used to fulfil human needs. Humans have been exploiting land for

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agriculture, mining, grazing animals and settlement purposes. Land resource can be divided
into three categories
a. Very stable resources, like relief, geological formations and minerals;
b. Moderately stable resources, like soil and water
c. Very unstable resources, like vegetation and biodiversity
Some of the important resources and services provided by land to humankind are:
a. Minerals: Mineral is a pure inorganic substance that occurs naturally in the earth’s crust.
Almost all minerals are found in the earth’s crust. Minerals are non-renewable resources
and include metals like iron, copper, aluminium etc and non-metals like phosphates,
gypsum, clay, sand etc. Minerals are extremely valuable to humans as they are essential
raw material in industries and play a major role in overall development of nation.
Minerals available in the earth’s crust can be divided into three categories
i. Metallic minerals like Iron, aluminium, lead, zinc etc
ii. Non-metallic minerals like graphite, felspar, asbestos, limestone etc
iii. Mineral fuels like coal, natural gas, petroleum etc
India is rich in mineral resources and has sufficient quantities of iron, aluminium,
titanium copper, lead and zinc ores.
b. Soil: Soil is defined as the outermost thin layer of earth’s crust which serves as the natural
medium for growth of plants, providing them a substrate for anchorage and essential
nutrients for their growth. Soil is a complex mixture of organic and mineral content which
is constantly being formed by the chemical decomposition and mechanical disintegration
of rocks. Soil is a renewable resource which is constantly being formed and destroyed,
mainly by erosion process. The topmost layer of soil rich in organic matter is called
humus and is the most fertile layer. Soil forms a fundamental part of the human
environment and is as essential as water. Soil provides the substrate to support the
productivity and cycling of biological resources, it is the source of nutrients and water for
agricultural and forestry ecosystems and acts as a complex buffer against environmental
variability. Soil is very rich in microbial biodiversity and is also a major reservoir of
carbon.
Soil across the world varies with respect to its characteristics and properties which forms
the basis for its classification. The major soil groups found in India are alluvial soil, black
soil, red soil, laterite soil, desert soil and acid soils.
c. Agriculture: The most dominant use of land resource by humans has been in the form of
agriculture in order to meet the food demand of the growing world population.
Agricultural ecosystems cover nearly 40% of the land surface. The total world land area
suitable for cropping is 4.4 billion hectares out of which 1.6 billion hectares is currently
under cultivation. Agriculture is the dominant driving force for the economy of a number

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of world’s developing countries, which includes India as well. Agricultural productivity

has increased manifold globally over the last 70-80 years due to increased use of
fertilizers and pesticides. But this highly chemical intensive agriculture has also adversely
impacted the land and its associated resources.
d. Natural Forest Products: Forest products are materials derived from forests for
consumption and profitable use. These mainly include timber, firewood, wood pulp for
paper and forage for livestock. There are also other non-wood products that are derived
from forests which include nuts, resins, gum, medicinal plants, edible fruits, oils etc
which are collectively called as non-timber forest products (NTFPs). These NTFP’s are
considered to have relatively lesser negative effects on forest ecosystem. Forest products
are used extensively worldwide for a number of purposes including cooking, animal
feeding, as medicines for healing, household subsistence, income generation as well as
cultural traditions. These products are also an extremely important source of revenue
generation for all countries.
e. Medicinal plants:Medicinal plants are valuable natural resources obtained from land
(mainly forests) which have been used by human communities since prehistoric times.
The immense diversity of medicinal flora in tropical forests is an invaluable source of
new pharmaceutical products. About 80% of the world’s developing countries are
dependent on these traditional medicinal plants for primary health care. For a majority of
people living in rural and urban areas in developing countries, medicinal plants are the
only available treatment for various minor and major diseases. Moreover the demand for
medicinal plants is continuously on the rise as more people are understanding their
importance as compared to the allopathic medicines.
f. Forest based industries and livelihood: Forest have played a significant role in building
up the economy of various countries and have provided a means of living to millions of
people. Forest serves as a source of raw materials for large, medium and small scale
industries. Globally, about two billion people use fuelwood and charcoal as their main
source of energy for cooking and for heating their homes. Millions of rural households
obtain income by collecting and selling forest products like food, fuel, medicinal plants
and construction materials. Many sell timber from their land areas to logging companies,
or make and sell furniture and handicrafts. And industrial logging provides employment
and earnings for people in countries like Brazil, India, China and Indonesia. Forests also
contribute to livelihoods in an indirect manner as they provide soil nutrients and forage
for crops and livestock. They also help in pollinating crops, reduce soil erosion, and
provide protection from natural disasters. Globally, it is estimated that between about 1.5-
2 billion people depend on forests for their livelihoods and income and about 200 million
people from indigenous communities are almost fully dependent on forests.

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3. LAND COVER AND LAND USE CHANGE

Land cover refers to the observed biophysical cover on the surface of the earth whether
vegetation, water, bare soil or urban infrastructure. Land cover can be determined either by
field survey or by analysing satellite and aerial images. The International Geosphere-
Biosphere Programme (IGBP) has categorised land cover into 17 classes that includes
different types of forests, woodlands, shrublands, grasslands wetlands and deserts. The global
land area is 13.2 billion ha. Of this, 12 percent (1.6 billion ha) is under cultivation, 28 percent
(3.7 billion ha) is under forest and 35 percent (4.6 billion ha) comprises grassland and
woodland ecosystems. On the other hand, land use is different from land cover. Land use
refers to the purpose the land serves, for example, recreation, wildlife habitat, or
agriculture. To illustrate this with an example, ‘grassland’ is a term used for land cover, while
‘agricultural land’, a ‘horse ranch’ or a ‘tennis court’ refers to the land use of grassland.
Land use change means the conversion of terrestrial land surface for anthropogenic uses. The
use of land of results in changes in structure and functioning of ecosystems. Since the start of
human civilization (ca 3500 BC onwards), land has been increasing used for settlements,
agricultural purposes, grazing of animals, mining, urbanization and industrialization which
have drastically altered the land cover. The rapid and large scale human intervention in
converting natural landscapes for our own usage has resulted in devastating effects on both
biotic and abiotic components of ecosystem. The increased demand for water, waste disposal
and food requirements has resulted in land being used in an unsustainable manner, leading to
its degradation. Forest cover and composition, cropland expansion, agriculture
intensification, urban development and desertification are key drivers of land use change
(UNEP, 2007).
The major environmentalimpacts of land use change are:
 Climate Change and global warming
 Biodiversity loss
 Pollution of various kinds
 Large scale deforestation
 Land degradation and Desertification
 Waste aggregation
All these concerns have greatly impacted human health, well-being and livelihoods.

4. LAND DEGRADATION
Land degradation is defined as the deterioration of the productive capacity of land due to
overexploitation by humans. Land degradation affects soil chemistry and soil biodiversity and
alters the natural ecological processes and ecosystem of the affected area. Land
degradation has put the world’s ecosystems under intense pressure as their capacity to

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provide vital resources and services is rapidly decreasing. Degraded lands have reduced
capacity for supply of goods (food, timber, fibre, fuel etc) for humankind.
The major causes of land degradation are:
a) Deforestation
b) Soil erosion
c) Unpredictable weather patterns or climatic conditions
d) Droughts and floods
e) Modern agricultural practices
f) Soil pollution
g) Increasing urbanization
Land degradation is a major challenge that needs to be addressed quickly, not just to restore
the ecosystem and biodiversity of the affected area but also for maintaining economic growth
and social structure in human society.

5. SOIL EROSION
Soil erosion is the loss or removal of top layer of soil due to natural physical agents like
wind, water and even gravity. As the topmost layer of soil is the most fertile layer, being
extremely rich in organic matter and nutrients, erosion leads to reduced productivity of the
soil, which in turn results in the soil unable to support vegetation. Soil formation is a very
slow process with 1 cm of soil taking 200-300 years to form from the bed rock. Hence
frequent soil erosion takes years to restore naturally. When soil erosion is intense, the natural
soil profile is destroyed and may never attain its original capacity. Extensive cultivation,
overgrazing and deforestation expose the precious top soil to wind and water erosion.
The various natural and anthropogenic (human originated) reasons for soil erosion are:
a) Slope of surface: Soil erosion is more common in hill slopes which gets aggravated with
removal of natural vegetation
b) Soil content: Soil with higher content of sand is more prone to erosion as compared to
soil with higher clay amount.
c) Weather and climatic conditions: natural factors like high intensity rainfall, floods and
droughts also increases soil erosion in affected areas. With global warming and climate
change as a major threat, such natural disasters are becoming more frequent leading to
soil erosion in many areas
d) Deforestation: Deforestation leads to reduction in tree roots, which performed a major
function of holding the soil together. In absence of a strong hold, soil is prone to erosion
e) Extensive agriculture and cultivation: Modern day chemical intensive farming practices
lowers soil organic matter levels, soil biodiversity, and also reduces the soil water

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content, thus making soil prone to erosion. Excessive irrigation also is a major reason for
erosion.
f) Overgrazing: In order to feed cattle and cater to the meat and dairy needs of people, large
areas of vegetation are exploited for grazing. Thus, overgrazing exposes soil to erosion.
Soil conservation has attained great importance today. The remedial measures suggested to
arrest soil erosion include:
a) Erosion control technologies in farming such as no tillage or low tillage, crop rotation,
use mulch cover can greatly reduce erosion of soil by water
b) Adoption of terrace farming, contour farming and setting up structures like windbreaks,
live fences, sand fences etc reduce the soil erosion in areas that are naturally prone to
erosion.
c) Reforestation in areas where large scale vegetation has been removed is an extremely
important step as trees are natural binding agents of soil.

6. DESERTIFICATION
Desertification is an extreme case of land degradation in which semidry regions, becomes
increasingly arid resulting in loss of water bodies, vegetation and wildlife. It is caused by a
variety of factors, which includes both anthropogenic activities as well as climate change.
Desertification is one of the most significant global ecological and environmental problem
that we face today. According to UNESCO, one third of the earth’s land surface, categorised
as drylands, is facing the threat of desertification. This would ultimately affect the livelihood
of millions of people who are dwelling in these regions who are dependent on goods and
services provided by these drylands. One of the major problems that arises out of
desertification is migration of people towards presumably resource rich regions like cities, in
search of better living conditions. However, large scale migration to cities not only causes
economic loss of land that could be cultivated, it also puts additional burden to the resource
crunch and pollution in cities.
Desertification begins with land slowly getting degraded due to deforestation, overgrazing,
modern agricultural practices, increasing urbanization, mismanagement of water resource,
exploitation of ground water and destruction of wetland regions . When such degraded land
when faces climate change issues, like drought, erratic weather conditions, rainfall deficiency
for a continuous period, it results in the land losing its productivity to such an extent that it
resembles desert like conditions. Desertification thus leads to loss of farmlands (economic
loss), increase in hunger and poverty, social inequality and crowding and overpopulation in
towns and cities.
In order the prevent drylands from facing desertification, there is a need for an integrated
approach with help from multiple stakeholders. There is a need to implement policies and
rules that help in better land and water management, educate and spread awareness among

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people (especially the farming community), provide all necessary support to farmers and
local communities, and formulate and promote sustainable methods of agriculture.

7. DEFORESTATION AND ITS CAUSES

Deforestation is the clearing or permanent removal of forest areas so that it is available for
other uses. Deforestation is the root cause for land degradation, soil erosion and
desertification. According to the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization, the
annual rate of deforestation is estimated to be about 1.3 million square km per decade.
Extensive deforestation has taken place in tropical regions as compared to the temperate
forests. The depletion of forest areas not only results in loss of trees, which act as a major
carbon sink (storage reservoir), but it also leads to release of billion tons of carbon from the
dead and decomposing trees. Both these factors significantly impact global warming and
climate change, two of the major challenges faced by humanity today.
Causes of deforestation
Forest lands are cleared mainly to provide for human needs. The major causes or reasons for
deforestation are:
a. Agriculture and plantations: The most significant threat to forests are their conversion to
agricultural and plantation areas, in order to fulfil the needs of the growing human
population. Agriculture is the direct cause for 80 percent deforestation in tropical and
subtropical regions. Agriculture patterns have changed significantly since 1950’s, as the
focus has shifted to more intense agriculture involving new technology, machinery and
chemicals in order to meet human requirements. This agricultural intensification, often
called as industrial agriculture, has significantly increased the rate of deforestation,
impacted terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and resulted in large scale biodiversity loss
as well.
b. Urbanization: Urbanization is another major cause of deforestation which is a result of
increasing population, capitalism and globalization. Forests are cleared for setting up
residential areas, industries, commercial hubs, development projects like roads, railways
etc. The clearing of forests for such activities has led to habitat degradation, habitat loss
and habitat fragmentation, all of which has significantly impacted the ecosystem and
biodiversity.
c. Harvesting wood for use as firewood and timber: Millions of families still rely on
fuelwood as an energy source for various household activities (cooking, heating etc) and
forests are still the main source of fuelwood. Expanding urbanization has also increased
the demand for wood (for use in furniture, industries, sports goods, equipment etc.)
resulting in large scale timber extraction from forests.
d. Illegal logging: Illegal logging is very common across various forest regions of the
world. Wood is harvested illegally for various purposes, especially decorative and
medicinal, and these illegally harvested wood have huge markets in US and Europe.

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e. Forest Fires: Every year, fires destroy millions of hectares of forests across the world.
Forests may catch fire naturally or through humans. Natural forest fire includes an
unplanned burning of forest due to lightning, long spell of high temperature and drought
which can spread quickly in warm and windy conditions. On the other hand human-
induced forest fire results from the unauthorized burning practice of forests for attaining
farmland. The recent bush fires that occurred in Australia are a prime example of the
destruction caused by forest fires, that not only destroyed thousands of hectares of
forests, but also released large amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
f. Mining: With increasing demand for metallic resources, mining has become a major
economic activity. Large-scale mining operations, especially those using open-pit mining
techniques, has resulted in significant deforestation. Mining projects also require
construction of new roads, settlements and townships for people working in the mines
which results in clearing of more forest areas. Industrial mining operations have thus
caused large scale deforestation especially in tropical countries.

8. IMPACTS OF MINING AND DAM BUILDING

Since industrial revolution, mines and dams have become essential drivers for economic
growth. The second half of twentieth century has witnessed a massive increase in mining
operations and dam constructions, especially in developing countries. Although both mining
and dams are of much benefit to human society and development, they have devastating
impacts on the environment and people living in the vicinity. It is now well proven that large
scale industrial mining and hydroelectric projects destroy ecosystems, cause pollution and
impact vulnerable human communities.
The major impacts of mining and deforestation are:
a. Deforestation or loss of vegetation: Both mining and dam construction lead to large scale
loss of forests and vegetation. While Industrial mining, especially open pit mining,
requires clearing of large areas of forest, large dam construction leads to submergence of
huge tracts of forests and vegetation.
b. Pollution: Mining operations result in air, water and soil pollution that impacts the
people living in the vicinity of mines. While air pollution is caused due to harmful gases
from heavy machinery and equipment and release of toxic gases from inside the mines,
water pollution is caused due to mine waste rock and tailings getting mixed with surface
and underground water. Air pollution is also caused during construction period of dams
when heavy machinery is in use. Dams are also one of the sources of methane gas
emissions (greenhouse gas) that is released from the dead and decaying vegetation inside
the reservoir.
c. Land degradation and water loss: Mining activities lead to depletion of surface and
groundwater supplies as water is extensively used during the processing stage.
Groundwater withdrawal can have harmful effect on streams and rivers that are many

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miles away from the actual mine site. Moreover, mines left open after the mining, can
also lead to loss of groundwater through evaporation leaving the area barren and
degraded and susceptible to desertification.
d. Siltation: One of the most serious technical problem faced by dam industry is that of
siltation, which is the increased deposition of sediments brought along by the river at the
bottom of dam reservoir. The sediments gradually accumulate in the reservoir, reducing
the ability of the dam to store water, the very purpose for which it was constructed. The
intensity of siltation varies depending upon the sediments that a river brings along. The
silt laden water also causes abrasion of turbines and other dam components thus reducing
their electricity generating efficiency.
e. Impact of ecosystem and Biodiversity loss: Both mining and dams result in deforestation
leading to habitat loss and habitat fragmentation thus affecting the biodiversity that
dwells in the affected area. Dams submerge large areas of terrestrial ecosystem where
reservoirs are formed, while also impacting the aquatic ecosystem due to obstructed/
reduced water flow. Mines also impact terrestrial ecosystems due to clearing of
vegetation as well as any aquatic ecosystem that are in the vicinity of the mines due to
pollution.
f. Displacement of local and indigenous communities: One of the biggest social problems
caused due to large scale mines and dam construction is the way it impacts local and
indigenous communities dwelling in those areas. More often than not, these vulnerable
communities are victims of injustice as they are not rehabilitated and compensated in an
appropriate manner. They have to go through much emotional upheavals as they face the
task of being displaced from areas where they have resided for long periods of time.
Families loss their traditional ways of livelihoods as they are shifted and have to struggle
very hard to find similar living and livelihood conditions in newly displaced area
g. Health problems and social issues: Mining operations have huge health impacts on the
people working in mines, as they are constantly exposed to toxic metals, wastes and
poisonous gases emanating from the mines. In many countries, mine workers don’t have
proper safety gears and work in deplorable conditions. Fatal accidents are also common
in mines. The pollution caused due to mines and dams affect people living in nearby
villages and towns. Dams and mines also open up remote areas to developers, road
builders, loggers, farmers that accelerates deforestation further. Local people also face
the problem of people migrating from other regions into the areas that can increase social
instability due to issues like unemployment, increase in crimes, shortage of resources etc.

9. STEPS FOR SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF LAND RESOURCE

a. Afforestation: Planting trees is the one of the best way to overcome the issues of land
degradation, soil erosion and desertification. Afforestation as well as reforestation in
deforested areas can improve the quality of human life by absorbing pollution and dust
from the air, mitigating global warming, establish natural habitats and ecosystems and

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provide timber and non-timber forest products. They play essential role in diluting the
effect of natural disasters and are essential life support systems for local and indigenous
communities
b. Forest management: It is essential that our existing forests are managed in a wise and
sustainable manner rather than sacrificing them in the name of developmental projects.
Governments across the world need enact and implement rules and policies to protect the
existing forests and also ensure to increase the forest cover through afforestation and
reforestation. It is the responsibility of both government and citizens to protect existing
forests from the threats of illegal logging, invasive species, diseases and overutilization.
Programs like Joint Forest Management and Social forestry are good models wherein
multiple stakeholders have worked together to protect the forests in India and have been
able to increase the green cover. The emphasis also should be on use of technology in
order to find solutions to various threats on forests.
c. Farming methods: new farming methods need to be constantly devised in order to reduce
the usage of pesticides, fertilizers and excessive irrigation. Mixed farming, organic
farming, Rice fish farming, developing nano-fertilizers, improving irrigation technology
to conserve water, use of mulch and manure, using wild variety of seeds are all ways
which can be used to conserve the fertility of soil and improve the agricultural output as
well.
d. Water management: Water is an important constituent of soil and very important for soil
formation, maintaining soil fertility and preventing soil erosion. Both surface and ground
water need to be monitored regularly as loss of ground water makes the soil susceptible to
erosion and degradation. Overutilization of ground water needs to be addressed by a co-
ordinated effort of both government and the citizens in order to prevent soil erosion, land
degradation and desertification. Better irrigation technology, judicious crop management,
understanding soil characteristics, reducing surface water pollution are all important steps
to proper management of existing water resources.
e. Waste Management: Developing effective solid waste management technologies and
practices are important to reduce the dumping of waste in landfills and other areas on land
and to reduce the quantity of non-biodegradable and other toxic compounds mixing into
the soil.

LEARNING OUTCOME (Summary)

 Land provides various resources like minerals, metals, supports vegetation, provides
habitat, supports agriculture and stores carbon
 Forest cover has decreased drastically, especially in tropical countries, due to various
anthropogenic activities like agriculture, industries, urbanization, overgrazing etc.
 Since the invention of agriculture, land use has changed considerably. Land is now used
or exploited for variety of purpose in order to satisfy the every growing human needs

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 Land degradation is a major problem wherein land is losing its productive capacity. Land
degradation affects soil chemistry and soil biodiversity and alters the natural ecological
processes and ecosystem of the affected area. A number of anthropogenic causes have
been attributed to land degradation
 Desertification is an extreme case of land degradation in which semidry regions,
becomes increasingly arid resulting in loss of water bodies, vegetation and wildlife. It is
caused by a variety of factors, which includes both anthropogenic activities as well as
climate change. According to UNESCO, one third of the earth’s land surface, categorised
as drylands, is facing the threat of desertification. One of the major problems that arises
out of desertification is migration of people towards presumably resource rich regions
like cities, in search of better living conditions.
 Deforestation is the clearing or permanent removal of forest areas so that it is available
for other uses. Deforestation is the root cause for land degradation, soil erosion and
desertification. Extensive deforestation has taken place in tropical regions as compared to
the temperate forests. The major causes of deforestation are conversion of forest areas for
agriculture, plantation and urbanization, illegal logging, forest fires and mining.
 Although both mines and dams are of much benefit to human society and development,
they have devastating impacts on the environment and people living in the vicinity.
Large scale industrial mining and hydroelectric projects destroy ecosystems, cause
pollution and have socio economic impact on vulnerable human communities.
 It is important to devise steps and strategies for sustainable management of land
resource. Afforestation, reforestation, sustainable agricultural practices, water
management, Forest management, waste management are important measures to utilize
land and the services it renders to humanity for a long period of time.

QUESTIONS
Fill in the blanks
1. a) The _______________ layer of soil is rich in organic matter and is very fertile.
b) Minerals are found in earth’s ____________.
c) Gum, medicinal plants, edible fruits are categorised as ________________ forest
products.
Answers: 1. Topmost; 2. Crust; 3. non-timber
Fill in the blanks
2. a) The removal of top layer of soil through action of wind or water is called as
_____________.
b) Land cover can be determined by analysing ___________ images.

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c) Land degradation is the loss of _______________capacity of land due to

overexploitation by humans.
d) _______________areas face maximum threat of desertification
e) Desertification can lead to large scale _____________ of people in search of better
living conditions.
Answers: a. Soil erosion; b. Satellite; c. Productive; d. Dryland; e. migration
State True or False
1. Forests act as large carbon storage areas (carbon sinks).
2. Forest fires always occur naturally.
3. Dams do not cause any kind of air pollution
4. Mines impact only terrestrial ecosystem
5. Proper Waste management is an important step for preventing land degradation and soil
pollution.
Answers: 1. True; 2. False; 3. False; 4. False; 5. True
Long Questions
1. What are the various resources and services provided by land
2. What is land degradation? How does it impact human communities?
3. What is Deforestation? Explain its various causes.
4. Explain how desertification is a major challenge faced by humanity today
5. Briefly explain the environmental and social impact of dams and mines.

GLOSSARY
Deforestation: Deforestation is the clearing or permanent removal of forest areas so that it is
available for other uses.
Desertification: Desertification is an extreme case of land degradation in which semidry
regions, becomes increasingly arid resulting in loss of water bodies, vegetation and wildlife.
It is caused by a variety of factors, which includes both anthropogenic activities as well as
climate change.
Land cover: Land cover refers to the observed biophysical cover on the surface of the earth
whether vegetation, water, bare soil or urban infrastructure.
Land degradation: Land degradation is defined as the deterioration of the productive
capacity of land due to overexploitation by humans. Land degradation affects soil chemistry
and soil biodiversity and alters the natural ecological processes and ecosystem of the affected
area.

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Non-timber Forest products: Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are any product or
service other than timber that is produced in forests. They include fruits and nuts, vegetables,
fish and game, medicinal plants, resins, essences and a range of barks and fibres such as
bamboo, rattans, and a host of other palms and grasses.
Soil erosion: Soil erosion is the loss or removal of top layer of soil due to natural physical
agents like wind, water and even gravity.
Reforestation: Reforestation is the re-growing of forests that have previously been cut down
using tree species that are native to the geographic area.
Siltation: increased deposition of sediments brought along by the river at the bottom of dam
reservoir.

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LESSON-6

NATURAL RESOURCES: WATER RESOURCES

Dr. Ruchi Mishra
Assistant Professor,
Lakshmibai College,
University of Delhi

INTRODUCTION
Our planet Earth is known as blue planet because of the water that covers three-fourths of its
surface. Water has a remarkable influence on various aspects of structure and function of our
planet that includes shaping the continents, moderation of our climate and survival of
organisms. Without water, Life on Earth is impossible. All life-forms including bacteria,
plants and animals have 60-70% of water by their body weight. We rely on water not only for
our convenience and usage but also for our survival. It is essential for ecosystem health.
Although Earth has amply of water, most of it is saline and not suitable to drink, agriculture
or other purposes. The vast amount of the remaining three per cent of fresh water is locked up
out of practical human reach in the form of glaciers, icecaps and deep ground water aquifers.
The very small fraction of fresh water that is accessible to us is distributed extremely
unevenly in space and time. This results in serious water related problems, including
interregional conflict over access and quality, competition between rural, urban and
environmental uses, severe human health problems and constraints on economy. Actually,
society spends billions of dollars every years to move water from one wet areas to drier areas,
to store it for dry periods or to clean otherwise undrinkable sources. Conflicts often arise over
water use because one application decreases the amount available for others. Even regions
with readily available fresh water have problems maintaining the quality and quantity of
water.
The World’s renewable fresh water supply is relatively constant; the average amount of water
available per person in1850 was about 43,000 cubic meters per year. By 2014, this figure had
dropped to around 5,900 cubic meters per year which may further reduce because of the
increase in population. Worldwide, freshwater use is increasing as the population expansion,
human activities, and climate change pose increasing pressure on a limited water supply and
resulting into a situation where a growing number of countries experience water shortages.

1. The hydrologic cycle and distribution of water

Water exists in any of three forms: solid (ice/snow), liquid (marine/fresh water), and vapor
(water vapor/steam). Water continuously circulates through the environment, from the ocean
to the atmosphere to the land and back to the ocean by the hydrologic cycle. The result is a
balance among water in the ocean, on the land, and in the atmosphere. This way hydrologic
cycle inter-related various forms of water available on earth surface and also continually

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renews the supply of fresh water on land, which is essential to terrestrial organisms.
However, approximately 97.5% of Earth’s water is in the ocean and contains a high amount
of dissolved salts. Seawater is too salty for consumption and other uses like agriculture and
industries. For example, if you watered your garden with seawater, your plants would die.
Most fresh water is unavailable for easy consumption because either it is frozen as polar or
glacial ice, about 1.97%, or is present in form of ground water, about 0.5%. Lakes, creeks,
streams, rivers, and

Glaciers/Ice
caps/Ground
Water
(1.97 %)

Ponds,
Lakes,
Rivers etc.
(0.03 %)

Atmospheric
Water
Figure (0.5 %) 1.

Distribution of water resources on Earth

atmospheric water account for only a small portion—about 0.03%—of Earth’s fresh water
(Fig. 1). The underground establishments of earth contain constructions that collect and store
water. Groundwater flows through permeable sediments or rocks slowly—typically covering
distances of several millimeters to a few meters per day and ultimately, discharged into
rivers, wetlands, springs, or the ocean.
Aquifers are underground reservoirs that are either unconfined or confined. Aquifers have a
recharge area, the land from which water percolates to replace groundwater. In unconfined
aquifers, the recharge area is directly above them because the layers of rock above are
permeable and allow surface water directly seep downward, replacing the aquifer contents.
The upper boundary of an unconfined aquifer is called as water table. The water table is
sandwiched between upper soil surface and lower rock surface. The later, rock surface has
sediments and cracks saturated with groundwater. The water table varies in depth depending
on the amount of precipitation occurring in an area for e.g. in case of deserts, the water table
is generally far distant from the surface. In contrast, wetlands, lakes and streams have the
water table that intersects with the surface. In dry conditions, the water table of a well is
dropped lower than the depth of the well. A confined aquifer is also known as artesian
aquifer. It is a groundwater storage area between impermeable layers of rock. The water in a
confined aquifer is trapped and often under positive pressure. In contrast to unconfined
aquifers, the recharge area may be hundreds of kilometers away (Fig. 2). Generally,

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groundwater resources are considered as nonrenewable because they have taken hundreds or
sometimes thousands of years to accumulate, and typically only a minor portion of it is
replaced every year by percolation of precipitation. The confined aquifers are recharged
particularly slowly.

Figure 2. Schematic presentation of ground water aquifers

2. Water Resources of India

India accounts for about 2.45 % of world’s surface area, 4 % of the world’s water resources
and about 17.7 % of world’s population. Water in India is available from three chief sources-
the surface water (rivers, lakes, ponds), ground water (wells, springs), and wetlands. The
water availability in India is reducing due to increasing population. The average annual water
availability in 2001 was 1816 cubic meters per capita and had been reduced to 1545 cubic
meter per capita in the year 2011 which had been further decrease to 1486 cubic meters per
capita in the year 2018.

 Surface water- Itis the water found on Earth’s surface in streams and rivers; lakes, ponds,
and reservoirs, and wetlands.
 Wetland- An area of land covered with water for at least part of the year.
 Runoff- It is renewable and finite resource precipitated water on land that replenishes surface
water.
 Drainage basin- It is the area of land drained by a single river or stream.
 Watershed- It is an area of land that drains snowmelt and rainfall into streams and rivers.
Itranges in size from less than 1 km2 for a small stream to a huge portion of the continent for
a major river system such as the Mississippi River.
 Groundwater- It is the form of water which originates as precipitation that percolates into
the soil and goes down through cracks and spaces in sand, gravel, or rock until it is settled by
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an impenetrable layer and accumulates as groundwater.
 Aquifers- It is an underground layer of rock that holds groundwater.

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a) Surface Water Resources: In our country, the surface flow takes place through 12
major rivers namely Ganga, Yamuna, Indus, Brahmaputra, Cauvery, Godavari, Krishna,
Mahanadi, Mahi, Narmada, Pennar and Tapi. The mean annual flow in all the river
basins in India is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km. However, due to various geographical
and environmental constraints, only about 35 % of the available surface water can be
exploited. Water flow in a river depends on the size of the catchment area of the river
and rainfall within the catchment area. The precipitation in India has very high spatial
variation, and it is mainly concentrated in Monsoon season. Some of the rivers in the
country like the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, and the Indus have huge catchment areas.
Much of the annual water flow in south Indian rivers like the Godavari, the Krishna, and
the Cauvery has been harnessed, but it is yet to be done in the Brahmaputra and the
Ganga basins. In addition to rivers, other surface water resources in India include canals,
ponds, lakes, tanks, and wetlands. They are distributed unevenly over the country and
retaining about 50 % of these inland surface water resources.
b) Groundwater Resources: India has about 432 cubic km of total annual replenishable
groundwater resources. The Ganga and Brahmaputra basins have about 45 % of the total
replenishable groundwater resources. The groundwater utilization is relatively high in
the river basins lying in north-western region and parts of south India. The groundwater
utilization is very high in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu.
States like Bihar, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tripura are utilizing their
ground water resources at a moderate rate. However, the utilization of groundwater had
been increased over the period of time due to increase in population. If the present
scenario continues, the demands for water would definitely require additional supplies
and such situation, will act as the deciding factor to development and social, economic
and environmental balance all over the world.
c) Lagoons and Backwaters: India has a vast coastline which is the basis for presence of a
large number of lagoons and eusteries are present. A lagoon is defined as a water body
separated from larger bodies like river by a natural barrier like barrier reefs and island
etc. The lagoons in India are very confined in few states like Kerala, Orissa and West
Bengal. Although, water is usually brackish in these water resources and is generally
used for fishing and irrigation of certain varieties of paddy crops, coconut, etc. However,
a backwater can be defines as a water body or a branch of main river that lies alongside
the main river or backed up by some kind of obstruction which may be natural or
manmade.

3. Water Demand and Utilization

India has traditionally been an agricultural country. Agriculture and its related activities are
the leading source of livelihood for about two-third of its population. Besides this, water is
also required in large amount for domestic, industrial, energy and other needs. Unlike land,
availability of water varies from time to time and place to place in India. Being a monsoon
land, the bulk of rainfall is confirmed to a brief period of 3-4 months of monsoon season.

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However, due to increase in population and changing lifestyle, water consumption increases
dramatically with season and time. In addition, conversion of agricultural land to residential
or commercial purposes reduces the open area available for natural recharging of
groundwater during monsoon periods. In fact, more than 90 % of India’s water demand is for
agriculture. Hence, to meet the increased agricultural production, development of irrigation
has been consigned very high priority in our Five Year Plans. For this, various multipurpose
river valleys projects like the Damodar River Valley project, Bhakra-Nangal project, Kosi
Project, Hirakud Dam project, Nagarjuna Sagar Project, Narmada Valley Project, Indira
Gandhi Canal Project, etc. have been taken up to fullfill the need. The share of agricultural
sector in total water utilization is much higher than other sectors (Table 1).

Table 1. Trends of water demands in country (km2)

Year
Sector 2000 2025 2050

Domestic 42 73 103
Irrigation 541 910 1072
Industry 8 22 63
Energy 2 15 130
Others 41 72 80

Water is the central to any developmental process. The link between quantity and quality of
water should be kept in mind on all water related issues. Due to pressure on water,
availability and quality of freshwater is a matter of concern all over the world. According to a
United Nations (UN) study, the availability of fresh water in Asia is only 3,000 m3
/person/year, the lowest of any continent. Rapid population growth with poor management
has led to the situation of water stress.

4. Emerging Water Resource Problems

The water availability is diminishing day by day due to increase in population. In addition,
the presently available usable water resources are deteriorating in terms of quality due to the
addition of agricultural, industrial and domestic effluents into the water resources and this is
further limiting the accessibility to water resources. Every now and then anthropogenic
activities worsen the seriousness associated with water resources. Humans often court
disaster when they make environmentally unsound decisions, such as building in an area
prone to flooding.
a) Deterioration of Water Quality: Water quality refers to standard biological, chemical
and physical characteristics of water that represents the suitability of water to endure
various uses. The mixing of any foreign particle or material like microorganisms,

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agricultural, chemical, industrial and other kind of wastes into water disturb the
standards characteristics of water and pollute it. This makes the water unsuitable for
human use. Such problems worsen the quality of water and made it unfit for human
usage. When toxic substances enter the water bodies, they either get dissolved in water
as it is a great solvent or lie suspended in water. Both the situations lead to water
pollution and disturbing the aquatic systems. Sometimes, these pollutants also seep down
and pollute groundwater. The Ganga and the Yamuna are the two highly polluted rivers
in the country. Students should find out the major towns/cities located on the bank of the
major rivers like Ganga, Narmada, Brahmaputra etc. and its tributaries and major
industries as part of their course exercise.
b) Enhanced demand of Water for Irrigation: In agriculture, water is mainly used for
irrigation. In India, irrigation is needed because of spatial and temporal variability in
rainfall. The large tracts of the country are deficient in rainfall and are drought prone.
Deccan plateau and North-western India come under drought prone areas. Except
monsoon season, summer and winter seasons are usually dry in most part of the country.
Hence, irrigation is a basic necessity our agriculture during dry seasons. Even in the
areas of plentiful precipitation like Bihar and West Bengal, discontinuities in monsoon or
its failure resulted into dry spells unfavorable for agriculture. Water requirements of
certain crops also make irrigation indispensable. For instance, water requirement of
sugarcane, rice, jute, etc. is quite high which can be achieved only through irrigation.
Irrigation makes multiple cropping systems possible. It is reported that in comparison to
un-irrigated land, irrigated land has shown increased agricultural productivity. Further,
the high yielding crop varieties demand regular moisture supply, which can be made
possible only by an efficient irrigation system. Additionally, a major share of irrigation is
done by exploitation of groundwater through tube-wells and wells which ultimately
resulting into depletion of groundwater.
c) Increasing water conflicts: The indispensible nature of water and its uneven
distribution over time and space has often led to inter-regional disputes. These disputes
may be internationals or inter-states or inter-districts. Issues over sharing of common
water resource have been largely affecting not only the regional people but also the
governments. Some major water conflicts include; theCauvery water dispute (between
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu), Krishna river water dispute (between Karnataka,
Maharashtra & AP), Vansadhara river water dispute (Between Orissa and Andhra
Pradesh), The Indus water treaty (between India and Pakistan over the sharing of water
of five river, the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Satluj and Beas), and the water conflict in
Middle East (among Middle East countries like Ethiopia, Sudan, Egypt, Jordan, Syria
etc. for the sharing of three river basins, Jordan, Nile and Tigris-Euphrates). All these
conflicts over sharing of water resources need to be resolved with greater understanding
and impartiality.

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d) Flood and Drought: In countries like India and Bangladesh where rainfall is majorly
confined to monsoon season, are prone to water related problems like flood and drought.
Heavy rainfall during monsoon season often caused floods especially in low-lying areas.
Persistent downpour causes overflowing of rivers and lakes resulting into floods.
Nowadays, anthropogenic activities are majorly responsible for flood like situation and
every year one or the other state in India experiences severe flooding like that in 2017,
2018 and 2019 affected mainly Gujarat, Kerala and Maharashtra, respectively. Inter-
linking of rivers and their networking at national level is being proposed as remedial
solution to deal with this problem.
Drought is another problem associated with water resources. Whenever, the annual
rainfall is lower than the normal and less than the annual evaporation, the resultant
situation is called as drought. Globally, about 80 countries, lying in semi-arid and arid
regions frequently experience drought. Various anthropogenic activities like
deforestation, overgrazing and mining etc. lead to desertification and more areas come
under the drought affected area. Social forestry, wasteland reclamation, careful selection
of mixed cropping and use of indigenous knowledge are few effective solutions for
dealing with the problem of drought.

6. Sustainable Water Management

For sustainable development, it is important to effectively manage fresh water due to its
declining availability and ever increasing demand. India has to take steps and make effective
policies and adopt effective measures for its conservation due to high cost of desalination
making sea water usage to a minimum. Attempts to prevent pollution ought to be made
besides using water saving techniques. There is a need to adopt practices such as rain-water
harvesting, water recycling & reuse for sustained supply in the long run.
a) Prevention of Water Pollution: There is a rapid deterioration of water quality alongside
its quantity getting reduced. While rivers contain better quality at upper stretches of hilly
areas, when in plains river water is deteriorated owing to the solid/liquid wastes,
fertilizers, insecticides and industrial effluents getting into it through drains. The
pollutants are more enriched in summer due to the low momentum of water. Water
quality of 507 national aquatic resources is being monitored by central and state
pollution control boards. Some of the most polluted ones being The Yamuna between
Delhi and Etawah, severely polluted rivers Sabarmati at Ahmedabad, the Gomti at
Lucknow, the Vaigai at Madurai and the Musi of Hyderabad and the Ganga at Kanpur
and Varanasi etc. Ground water also got polluted over the time due to high
concentrations of heavy/toxic metals, fluoride and nitrates. While The Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act 1974, and Environment Protection Act 1986 need to be
adhered to, awareness for low usage of pollutants in agricultural and industrial sectors
and also towards low waste generation need to be created in general populous.

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b) Sustainable water use: Sustainable water use refers to the use of water that supports the
ability of human society to endure and flourish into the indefinite future without
undermining the integrity of the hydrological cycle. The utilization of reclaimed waste-
water is an smart option for fulfilling the demand of industries. Similarly, in urban areas
water from household drains can be used for gardening. Water used for washing vehicle
can also be used for gardening. This would conserve better quality of water for drinking
purposes. Currently, recycling of water is practiced on a limited scale. However, we need
to encourage the replenishment of water through recycling. United Nations Environment
Programme has launched an Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) to
promote coordination in management and development water, land and related
resources. It will help to improve economic and social welfare in a justifiable manner
without compromising the sustainability of vital resources.
c) Watershed Management: Watershed management implies the conservation and
efficient management surface and groundwater resources especially watershed areas. It
comprises storage and prevention of runoff for groundwater recharge through various
methods like recharge well, tanks and check dams etc. The main objective of watershed
management is maintaining the balance between utilization of natural resources and their
demand in society. The accomplishment of watershed development chiefly depends upon
participation of local community. The States and Central Governments have started
many watershed management programmes in India such as Haryali, Arvary Pani
Sansad (Rajasthan), Neeru-Meeru (Andhra Pradesh) etc. It is essential to generate
awareness about welfares of watershed development and its management among local
communities and this approach will ensured the sustainable availability of water.
d) Rainwater Harvesting: Rain water harvesting is used to capture and store rainwater. It
is also helpful to recharge groundwater. It is an eco-friendly and cheap technique for
preserving precipitated rain water by guiding it to storage tank or bore well or pits or
wells. It increases water availability, sustains ground water table, improves groundwater
quality through dilution of contaminants like arsenic, fluoride, phosphates, nitrates etc. It
also prevents flooding, soil erosion, and arrests salt water imposition in coastal areas.
Now a day, Government is also encouraging the practice of Rainwater harvesting in
residential, institutional and commercial areas. In our country, rainwater harvesting was
a common traditional practice and is done by various methods in form of storage bodies
like Kund or Tanka, ponds, lakes, etc.
e) Dam and its role in water conservation: Storage of water by construction of dams is
regarded as an efficient component of water management for irrigation. In India, the
high-level demand of water for irrigation can be achieved by building dams of various
heights. It has already been done under several river valley projects like Sardar Sarovar
Dam project (in Narmada river valley), Nagarjun Sagar Dam Project (in Krishna River
valley), Tehri Dam project (in Bhagirathi River valley) etc. The benefits of dam projects
include;

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(i) Generation of hydroelectricity.

(ii) Irrigation and flood control.
(iii) Industrial and municipal water supply.
The canal system from dam can transfer a large amount of water to great distances. The
most famous example is the Indira Gandhi canal that brought greenery to the desert areas
of Rajasthan. However, mismanagement of water from water reservoir of dams can
cause many problems such as;
 Unequitable distribution of water in downstream areas
 People living close to the water sources grow crops which require heavy irrigation
 The sudden or accidental release of water from dam results into flood like situations.
 Disturbance of the ecosystem
Since independence more than 700 dam have been constructed. if the government
programmes go ahead as scheduled, there will be hardly any free-flowing river left in the
country. That is why, environmentalist such as Sundar Lal Bahuguna, Medha Patkar, Chandi
Prasad Bhatt and others have opposed the implementation of several river valley projects like
Tehri Dam project (Uttarakhand), Sardar Sarovar Dam (Gujrat), Narmada Sagar Dam project
(Madhya Pradesh) etc. The reasons for this opposition are due to the social, economic and
environmental problems.
Case Study 1- The Cauvery water dispute
Cauvery River has an inter-State basin including its origin in Karnataka and flowing through
Tamil Nadu and Puducherry before terminating in Bay of Bengal. The total catchment basin
of Cauvery river is 81.155sq.km which distributed among Karnataka (34,273 sq.km), Kerala
(2,866 sq.km), Tamil Nadu and Puducherry (44,016sq.km). The dispute over distribution of
Cauvery river water is about hundred-year-old. The river water is almost fully utilized by the
upstream state, Karnataka and the downstream state, Tamil Nadu. Both the states have
increased demand of river water for agriculture and industries. To resolve the issue, the
Cauvery Water Dispute Tribunal (CWDT) was constituted in June 2, 1990. CWDT passes an
interim order in 1991 directing the Karnataka state to release water from its reservoirs to
ensure 205 Thousand million cubic feet (TMC) of water into Mettur reservoir of Tamil Nadu
in a water year (1st June to 31 May) with weekly and monthly stipulations. But since 1995,
delayed rain and the complex cropping patten in Cauvery basin resulted into a crisis like
situation over sharing of the water between these two states. In 2007, The Supreme Court
(SC) reserved its decision on the appeals filed by states agsinst CWDT’s final award. The SC
on 16 February 2018 delivered its verdict in the Cauvery water dispute, allocating more water
to Karnataka state. As directed by SC, The Cauvery Water Management Authority (CWMA)
and the Cauvery Water Regulation Committee (CWRC) were created to settle down the
century old dispute.

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LEARNING OUTCOME (Summary)

• The 3/4th of the earth surface is covered by water but only 2.5 % is available fresh water.
• The freshwater resources include surface water and ground water.
• Population explosion, urbanization, industrialization and water pollution are the major
causes of water associated problems.
• Rainwater harvesting, watershed management, judicious use of water, construction of
dams etc. are the key steps for sustainable water conservation and management.
• The problem of water scarcity can be solved by multipurpose river projects which can
fulfil the various objectives like irrigation, hydroelectricity, flood control, fish breeding
etc.

EXERCISES
Q. 1. Fill in the blanks with suitable word
a) Earth is also called __________ planet.
b) The main sources of fresh water are _________, _______ , and ________.
c) The underground layer of rock that holds groundwater is called as
d) Sardar Sarovar Dam project is based in _______ river valley.
e) Industrialization is also one of the causes of water ____________.
Answer: (a) Blue; (b) Rivers, lakes, glaciers; (c) Aquifer; (d) Narmada; (e) Scarcity
Q. 2. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) and Answers
(a) On which river has Nagarjun Sager Dam been constructed?
i. River Narmada
ii. River Krishna
iii. River Godavari
iv. River Cauvery
(b) How much percentage of the Earth’s Surface is covered with water?
i. About 70% ii. About 90%
iii. About 60% iv. None of these
(c) According to a prediction, nearly 2 billion people will live in absolute water scarcity in
the year of
i. 2015 ii. 2020
iii. 2025 iv. 2030
(d) The first & the only state in India which has made Roof Top Rain water Harvesting
Structured compulsory to all the across the state is

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i. Karnataka
ii. Tamil Nadu
iii. Kerala
iv. All of above
(e) The following is the only state where roof top rain water harvesting is made compulsory
i. Bihar
ii. Assam
iii. Tamil Nadu
iv. Maharashtra
Answer: (a) ii; (b) ii; (c) iii; (d) ii; (e) iii
Q. 3. Write short notes on the following.
(a) Rainwater harvesting
(b) Consequences of water scarcity
(c) Sustainable water management
(d) Groundwater resources
(e) Aquifers

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LESSON-7

NATURAL RESOURCES: ENERGY RESOURCES

Dr. Pramod Kumar
Assistant Professor,
Deen Dayal Upadhyay College,
University of Delhi

INTRODUCTION
The term Energy was coined by Thomas Young (1737-1829), eighty years after Newton and
applied it to what is now called kinetic energy. The term Energy can be defined as the
“ability/capacity to do work”. The two laws of thermodynamics describe the behaviour of
energy.
 The first law states that Energy can neither be created nor destroyed however; it can be
transferred from one form to another.
 The second law states that some energy is always dissipated into unavailable form i.e.
heat energy. There is no spontaneous transformation of energy from one form to another
(in context of protoplasm) is 100 percent efficient.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through the lesson you will be able to
 Define energy and identify its different types that exist.
 Analyse the energy demand due to growing population, globalization and
industrialisation.
 List the benefits of using alternate sources of energy sources instead of coal.
 Classify different energy resources as renewable or non-renewable.
 Describe the difference between renewable and nonrenewable energy resources.
 Identify the benefits and disadvantages to using renewable energy resources.
 Understand the various forms of conventional energy resources.
 Identify the benefits and disadvantages to using conventional energy resources.
 Outline the technologies that are used to harness the power of solar energy using case
study.
The Energy is required by all living organisms and vegetations for biochemical reactions of
their cells. In fact, all living beings operate by means of energy. Energy moves the universe.
About 99.8 percent of our energy comes from solar radiation. It is the solar energy that plants
use to make food which gets stored in plants as biomass. The consumption of energy is an

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indicative of its development. It is because of the fact that almost all the developmental
activities require energy either directly or indirectly. Also, there exists a wide range of
disparity in terms of per capita consumption of energy among the developed and developing
nations.

Table 1: Consumption of Energy in various sectors

S.No. Global Energy Usage (%) Purpose
1. 24 Transportation
2. 40 Industries
3. 30 Domestic and Commercial purposes
4. 06 other Uses including Agriculture

1. Growing energy needs:

The development and growth process of a country requires generation as well as consumption
of energy. Thus, growing energy needs is an index of nation development. Energy is derived
from both conventional and non-conventional resources. Furthermore, it is expected that
global energy needs will rise steadily in the next two and a half decades. If governments stick
with current policies then according to the World Energy Outlook’s Reference Scenario - the
energy needs of the world would be 50% higher in 2030 than today with an average annual
growth rate of 1.6%.
India is among the fastest growing markets in the world and is expected to be the second
largest contributor to the increase in global energy demand by 2035, accounting for 18% of
the rise in global energy consumption. With limited fossil fuel reserves, the country has
planned to increase its renewable and nuclear power industries. Fossil fuels till date continue
to dominate energy supplies and are expected to remain the same for the coming years. Fossil
fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.) are expected to cater for more than 80% of the
projected increase in primary energy demand in this scenario. Natural gas demand is also
growing at a very fast rate, which is driven mainly by power generation. Coal has been the
largest energy source especially in China and India.
Reasons for increase in worldwide energy demands:
We feel handicapped without supply of energy. Can you think of life without electricity?
Because of these rising demands and limited energy resources, these are under a heavy stress.
Attempts are continuously being made to develop alternate sources of energy. We meet our
energy requirements to perform several activities every day from food, fuel and electricity.
Since long we have been exploiting fossil fuels on a large scale for this purpose.
a) Globalization: Transportation is one of the largest consumers of energy in the world,
accounting for more than 50% of liquid fuel consumption in countries. The energy
required for transportation has inevitably increased with increased globalization.

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b) Industrialization, especially in emerging markets: There is a large scale

requirement of energy in businesses and factories in the form of both electricity and
petroleum-based fuels in order to operate. The energy demand is increased as soon as
economies industrialize. In other words Industrialization and Urbanization have
multiplied the demand for energy resources several-fold.
c) Increasing wealth especially in emerging markets: With the growth of economy
the energy also grow. This leads to increased energy demand and consumption.
d) Rapid growth of human population: It is putting a heavy stress on all resources of
energy.
2. Use of alternate sources of energy:
Any energy source which provides alternate to fossil fuel is called alternate source of energy.
All the conventional mineral-based energy resources, such as fossil fuels, are exhaustible. It
is estimated that if we continue to use coal at the present rate, the available coal reserve will
exhaust in the present century itself. India produces petroleum which fulfills only half of our
requirement and the remaining half is met by importing from other countries.
3. Major sources of Energy that we use:
The source of energy can be defined as the one which can make available sufficient quantity
of energy in a usable form for a longer duration.

Sources of Energy

Conventional/Non-renewable/Exhaustible Non-Conventional/Renewable/Inexhaustible

Fossil fuels Nuclear Power

Solar Wind Hydroelectric Hydrogen Ocean Geothermal Biomass

Ocean waves Tidal Ocean Thermal

4. Renewable and Non-renewable sources of Energy

I almost every part of the world, industrialization and agriculture development have increased
the requirement of energy on a larger scale and the same can be directly related with the
expansion of expansion of possible energy sources. These developments and expansion

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particularly in the field of industries as well as agriculture have caused a fall in their supply.
Besides, traditional sources of energy have serious environmental concerns as these cause
environmental pollution.
Renewable energy sources/ Non-conventional energy sources:
The increasing energy demands have compelled countries all over the world to think of a
policy on energy and look into a possibility of having energy system with no or very limited
environmental impacts. The deposits of coal and oil will exhaust one day. The energy-crisis
has shown that for sustainable development in energy sector, we must replace them by non-
polluting renewable sources and conserve them. Efforts are being made to develop new
sources of energy. These are called renewable sources of energy and include solar energy,
wind energy, ocean energy, geothermal energy, urban waste, agricultural waste, energy
plantations etc. These are non-polluting, environmentally clean and socially relevant.
Moreover, no nation can afford to depend on only one form of energy there has to be a mix of
various forms of energy.
Non-renewable energy sources/ Conventional energy sources:
The resources which have accumulated in nature over a long span o time and cannot be
quickly replenished when exhausted are known as Non-renewable energy sources for e.g.
Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas, nuclear fuels like uranium and thorium.
Advantages of Renewable sources of Energy:
1. Renewable energy is available in abundant quantity and free to use.
2. Renewable energy has low or zero carbon emissions, therefore they are considered as
green and eco-friendly.
3. Renewable energy develops self reliance and minimizes the reliance on any third
country for the supply of energy.
4. Renewable sources can cost less than consuming the local electricity supply.
5. Renewable sources of energy help in economy simulations and creating job
opportunities, through building such equipments, instruments or plants that provide
jobs to many people.
Disadvantages of Renewable sources of Energy:
Though renewable energy has many benefits and advantages but it also has certain limitations
1. High cost of initial investment to set up plant.
2. Non-availability (Solar light only when days are sunny)
3. Loss of biodiversity and forest along with modification of local environment (Dam for
hydroelectric energy).
Advantages of Non-renewable sources of Energy:
1. Non-renewable sources of energy are cheaper and easy to use.

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2. Non-renewable sources release great amount of energy from small amount of resource
use (uranium).
Disadvantages of Non-renewable sources of Energy:
1. Non-renewable sources of energy are limited and will end one day. Thus, their prices
will keep rising and will not be accessible and available for everyone.
2. Their use is not eco-friendly as they release toxic gases that are creating serious
environmental changes.

Table 2: Difference between Renewable and Non-renewable resources

S.No. Renewable resources Non-Renewable resources
1. Resources which can be Resources which cannot be
renewed/regenerated/replenished again renewed/regenerated/replenished again and
and again within a given span of life are again within a given span of life are known
known as renewable resources. as renewable resources.
2. The stocks or reserves of these The stocks or reserves of these resources
resources are unlimited in nature. are limited in nature.
3. They are also called inexhaustible They are also called exhaustible resources.
resources.
4. These resources are eco-friendly i.e. These resources are not eco-friendly i.e.
they do not cause pollution of they cause pollution of environment.
environment.
5. e.g. Water, Air, Sun etc. e.g. Fossil Fuels: Coal, Petrol, Diesel,
Nuclear Fuel etc.

4.1. Renewable Energy

4.1.1. Solar energy
The Sun is considered to be the ultimate source of energy for all other forms of energy either
directly or indirectly. The phenomenon occurring inside the sun releasing tremendous amount
of energy in the form of heat and light is nuclear fusion. The earth space receives nearly 1.4
KJ/sec/m2 of solar energy.
Advantages:
1. The energy produced from the sun is a renewable source of energy. The power source of
the sun is absolutely free.
2. It produces electricity which doesn’t cause pollution of environment.
3. It can be used in remote and isolated areas where there is no power supply.
4. Most solar energy systems have a lifespan of about 30 to 40 years.
5. In majority of the solar energy systems there is hardly any requirement of maintenance
during their lifetime, indicating that one need not to put additional money into them.

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6. Solar energy systems are now being considered and designed to satisfy particular needs.
For example, outdoor lighting can be converted to solar.
7. Solar energy has various other applications apart from producing Photovoltaic energy viz.
Solar cooker, Solar water heating systems, passive solar heating of homes etc.
Disadvantages:
1. Solar energy can be harnessed only during the daytime or when it is a sunny day. Cloudy
skies reduce its effectiveness.
2. Solar energy can be unreliable at times.
3. Amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface varies with location, time of day, time of
year and other weather conditions.
4. Transmission remains a barrier that has to be breached.
5. Installation cost is high as:
a. Solar panels, solar cells as well as collectors are comparatively expensive to
manufacture.
b. It uses a special grade of Silicon which is expensive.
c. Since silver is used for connecting the cells together it is more expensive.
d. The current produced is DC and to convert it to AC increases the cost.
6. Solar power stations are also very expensive to be built and also, they fail to match the
power output similar sized conventional power stations.
7. The large-scale requirement of areas of land in order to capture the solar energy.
8. In order to meet the requirement of energy during the night batteries are charged during
the day from solar energy. As a result, the large storage space is required for these large
and heavy batteries which need to be replaced at regular intervals.
4.1.2.Wind energy
The high-speed moving winds due as a result of their motion possess lot of energy in them in
the form of kinetic energy. Sun is the main driving force for the wind. The wind energy can
be captured by making use of windmills. The force of the striking wind is the main driving
force that helps the blades of the windmill to rotate continuously. The revolving blades can be
utilised to drive a number of machines like electric generators, flour mills and water pumps.
Now days a large number of windmills are being installed in clusters known as wind farms
that feed power to the utility grid by producing a large amount of electricity. The prominent
areas where the winds are strong and steady comprise of the coats, hilly regions mountain
passes and ridges in particular, open grasslands are utilised for wind farms. The minimum
wind speed that can rotate the blades of a wind generator for satisfactory working is
15km/hr. The largest wind farm of our country is near Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu
generating 380MW electricity. Wind energy is considered to be the second fastest growing
source of energy since 1990 and probably be the cheapest source.

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Table 3: Wind speeds and the performance of the wind turbine

Average wind speed (Km/hr) (mph) Performance of Wind turbine
Up to 15 (9.5) No good
18 (11.25) Poor
22 (13.75) Moderate
25 (15.5) Good
29 (18) Excellent

Advantages:
1. The wind is free of cost can be captured efficiently with the help of modern technology.
2. The wind energy could also be used to produce hydrogen by electrolysis of water.
3. It can be used in remote and isolated areas where there is no power supply.
4. It is utilized for par generation, pumping water and other domestic purposes such as
threshing, winnowing, cutting wooden logs etc.
5. Wind energy can also be used for battery charging to run generators.
6. It is a decent method of supplying energy to remote areas.
7. Wind farm can be used to generate revenue as they can be tourist attractions.
8. The land beneath the wind turbines can still be used for farming especially in agricultural
areas as wind turbines can be very tall and each turbine takes up only a small plot of land.
9. The recurring cost is less.
Disadvantages:
1. The main disadvantage regarding the wind power is down to the winds unreliability
factor.
2. Minimum wind speed of 15 km/hr i.e. 4.2 m/s is required in order to rotate the wind
turbine.
3. The installer has to face nature’s problems, because wind doesn’t blow all the time i.e. it
is not always predictable, therefore, electricity needs to be stored until it is used. There is
also requirement of backup systems.
4. There is large scale requirement of multiple wind turbines in order to produce sufficient
amount of electricity as a single wind turbine produces much less electricity than the
average fossil fuelled power station.
5. The blades of the wind turbine may interfere with television reception or with microwave
communication used by various telephone companies.
6. There is large scale requirement of land for installation.
7. The blades of the turbine can kill birds and migrating flocks thereby causing loss of
biodiversity.
8. The wind generators are few and give unattractive outlook to the landscapes and are
extremely noisy: This disturbs the residence of the area.

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9. Optimum areas for wind farms are often the open plains, the coast, where the land is
expensive.
4.1.3. Hydroelectric energy
Hydropower is defined as “The electricity that is generated from the energy of falling water
and running water that can be utilised for various useful purposes. Hydropower has been used
in our country from the ancient times for various purposes such as for irrigation and the
operation of various mechanical devices, such as watermills, sawmills, textile mills, dock
cranes, domestic lifts, power houses and paint making. Hydroelectricity is considered to be
most widely used that accounts for nearly 16 % of global electricity generation. The first
hydropower station in India was a small hydropower station of 130 KW commissioned in
1897 at Sidrapong near Darjeeling in West Bengal. With the advancement in technologies
and increasing requirement of electricity, emphasis was shifted to large sized hydropower
stations. Large hydropower projects in India are developed by the Ministry of power, the
Government of India. Small and minihydel projects have the potential to provide energy to
remote and hilly areas where the extension of grid system is uneconomical. The construction
of mini/micro hydel plants with generation capacities between 3 MW and 15 MW are most
suitable and avoid the socio-economic and environmental problems as occur during
construction of big dams.
Applications:Generating Electricity, Flood risk management and Enabling Irrigation.
Advantages:
1. Hydroelectricity is the clean source of energy.
2. The water can also be utilised for irrigation purposes.
3. The water can also be utilised as source of drinking water provides drinking water to
people living, particularly in desert of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
4. It is absolutely non-polluting, has a long life, and has a very low operating and
maintenance costs, unaffected by inflation.
5. Help in controlling floods and making water available during non-rainy seasons for
irrigation and other uses.
6. Once the dam is constructed, it produces electricity at a constant rate.
7. The gates can be opened and closed depending upon the need of electricity.Also, the
water saved during the closure of the gates can be utilised when the demand for electricity
sis high.
8. Dams and reservoirs are constructed to contribute in production of electricity for many
years and decades.
9. The build-up of water in the lake means that energy can be stored until needed, when the
water is released to produce electricity.
10. The production of electricity by dam systems doesn’t result in the production of
greenhouse gases thereby it does not pollute the environment.

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Disadvantages:
1. Construction of Dams requires huge investment of money and they need to be constructed
to a very high standard.
2. The natural environment gets destroyed as a result of large scale flooding.
3. The dam sites are specially the forest and agricultural areas and get submerged during
construction.
4. It causes water logging and siltation.
5. It cause loss of biodiversity and fish population and other aquatic organisms are adversely
affected.
6. Displace local people and create environmental problems of rehabilitation and related
socio-economic problems.
7. Increases seismicity due to large volume of water impounded.
8. Loss of prime agricultural land (flood plain area). The area beneath the river is most
fertile which gets lost as a result of construction of dams.
9. The natural water table is altered as a result of construction of a large dam.
10. The buildings of large dams can cause serious geological damage.
4.1.4. Hydrogen energy
As hydrogen burns in air, it combines with oxygen to form water with liberation of enormous
quantity of energy which is 150 kilojoules per gram. Hydrogen possesses the highest calorific
value and therefore can serve as an excellent fuel. Hydrogen is a clean fuel and energy
storage medium for various applications. The production of hydrogen is occurred by thermal
dissociation, photolysis or electrolysis of water. Various organic effluents like distillery,
starch etc. can also produce Hydrogen by biological conversions.
Advantages:
1. At present, in the form of liquid hydrogen it is used as a fuel in spaceships.
2. H2 can be used in fuel cell to generate electricity. In fuel cell hydrogen is burnt in air or
oxygen in the pressure of an electrolyte to produce electricity.
3. And being very light, it would have to be stored in bulk.
Disadvantages:
1. Hydrogen is highly explosive and inflammable and explosive. Therefore, in order to be
used as a fuel it requires safe handling.
2. There is also a great difficulty in storing as well as transporting hydrogen.
4.1.5. Ocean energy
More than 70% of the earth surface is occupied by thereby making them world’s largest solar
collector. The ocean forms a vital source of energy. Ocean Tides, produced by gravitational
force of sun and moon, possess tremendous amount of energy.

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Tidal Energy
The rise and fall of water in the oceans is referred to as the high tide and low tide. In order to
rotate the turbine, there is a requirement of several meters difference between the high and
low tide. This difference in the tides can be exploited to harness tidal energy by constructing
a tidal barrage. The sea water will flow into the reservoir of barrage during the high tide
turning the turbine and producing electricity by rotating the generators. When the sea level is
low during the low tide sea water which was stored in the barrage reservoir flows out into the
sea turning the turbine producing electricity by rotating the generators.
The potential of tidal power in India is estimated to be about 15,000 MW. In India, Gulf of
Cambay, Gulf of Kutch (1000 MW) and the Sunderban deltas (100 MW), Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, Lakshdweep Islands, the coasts of Odisha, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
and Maharashtra are the potential tidal power sites. The tidal power sites for harnessing the
tidal energy in the world are very few in number. The Bay of Funday, Canada possess a
potential of 5,000 MW of power generation with 17-18 m high tides. One of the first modern
tidal power mill is located at La Rance, France.
Ocean Wave Energy:
The power of ocean waves, which operates on the principle of oscillating water column, has
not been exploited to its full potential except as power supplies for navigational aids. India
has initiated wave energy project at Vizhinijam Fishery Harbour near Trivendrum in Kerala
as an indigenous effort. It was expected that on the completion, the project would be able to
derive an energy output of 4.45 lakh units per year. The project resulted in a strict reality in
1991 when it started generation of electricity to be fed to the grid of Kerala State Electricity
Board.
Ocean Thermal Energy:
As sunlight falls on to the surface of the ocean, the upper surface gets warmer while the lower
layers have relatively lesser temperature. This temperature difference between the upper and
the subsequent lower layers of the ocean can be exploited to generate electricity through
Ocean Thermal Energy conversion power plants. In order to produce electricity through
OTEC power plant minimum temperature difference between the surface and deeper levels is
20o C.
Advantages:
1. Ocean wave energy and tidal energy is free and clean source of energy.
2. The production of electricity by ocean systems doesn’t result in the production of
greenhouse gases thereby it does not pollute the environment.
3. The Energy capturing and conversion mechanism may help protect the shoreline.
4. There is a continuous generation of electricity as tides are active 24 hours a day, 365 days
a year.

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Disadvantages:
1. It causes displacement of wildlife habitats. The barrage systems pose a risk of destruction
of ecosystem relying on coming and going of tides. The barrage systems can kill the
migrating fishes passing through the turbine.
2. The energy from the oceans can only be harnessed from those areas where there is
suitable wave motion or tidal flow. Therefore, cannot be used inland.
3. The energy can be produced during tidal surges only.
4. Recurring cost is high as barrage systems require salt resistant parts.
5. The movement of the large marine animals and ships through the channels on which the
barrage is built is disrupted. The frames of the turbines can disrupt the movement of large
marine animals and ships through the channels on which the barrage is built.
6. The waves of great intensity can be produced by extreme weather.
4.1.6.Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy is the energy which is produced from the hot rocks present inside the
earth. In many places below the surface of the earth high temperature and high pressure steam
fields are present. Radioactive materials naturally present inside the rocks produce this heat
by the fission process. This energy in the form of steam or hot water either comes out to the
ground from the earth’s crust naturally through cracks in the form of natural geysers as in
Manikaran, Kullu and Sohana, Haryana. The energy which does not find any place to come
out can be taken out by artificially drilling a hole upto the hot rocks and by putting a pipe in it
steam or hot water can be gushed out through the pipe at high pressure that will turn the
turbine of a generator to produce electricity. Sometimes the steam or boiling water
underneath the earth does not find any place to come out. In USA and New Zealand, there are
several geothermal plants working successfully.
Advantages:
1. A life time energy resource. Geothermal energy can be used and reused again and again.
2. Geothermal energy is among the cleanest source of energy as it doesn’t burn fossil fuel in
order to produce electricity.
3. High heat source: The energy coming from the core of the earth is extremely powerful,
that allows geothermal plants to generate electricity.
Disadvantages:
1. In order to harness geothermal energy one needs to find a good spot where there is
continuous and substantial amount of steam present that could be trapped into. So, to
generate geothermal energy all the areas are not suitable.
2. For setting up of a geothermal energy plant huge capital is required.
3. In order to finalize a geothermal site drilling and testing are required that cost a lot of
money.

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4.1.7.Biomass energy
The organic matter formed by the plants and animals that includes agricultural wastes, crop
residues, wood, manure, cattle dung, sewage etc. is referred to as Biomass energy.
Types of Biomass
Agricultural and Industrial waste biomass: Agricultural Crop Residues, Bagasse (Sugarcane
Residues), Peanut hulls, Cotton stalks, Coconut shells etc. are few common agricultural
wastes that produce energy by burning.
Fishery and poultry waste, animal dung, and even human refuse are also examples of biomass
energy. Thirty percent (30%) electricity in Brazil is produced by burning bagasse. Animal
dung cakes are used in rural India to produce heat by burning. Agricultural waste, animal
dung cakes and wood account for meeting nearly 80% of rural heat energy requirements.
Open furnaces called “Chulhas” that usually produce smoke and less efficient (efficiency
<8%) are used to burn waste biomass. Presently smokeless chulhas with improved efficiency
and a tall chimney are used. The combustion of animal wastes and plant residues produce lot
of smoke thereby causing air pollution and produce lot of ash as waste residue. Essential
nutrients like N and P are also destroyed when we burn dung it is therefore advisable to
convert biomass into bio fuels or biogas.
Energy Plantations: Green plants manufacture their own food by trapping the solar energy
trapped through the process known as photosynthesis. In this process solar energy of the sun
is converted and converted into biomass energy. The energy from the energy plantations is
produced either directly by burning or by converting into fuels by fermentation, or by
converting into burnable gas. The examples of energy plantations are crops like sugarcane,
sugar beet, sweet sorghum, aquatic weeds like water hyacinth and sea-weeds and
carbohydrate rich potato, cereals and fast growing trees like poplar, cottonwood and
Leucaena leucocephala, non-woody herbaceous grasses.
Petro-Crops: Some plants or algaeare rich in hydrocarbons and produce oil like substance
under high temperature and pressure. This oily substance can actually act as a potential
source of energy or may be refined to form gasoline and can be burnt directly in diesel
engines. Examples of such petro-crops are oil palms and plants like Euphorbias.
Advantages:
1. It is sensible to use waste materials.
2. The fuel source is cheap.
3. Biomass doesn’t emit additional carbon dioxide (CO2), like fossil fuels.
4. Biomass can be utilised to manufacture variety of fuels (biogas/biofuel/heat) in order to
produce electricity.
5. Biomass energy helps in reducing disposal costs.
6. The life of the landfills is increased as a result of this.

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7. The energy generation from the biomass has negative fuel costs as it uses waste products.
8. It reduces dependence on fossil fuels.
Disadvantages:
1. The main problem for the production of biomass energy is the gathering fuel in sufficient
quantities.
2. It is not available all year round.
3. The value of Biocrops is more than the food so it can have detract food production that
will result in food shortages and increased prices.
4. Emission of greenhouse gases. It releases pollutants into the atmosphere causing air
pollution.
4.2. Non-renewable energy resources:
Fossil Fuels: Fossil fuels principally comprise hydrocarbons. Fossil fuels involve deposits of
once living organisms. This may take centuries to form. Fossil fuels for energy provision are
of three types: Coal, Oil and Natural gas.
5. Energy contents of coal, petroleum, natural gas and bio gas:
Coal: Coal was formed during the Carboniferous age around 255-350 million years ago, in
hot damp regions of the earth. The plants and animals that occurred during this period, along
the banks of rivers and swamps, got buried alive or after their death into the soil and due to
heat accompanied by pressures gradually got converted into peat and coal over a millions of
years of period. The vegetation which was partially decomposed and deeply buried in
sedimentary environments got slowly transformed into solid, brittle, carbonaceous rocks
commonly known as coal. The coal is the most abundant fossil fuel with a total recoverable
resource of about 6,000 billion tonnes in the world. With present rate of consumption, the
coal reserves are likely to last during next 200 years and if the use rate increases by 2% per
year, then it will last within next 65 years.
Coal reserves are unevenly distributed in the country, with the bulk reserves located in the
eastern states of Bihar, West Bengal and Odisha. Central India, including Madhya Pradesh
and Andhra Pradesh, also possess sizeable coal reserves of the order of 22 percent of the
total. Indian coal is not considered to be the good coal in terms of heat capacity and India
accounts for about 5% of the total world’s coal. Bokaro, Jharia, Raniganj, Godavari valley
and Singrauli are the major coalfields in India. Anthracite coal is found only in Jammu &
Kashmir.

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Table 3: Different types of Coal

Calorific
(%) (%) (%) (%)
Value
S.No. Type of Coal Percent Percent Percent Percent
(k cal gm-
Carbon Oxygen Volatiles Moisture 1
)
1. Lignite 60-70 16-18 45 35 5000-6000
2. Anthracite 92-98 2-3 05 01 7500-8100
3. Bituminous 78-90 9-10 20 06 6600-7500
4. Sub-bituminous 75-83 14-15 40 17 6100-6500

Peat is known as the precursor of coal. It is the soft organic material that consists of partly
decayed plants and deposited mineral matter in some cases. When subjected to high pressure
and heat peat becomes coal. Peat is composed of 60% organic matter, typically ferns and
vegetation found in swamps or bogs. It has 55-60 percent carbon and 30-35% Oxygen
content. The moisture content is also high. The calorific value of Peat is 5400 k cal gm-1.
Biogas has a high calorific value of 5000-5500 k cal kg-1
Natural gas has the calorific value of about 13 kcal per gram.
Advantages:
1. Coal is readymade, tried and tested type of fuel.
2. It is relatively cheap to mine and to convert into energy.
3. Coal is obtainable in abundance. Coal is in abundant supply – will last longer than oil or
gas.
4. Capacity to generate huge amounts of electricity in just a single location.
5. They have high calorific value.
6. It has vast potential to power the entire world.
7. Infrastructure to fossil fuel energy is entirely developed.
8. Easy transportation of liquid or gaseous fossil fuels.
9. Electricity can be produced by simple combustion process.
10. They are highly stable in nature as compared to other fuels.
11. Cheaper source than non-conventional forms of energy.
Disadvantages:
1. Over exploitation has caused in their considerable depletion.
2. Emission of sulphur dioxide, which causes acid rain.
3. Threatens the ecological balance and may be a cause of earthquakes.
4. Formation of fossil fuels takes millions of years.
5. When burned gives off atmospheric pollutants, including green house gases, main
contributor to the global warming experienced by the earth today.

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6. Only a limited supply.

7. Environmentally, mining of coal results in the destruction of wide areas of land. Mining
this fossil fuel is also difficult and may endanger the lives of miners. Coal mining is
considered one of the most dangerous jobs in the world.
Petroleum
Petroleum is considered to be the lifeline of economy at global level and cleaner than coal.
Sixty seven (67%) of the total petroleum reserves are restricted to 13 countries in the world
which together form OPEC (Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries). Saudi Arabia
accounts for twenty five (25%) of the oil reserves. If we continue to use the crude oil at
present rate, then the world’s crude oil reserves are expected to be exhausted in next 40 years.
In India, crude oil was first recovered from Makum in North East Assam. Later, drilling for
crude oil was done at Digboi, Dibrugarh, Narharlatiya and Surma valley in the north east. The
oil field also lies around Bay of Cambay, Gujarat. The most important achievement was the
exploration of oil in Bombay high on the continental shelf of Maharshtra, located at a
distance of 167 km north-west of Mumbai. Recently oil has been located in the off-shore
areas of deltaic coasts of Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and Mahanadi. Oil prospects in India
are not so high as coal. But the demands are very high and the country has to import oil from
OPEC countries at higher rates.
Natural Gas: Natural gas, a fossil gift from nature, is composed of methane (95%) with
small amounts of ethane and propane. Natural gas deposits are accompanied by oil deposits
or they may also occur independently. Among the fossil fuels, it is the cleanest source of
energy. Natural gas can easily be transported through the pipelines. It burns without smoke
and has high calorific value. It can be used as a source of energy for domestic as well as
industrial purpose. It can also be used for power generation and as a raw material for
petrochemical industries and fertilizer plants. Crude oil refining and fractional distillation
plants yield natural gas as a byproduct. About 40% of total natural gas is restricted to Russia
followed by Iran (14%) and USA (7%). In India, Natural gas reserves occur in association
with oil fields. Some new areas have been discovered in Jaisalmer, Tripura, off-shore area of
Mumbai and the Krishna-Godavari Delta.
LPG (liquefied Petroleum Gas): It is widely used as a domestic fuel for cooking, has its
main content as odourless butane to which other gases like propane and ethyl mercaptan are
added to give fowl smell in order to identify leakage. It is produced by converting petroleum
into liquid form under pressure. Indane and Bharat Petroleum are the chief distributing
agencies of LPG. LPG emits negligible levels of particles which diesel does and even those
emitted are not as toxic as those emitted from diesel. It is an ideal cleanest burning alternative
fuel.
CNG (Compressed Natural Gas): The CNG is used as a substitute to petrol and diesel in
vehicles. Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC) has totally switched over to CNG where buses
aas well as auto rickshaws run on CNG. It has reduced levels of pollution in the city. CNG is
a cleaner fuel than diesel, used currently in many cities and long-distance transport across the

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country. It contains mostly methane, compressed to 80 atmospheres. CNG also works out
cheaper (one-third) than diesel in long run because of stable price. Moreover, it is readily
available, its carcinogenic potential is lesser, it cannot be adulterated and gives higher
mileage i.e. 35-40 km per kg.

6. Nuclear energy
Known for its high destructive value, as evidenced from nuclear weapons, non-renewable
nuclear power can also be harnessed to produce energy of commercial value. Nuclear energy
can be generated either by:
Nuclear fission in which nucleus of certain isotopes with large mass number is splitted into
lighter nuclei on bombardment of neutrons in order to release a huge amount of energy
through a chain reaction. In order to control the rate of fission, only one neutron released is
allowed to strike for splitting another nucleus. Uranium-235 nuclei are most commonly used
in nuclear reactors.
235
92U + 0n136 Kr92 + 56Ba141 + 30n1 + Energy

Nuclear fusion on the other hand is a process in which a heavier nucleus is formed from the
two isotopes of a lighter element releasing enormous energy in the process. In order to fuse
these nuclei extremely high temperatures of nearly 1 billion degree Celsius is required. The
heat energy produced as a result of either of the processes is used to produce steam which
runs the electric turbine.
Deuterium-deuterium Fusion
2
1H + 1H2 2He3 + 30n1 + Energy (3.27 MeV)

Deuterium-tritium Fusion

2
1H + 1H3 2He4 + 30n1 + Energy (17.59 MeV)

Components of a Nuclear Reactor:

1. Moderator: Heavy water, Graphite, Deuterium, Paraffin
When fast moving neutrons collide head on with the protons of moderator substances,
their energies are interchanged and thus the neutrons are slowed down. Such neutrons are
called thermal neutrons which cause fission of U235 in the fuel.
2. Control Rods: Boron or Cadmium rods
3. Coolant: A substance which is used to remove the heat produced and transfer it from the
core of the nuclear reactor to the surrounding is called coolant.

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4. Shielding: Protected with concrete walls 2-25m thick so that radiations emitted during
nuclear reactions may not produce harmful effects on the persons working on the
reactors.\
5. Nuclear Fuel: Uranium -235 (U235).
Advantages:
1. Emits very little greenhouse gases and hence does not contribute to global warming.
2. Readily available technology.
3. Generates high quantity of electricity from very small amount of nuclear fuel.
4. Low operating costs.
5. It is able to meet both industrial and domestic needs of energy.
6. Nuclear wastes may be reduced through reprocessing or recycling.
Disadvantages:
1. High installation cost due to radiation containment and procedures.
2. Needs centralized power source with large infrastructure?
3. High known and unknown risks.
4. Requires large construction period.
5. Nuclear fuel is finite source. Uranium may last for only 30 to 60 years.
6. Installation and operation nee high expertise and skill.
7. Mining involves health and other catastrophe.
8. Requires huge amount of water.
9. Disposing spent fuel is a problem. Wastes may last for 200 to 500 years.
10. Target for terrorist activities.
11. Average life span of nuclear reactors is usually 40 to 50 years.

CASE STUDY: THE NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION

The National Solar Mission is also known by the name the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar
Mission is among one of the eighth key National mission’s which comprise India’s National
Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). NAPCC was launched on 30th June, 2008 by Dr.
Manmohan Singh which identified development of solar energy technologies in the country
as a National Mission. In order to promote ecologically sustainable growth and meet the
challenge of India’s energy security the national solar mission was launched by Government
of India and State Governments as a major initiative. The Government of India approved
National Solar Mission on January 11, 2010. As far as India is concerned undoubtedly, solar
energy has got tremendous potential to reduce reliance on non-renewable and depleting
energy sources as sunshine is available in great intensity and for longer duration per day.
Besides, it can also permit decentralized distribution of energy for empowering people at the
grassroots level.

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Keeping in view this vision and the brand name “Solar India”, The National Solar Mission
was launched with the prime objective to establish India as a global leader in solar energy, by
creating the policy conditions for its diffusion across the country as quickly as possible. The
mission was launched following a three phase approach extending till the period of 11th plan
and first year of the 12th plan (up to 2012-13) as Phase 1, the remaining 4 years of the 12th
Plan (2013-17) as Phase 2 and the 13th Plan (2017-22) as Phase 3.
The mission aims at establishing an enabling environment for solar energy in our country at
both the levels centralized and decentralized. During June 2015 the ambitious target of
20,000 MW was revised to 1 lakh MW of grid connected solar power by 2022. There is a
provision of midterm evaluation of the progress review of capacity and the targets for the
successive phases in order to protect government from the exposure of subsidy.
The mission had two well defined purposes:
1. Long term energy security
2. Ecological security.
Environmental impact:
1. Solar energy is environmentally friendly as it has zero emissions while generating
electricity or heat. It produces electricity which doesn’t cause pollution of environment.
2. The energy produced from the sun is a renewable source of energy. The power source of
the sun is absolutely free.
3. It can be used in remote and isolated areas where there is no power supply.
4. Most solar energy systems have a lifespan of about 30 to 40 years.

LEARNING OUTCOME (Summary)

 The Energy is required by all living organisms and vegetations for biochemical reactions
of their cells. In fact, all living beings operate by means of energy. Energy moves the
universe. About 99.8 percent of our energy comes from solar radiation.
 Growing energy needs is an index of nation development. Energy is derived from both
conventional and non-conventional resources.
 According to the World Energy Outlook’s Reference Scenario - the energy needs of the
world would be 50% higher in 2030 than today with an average annual growth rate of
1.6%.
 India is among the fastest growing markets in the world and is expected to be the second
largest contributor to the increase in global energy demand by 2035, accounting for 18%
of the rise in global energy consumption.
 With limited fossil fuel reserves, the country has planned to increase its renewable and
nuclear power industries.

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 All the conventional mineral-based energy resources, such as fossil fuels, are exhaustible.
It is estimated that if we continue to use coal at the present rate, the available coal reserve
will exhaust in the present century itself. India produces petroleum which fulfills only
half of our requirement and the remaining half is met by importing from other countries.
 Any energy source which provides alternate to fossil fuel is called alternate source of
energy. India is now promoting many alternate renewable energy sources in order to meet
the increasing demands of the increasing population.

EXERCISE
Q.1: Multiple Choice Questions
1. Identify the Non-renewable source of energy from the following
(a) Coal (b) Fuel Cells (c) Wind Power (d) Wave Power.
2. Which of the following is a disadvantage of most of the renewable energy sources?
a. Highly polluting
b. High waste disposal cost
c. Unreliable supply
d. High running cost.
3. Natural geysers which operate due to geothermal energy are present in
a. Manikaran in Kullu
b. Sohana in Haryana
c. None of them
d. Both of these.
4. Which of the following types of coal has maximum carbon and calorific value?
(a) Anthracite (b) Bituminous (c) Lignite (d) Wood Coal.
5. Nuclear energy can be generated by
(a) Nuclear Fission (b) Nuclear Fusion (c) Both of these (d) None of these.
6. Out of the following the alternate source of energy is
(a) Coal (b) Petrol (c) Diesel (d) Nuclear Fuel.
7. Combustion of bio-gas is possible due to the following component
(a) Methane (b) Ethane (c) Propane (d) NO.
8. Our cooking gas contains
(a) CNG (b) LPG (c) LNG (d) None.
9. The burning of fossil fuels releases large amount of
a. Nitrogen into atmosphere
b. Sulphur into atmosphere
c. Carbon dioxide into atmosphere
d. Oxygen into atmosphere

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10. The fossil fuel that is derived from the dead remains of plants that grew some 250 million
years ago is
(a) Petroleum (b) Natural gas (c) Coal (d) LPG.
11. Which is the list of renewable resources?
(a) Petroleum, Geothermal, Wind
(b) Biomass, Geothermal, Hydropower
(c) Natural gas, Wind, Biomass
(d) Hydropower, Solar, Wind energy
12. Energy produced from the heat inside the earth is
(a) Natural gas (b) Geothermal (c) Petroleum (d) Terrathermal.
13. Energy in the rays from the sun is called
(a) Solar Energy (b) Wind Energy (c) Tidal Energy (d) Hydrogen Energy.
14. A liquid fuel that was formed from the ancient remains of sea plants and animals is
(a) Natural gas (b) Petroleum (c) Geothermal Energy (d) Coal.
15. A resource that cannot be replaced in a reasonably short time is usually referred to as
(a) Renewable (b) Non-renewable (c) Natural (d) Man made.
Answers:
1. A 2. C 3. D 4. A 5. C 6. D 7. B 8. B
9. B 10. C 11. D 12. B 13. A 14. B 15. B

Q.2: Fill in the blanks

1. …………………… resources are inexhaustible resources which can be generated within
a given span of time.
2. Ocean tides are produced by gravitational forces of ………….. and ……………..
3. In India …………………… deltas are the tidal power sites.
4. For operating Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion a difference of ……….. 0C is required
between surface and deeper water of ocean.
5. …………… Crops are latex containing plants rich in hydrocarbons.
6. Nuclear energy by nuclear fission is generated when certain isotopes are bombarded by
…………………………
7. 95% of natural gas is …………………
8. Winds must have a speed of ……………. m/s to turn the turbines efficiently.
9. ………………….. is commonly used as a nuclear fuel in a nuclear reactor.
10. Biogas is principally a mixture of ………………… and ………………
11. ………………… is added to LPG for detection of any leakage.

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12. Coal, Petroleum and Natural gas are …………………. Fuels.

13. Solar cells use the power supplied by the ………………….
14. The highest percentage of carbon is present in ………………….. Coal.
15. Common energy source in Indian village is……………………………….

Answers:

1. Renewable 2. Sun, Moon 3. Sunderbans 4. 20 5. Petro

6. Neutron 7. Methane (CH4) 8. 4.2 m/s 9. Uranium 10. Methane and Hydrogen
11. Mercaptan 12. Fossil 13. Sunlight 14. Anthracite 15. Wood and animal dung

Q.3: Write short notes on the following

1. Energy Resources.
2. Non-conventional source of energy.
3. Different types of Coal.
4. Explain geothermal energy.
5. Differentiate between Renewable and Non-renewable sources of energy.
6. What are the major sources of planet earth?
7. What are fossil fuels? Give three examples of fossil fuels.
8. Are fossil fuels renewable or non-renewable? Give reasons.
9. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of solar and wind energy.
Write an account of the growing energy needs with special reference to India.

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LESSON-8

BIODIVERSITY
Dr. Rajwant Kaur
Assistant Professor,
S.G.T.B.Khalsa College,
University of Delhi

INTRODUCTION
Biodiversity literally means diversity of life that exists on earth. The term biodiversity was
given by Walter G. Rosen (1985) as a compound word for the term 'Biological Diversity'
originally proposed by Lovejoy (1980) as the number of species in a community. Biodiversity
has been defined variously depending upon the objectives of the study. Its definitions vary in
their scope from simply referring it to the number of species present in an area, to the variety
and variability of life and its processes that exist on earth. It occurs at all the levels of
biological organization beginning from the level of population to the level of biosphere.
Therefore, it can be defined as the variation and the variability presenting the living world
(the biosphere) within and among the populations, species, or the ecosystems. It can be
measured at different levels of biological organization. Mostly it is studied at three levels,
genetic, species, and ecosystem levels. At each level, it can be studied at any spatial scale viz.
small local area, landscape, geographical regions like continents, or the whole earth.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE
After going through the section, you will be able to understand
 the term biodiversity.
 the difference between genetic, species and ecosystem biodiversity
 which are the different biogeographic zones in India and how it has makes India a
megadiversity nation
 the concept of Biodiversity Hotspots
Levels of biological diversity:
Genetic diversity
It is the variation in the genetic material among organisms of a species. It is found both
within as well as between populations of a species. For example, variation within and
between populations of humans (Homo sapiens) found in different continents like Asia, and
Africa, or various varieties of rice (Oryza sativa), or mango (Mangifera indica). This
variation is attributed to the differences in the genetic make-up (nucleotide sequence of
DNA)of organisms of species. This involves occurrence of variety of versions of a gene
(alleles), and also numerous combinations of different genes among individuals of a species.
Sources of this variation include phenomenon like genetic recombination (meiosis, crossing

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over, and sexual reproduction) and spontaneous mutations in the DNA. Therefore, no two
individuals of a population are ever identical (unless they are identical twins); there is always
slight difference in their genetic make-up. This variation forms the basis for natural selection
and adaptations to changing environmental conditions and therefore, is highly important for
survival of a species. Such that, if in future, there is an outbreak of any disease in a crop, all
plants will be affected because all are more or less genetically similar. Genetic diversity is
also crucial for evolution of new species.
Species diversity
It refers to the variety of species present in a community. However, not all the species present
in a community are found in equal proportions; usually a few are relatively more abundant
and most are less abundant. Therefore, the species diversity of an area or a community has
two components, a) species richness or variety component, that represents the total number
of species per unit area (species density), and b) the relative abundance or apportionment
component that represents the relative proportion of each species in an area (i.e. number of
individuals of each species are also considered to estimate relative abundance of each species
over others in an area).The second component is very important to be included while
comparing two communities for species diversity. Imagine two communities having equal
number of species per unit area for example 5, however community 1 has 10 individuals of
each species (total 50 individuals), while community 2 has 30 individuals of one species and
5 individuals of each of the rest four species. So, though the two communities have same
species richness but they differ in relative proportion of each species or in other words,
community 2 is less even in terms of distribution of species over number of individuals
(Fig.1). This property of a community is also called as species evenness.
Species richness is usually calculated as either species density, or by using Margalef’s
index(D)
1
ln
where S is the total number of species and N is the total number of individuals sampled.
There are several indices to calculate species relative abundance component of diversity. For
example,
Shannon-Wiener Index (Hˊ)

ˊ ln

And Simpson’s index (L)

Where s is the number of species; pi is the proportion of individuals found in the ith species
(i.e. / ; is the number of individuals of ith species, and N is the total number of
individuals).These two indices are the most commonly used indices to compute species

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diversity as they consider species richness as well as relative abundance of species. Shannon-
Wiener index (Hˊ) ranges from 0 to 1, with high values indicating higher species diversity
and lower dominance. On the other hand, Simpson’s index is based on the probability of
finding two individuals belonging to the same species, from a community upon random
sampling. So, its value ranges from 0 to 1, but unlike Shannon-Wiener index, the lower the
value of L, the higher would be the species diversity and lower would be the dominance.
Species diversity is of three types depending upon the spatial scale: i) Alpha-(α)-diversity is
the species diversity within a community, ii) Beta-(β)-diversity is the measure of variation in
species diversity between two or more adjacent communities, and iii) Gamma-(γ)-diversity is
represented as total number of species in a landscape or geographic region.

Figure 1 Hypothetical representation where community 1 has equal proportion

of each species while community 2 shows unequal proportion of species.

Ecosystem diversity
It is the measure of ecological variation. It includes variation within an ecosystem in terms of
variety of niches, trophic levels, interactions among organisms viz. parasitism, predation,
mutualism, etc. and ecological processes that are vital for sustaining ecosystems. For
example, a forest community is more ecologically diverse than a wheat field because it has
variety of interactions among different species, different species are having different trophic
positions and functions.
It also includes variation in terms of variety of ecosystems found within larger geographical
region like forests, prairies, deserts, freshwater wetlands, lakes, rivers, coral reefs, estuaries
etc. in a landscape, country, sub-continent, or a continent. For example, India has rich
ecological diversity.
Biogeographic zones of India
Biogeography is the study of distribution of biological species and ecosystems in
geographical space and geological time. Organisms and the biological communities often

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vary in a regular manner along geographic gradients of latitude, and altitude creating
gradients of climatic conditions (temperature and rainfall). Also the geographical barriers like
seas, oceans, mountains affect distribution of organisms. India represents a large geographical
region (area 3.28 million sq. km) and is the seventh largest country in the world. India
exhibits a great variety of climatic conditions owing to its geographical position w.r.t. equator
and proximity to seas, geographical extent (latitudinal variation), and topography (altitudinal
variation). It lies in the northern hemisphere extending between 8º04' N - 37º06' N latitudes
and 68º07' E - 97º25' E longitudes. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean in the south, Arabian
Sea in the west, Bay of Bengal in the east and the Himalayan mountain range in the north.
Most part of India is situated in tropical to subtropical zone, that results in conducive
temperatures for plant growth and development. The rainfall, second important climatic
factor, also varies hugely in different parts of the country. India receives rains from the
southwest monsoons originating in the Arabian Sea as well as the Bay of Bengal. The range
of topography, further affects temperature and rainfall in different parts of the country.
Consequently, a great variety of climates are found across the country and this has resulted in
great variety of plant and animal species, communities, habitats, or ecosystems (biological
diversity) on the Indian subcontinent. Thus, India is has been divided into 10 bio-geographic
zones such that each biogeographic zone represents a geographical area having similar
species of plants and animals, communities, ecosystems, and ecology. Each biogeographic
zone is further divided into biotic provinces and each biotic province contains different
biomes. Rodgers and Panwar (1988), first described 10 biogeographic zones and 25 biotic
provinces in India. Rodgers, Panwar and Mathur (2002), revised this classification and
defined 10 biogeographic zones and 27 biotic provinces (Fig. 2; Table 1).

Figure 2 Biogeographic zones of India. (Source: Rodgers et al., 2000)

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Zone 1: The Trans-Himalayan

This zone is located in the rain-shadow zone beyond the Greater Himalaya covering 5.6% of
total geographical area of India. It is divided into three biotic provinces: Ladakh Mountains
(Kargil, Nubra, and Zanskar in Jammu & Kashmir, and Lahaul and Spiti in Himachal
Pradesh), Tibetan Plateau (eastern Ladakh and adjacent parts of Spiti), and Sikkim Plateau.
The Greater Himalaya blocks the annual monsoon-bearing winds, creating arid conditions on
the leeward side. This zone receives annual rainfall of less than 350 mm, and has average
elevation of 5000 - 6000 m. This zone is referred as 'high-altitude cold desert' with
characteristic sparse tree-less vegetation viz. Alpine steppe (Stipa purpurea, Artimisia
capillaris); Alpine herbaceous formations (Caragana-Lonicera-Artimisia). Characteristic
fauna of this zone includes wild sheep and goat species, wild yak, ass, gazelle, and four-
horned antelope, snow leopard, Tibetan wolf, endemic lesser cat (Pallas' cat), Himalayan
marmot, and black-necked crane.
Zone 2: The Himalaya
The Himalaya (Sanskrit meaning the abode of snow) are the mountain range that separates
plains of Indian subcontinent from Tibetan plateau. They are spread over 2,400 km in length
across nations of Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, China, Bhutan, and Myanmar. In India,
the Himalaya are spread over states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Sikkim, West Bengal, and Arunanchal Pradesh, accounting 6.41 % of India's total geographic
area. This zone is divided into four biotic provinces - North-West Himalaya, West Himalaya,
Central Himalaya, and East Himalaya. The annual mean temperature ranges from -30º C to
25º C. The annual precipitation ranges from 1500 mm in the west to > 4800 mm in the east.
The Himalaya exhibit longest altitudinal gradient of earth (0 - 8,850 m) and so has variety of
ecosystems ranging from species-rich tropical and sub-tropical broadleaf wet forests
equivalent to tropical rain forests (Myristica, Artocarpus, Syzigium, Mesua) at <1000 m
elevations in Eastern Himalaya and dry forests (Shorearobusta, Terminalia, Acacia catechu,
Dalbergia); at around 2000 m elevation, sub-tropical mixed conifer forest (Pine-Oak forest);
at 2000 - 3800 m, the moist temperate coniferous forests (Blue pine, deodar, Spruce, Silver
fir) and moist temperate broadleaf forest (Oak, Rhododendron, Aesculus indica, Acer) occur;
at 3800 - 4500 m elevation, sub-alpine shrublands and meadows (Rhododendron) occur; and
at 4500 - 5000 m elevation alpine scrubs (dwarf Rhododendron, Cassiope, Juniper) occur.
Beyond 5000 m, snow and ice is present even through the summers. Characteristic fauna of
the Himalayan zone includes Tibetan Ass, Sikkim Stag, Himalayan Musk Deer, Sambar,
Tahr, Beharal, Ibex, Mishmi Takin, Sun Bear, Wild Boar, Gibbon, Binturong, Red Pandas,
Lesser Cats, Jungle Fowl, Markhor, Serow, Koklas, and Himalayan Monal.
Zone 3: The Indian Desert
This zone occupies northwestern India spreading over western Rajasthan and the Rann of
Kutchh in Gujarat, accounting 6.5 % of India's total geographical area. This zone is divided
into two biotic provinces - the Thar desert and the Kutch. The Thar desert is spread partly
over northwestern India (85%) and Eastern Pakistan (15%). The southwest monsoon that

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