An

Industrial Training Report

On
“CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES”
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the Requirements for the award of the degree of
DIPLOMA
IN
CIVILENGINEERING
BY
H. TEJESH 21386-C-023
B. PRAVEEN 21386-C-005
M. HARSHA VARDHAN 21386-C-037
N. OBULESU 21386-C-038
MD K. AZMAL 21386-C-050
U. SANJAY 21386-C-059
Under the esteemed guidance of

Smt. DPA. LAKSHMI..,M.Tech

R&B DEPARTMENT,
Assistant Executive Engineer,
Ananatapur.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

P.V.K.K. INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE (CODE::386)
AnISO 9001 -2008 Certified Institute
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi& Affiliated to SBTET,Vijayawada.)Sanapa Road,
Rudrampeta, Ananthapuramu -515001. (A. P.)

2023-2024
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
P.V.K.K. INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE(CODE::386)
AnISO 9001 -2008 Certified Institute
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to SBTET, Vijayawada.)
SanapaRoad, Rudrampeta,Ananthapuramu-515001.(A.P)

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this is a bonafide report of the Industrial training
on“CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES”
submittedby
H. TEJESH 21386-C-023
B. PRAVEEN 21386-C-005
M. HARSHA VARDHAN 21386-C-037
N. OBULESU 21386-C-038
MD K. AZMAL 21386-C-050
U. SANJAY 21386-C-059

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of diploma in Civil

Engineering to the P.V.K.K Institute of Technology, Ananthapuramu, as a
record of bonafide work carried out by them under the Esteemed Guidance of
Smt.DPA.LAKSHMI..,M.Tech R&B DEPARTMENT,Assistant
Executive Engineer,Ananatapur.

Signatureof theGuide SignatureoftheH.O.D

Smt.DPA.LAKSHMI M.Tech Smt. G.N.S.VARSHA M.Tech,(Ph.D)
Assistant Executive Engineer, Assistant professor
R&B Department P.V.K.K InstituteofTechnology
Ananthapuramu. Polytechnic college,
Ananthapuramu

External viva voice held on __________________ External examiner

 GOVERNMENT OF ANDHRAPRADESH
R&B DEPARTMENT
Ananthapuramu -515001, Andhra Pradesh

CERTIFICATE
This to certify the below students belongs to IIIrd Year Diploma in, Civil Engineering
Department of PVKK Institute of Technology Polytechnic College.

H.TEJESH 21386-C-023
B.PRAVEEN 21386-C-005
M.HARSHA VARDHAN 21386-C-037
N.OBULESU 21386-C-038
MD K. AZMAL 21386-C-050
U.SANJAI 21386-C-059

Has successfully completed Industrial Training Period from 01-06-2023 to 30-11-2023

in Water Resources Department, Ananthapuramu. and completed satisfactorily.

Place: Assistant Executive Engineer,

Date
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We render our deep sense of appreciation for the guidance rendered
by Smt.DPA.LAKSHMI garu M.Tech, Assistant Executive Engineer,
R&B Department, Anantapur.

We offer thanks to S m t .G.N.S.VARSHA garu, M.Tech,(Ph.D) The

Head of the Department of CIVIL ,P.V.K.K.IT, Polytechnic college for
her constant help and guidance.

W e offer sincere thanks to Sri. Dr.G.N.S.VAIBHAV garu, Principal

of P.V.K.KIT, Polytechnic College for permitting us to undergo industrial
training.

We express our heartily thanks to all those who contributed for the
successful completion of our industrial training report.

Last but not the least we would like to thanks all our friends who gave
constructive suggestions and encouragement throughout the training.

By

H. TEJESH 21386-C-023
B. PRAVEEN 21386-C-005
M. HARSHA VARDHAN 21386-C-037
N. OBULESU 21386-C-038
MD K. AZMAL 21386-C-050
U. SANJAY 21386-C-059
 ABSTRACT

This industrial training report covers the experience garnered at “ROADS&BUILDINGS

DEPARTMENT” during our six months of industrial training.

In our training we have to discussing about the constructions of bridges and culverts and their
designing procedure and their construction materials etc, in anatapur, sanapa, rudhrampeta
bypass etc.

When it is required to construct a road that intersects with a natural stream flow or a water
canal, the major problem shows as how to the keep the stream flows without threatening the
roadway and the passing vehicles due to water rising when flooding at raining seasons or
overflow in the canal. For this purpose, a culvert is must be constructed in the intersections.
A culvert is a structure designed to allow passing of water through

Culverts and bridges are the structures which are used when the path of water in the natural
stream crosses roads, railway lines, flyovers etc. They are normally cheaper than bridges,
which make them the natural stream passes through channels.

The structural elements are designed to withstand the maximum bending moments and shear
forces respectively. In the present study, this paper provides full discussion on the provisions
in the codes, considerations and justifications of all the above aspects of design
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.NO Name of the chapter Page no

1 Introduction 1
Types of culverts
2.1 Pipe culvert (single or multiple)
2.2 Pipe-Arch culvert (single or multiple)
2 2.3 Box culvert (single or multiple) 2-7
2.4 Arch culvert
2.5 Bridge culvert
2.6 Metal box culvert

MATERIALS USED FOR

CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS
3.1 Steel
3.2 Structural Steel Plate (SSP)
3 8-11
3.3 Corrugated Steel Pipe (CSP)
3.4 Aluminum pipes
3.5 Concrete
3.6 High - density polyethylene (HDPE)

CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE OF
CULVERTS
4.1 Earth work excavation for culverts
4 12-19
4.2 reinforcement and form work
4.3 placing of concrete
4.4 curing of culvert

Environmental impacts
5.1 Fish passage
5 20-22
5.2 Minimum energy loss
5.3 Forestry
6 Failures 23-24
7 Bridge construction 25-27

Materials and machinery used for bridge

construction
8.1 aggregate
8.2 sand
8.3 steel
8 8.4 stranded jacks 28-35
8.5 lifting pumps
8.6 hydraulic pumps
8.7 high tonnage cylinders

Construction procedure for bridge

9.1 finalizing the bridge
9.2 deck slab
9.3 Super structure
9.4 sub structure
9.5 piers
9 36-41
9.6 abutments
9.7 bearings
9.8 girders
9.9 arch
9.10 trusses
9.11 cables

42-44
10 Difference between bridge and culvert

11 conclusion 45
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NAME OF TABLE PAGE NO:

NO
1 Difference Between Bridge And Culvert 41-43

LIST OF FIGURES

s.no Name of the figure Page

no:
1 Pipe Culvert 2

2 Pipe-Arch Culvert 3

3 Box Culvert 4

4 Arch Culvert 5

5 Bridge Culvert 6

6 Metal Box Culvert 7

7 Steel 8

8 Structural Steel Plate (Ssp) 9

9 Aluminum Pipes 10

10 Concrete 10

11 High - Density Polyethylene (HDPE) 11

12 Earth Work Excavation For Culverts 12

13 Reinforcement And Form Work 13-15

14 Placing Of Concrete 16

15 Curing Of Culvert 18

16 Environmental Impacts
17 Fish Passage 21

18 Minimum Energy Loss 22

19 Failure of culvert 25

20 Aggregate 28
21 Sand 28

22 Steel 29

23 Stranded Jacks 30

24 Lifting Pumps 30

25 Hydraulic Pumps 31

26 High Tonnage Cylinders 31

27 Design Of Bridge 32

28 Deck Slab 35

29 Super Structure 36

30 Sub Structure 36

31 Piers 37

32 Abutments 37

33 Bearings 38

34 Girders 38

35 Arch 39

36 Trusses 39

37 Cables 40
 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

A culvert is a structure that channels water past an obstacle or to a subterranean waterway.

Typically embedded so as to be surrounded by soil, a culvert may be made from a reinforced

concrete or other material. In the United Kingdom, the word can also be used for a longer
artificially buried watercourse.

Culverts are commonly used both as cross-drains to relieve drainage of ditches at the roadside,
and to pass water under a road at natural drainage and stream crossings. When they are found
beneath roads, they are frequently empty.

A culvert may also be a bridge-like structure designed to allow vehicle or pedestrian traffic to
cross over the waterway while allowing adequate passage for the water.

Dry culverts are used to channel a fire hose beneath a noise barrier for the ease

of firefighting along a highway without the need or danger of placing hydrants along the
roadway itself.

Culverts come in many sizes and shapes including round, elliptical, flat-bottomed, open-
bottomed, pear-shaped, and box-like constructions. The culvert type and shape selection are
based on a few factors including requirements for hydraulic performance, limitations on
upstream water surface elevation, and roadway embankment height.

The process of removing culverts to restore an open-air watercourse is known as daylighting.

In the UK, the practice is also known as deculverting.

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

CHAPTER 2
TYPES OF CULVERTS
The classifications of culverts are mostly based on following conditions:
• Pipe culvert (single or multiple)
• Pipe-Arch culvert (single or multiple)
• Box culvert (single or multiple)
• Arch culvert
• Bridge culvert
• Metal box culvert

2.1 Pipe culvert:

Fig 1: Pipe culvert

Pipe culverts are the most common types of culverts due to competitive price and easy
installation. They are found in different shapes such as circular, elliptical and pipe arch.
Generally, their shapes depend on site conditions and constraints. Pipe culverts on a small
scale represent normal pipes like concrete pipes.

2.1.1 Advantages of Pipe Culvert

The main features of pipe culverts are:

• It can be constructed of any desired strength by proper mix design, thickness, and

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

reinforcement.
• They are economical.
• These pipes can withhold any tensile stresses and compressive stresses.
• The crossing of water is under the structure.

2.1.2 Disadvantages of Pipe Culvert

The main disadvantage of pipe culvert is that it can be easily corroded at the crown because
of bacteria‘s organic matter and release of harmful gas, which is known as Crown corrosion.

2.2 Pipe-Arch culvert:

Fig 2: Pipe-Arch culvert:

Arch culverts are suitable for large waterway opening where fishes can be provided with a
greater hydraulic advantage. Moreover, they provide low clearance and are definitely, much
artistic. Pipe arches are particularly useful for sites where headroom is limited and also have
a hydraulic advantage at low flows.

2.2.1 Advantages of Pipe-Arch Culvert

The features of pipe arch culverts are:

• Limited headroom condition
• Improved hydraulic capacity at a low flow
• Aesthetic shape and appearance

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

• Lightweight
• Easy to install

2.3 Box Culvert

Box culverts are made up of concrete and especially, RCC (Reinforced Concrete). The most
challenging part in constructing a box culvert is that dry surface is needed for installing it.
However, due to the strength of the concrete floor, water direction can be changed when a
large amount of water is expected. This feature makes box culverts, one of the most commonly
found types of the culvert.

Fig 3: Box Culvert

2.3.1 Advantages of Box Culvert

Box Culverts are economical for the reasons mentioned below:

• The box culvert is a rigid frame structure and very simple in construction.
• It is Suitable for non-perennial streams where scrub depth is not significant, but the
soil is weak.
• The bottom slab of the box culvert reduces pressure on the soil.
• Box culverts are economical due to their rigidity and monolithic action and separate
foundations are not required.
• It is used in special cases, weak foundation.

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

2.4 Arch Culvert

An arch culvert is made up of metal, stone masonry, concrete, RCC etc. Construction does
not take a lot of time and unlike box culvert, water diversion is not necessary, as it can be
installed without disturbing the water current. Thus, it can be termed as a Low-Profile Culvert.
This type of culvert maintains the natural integrity of the wash bed.

Fig 4: Arch Culvert

2.4.1 Advantages of Arch Culvert

The advantages of using arch culverts over traditional box culverts and pipe culverts are as
follows:
• Cost savings
• Accelerated construction schedule
• Greater hydraulic efficiency
• Pleasing aesthetics
• Design-build advantage

2.5 Bridge Culvert

Bridge culverts serve a dual purpose. It acts both as a bridge and a culvert. Generally,

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

rectangular in shape, bridge culverts are constructed on rivers and canals. A foundation is laid
under the ground level and pavement surface is laid on top of the series of culverts. Generally,
we can term it as a Multi-Purpose culvert.

Fig 5: Bridge Culvert

2.5.1 Advantages of Bridge Culvert

Following are the main features of bridge culvert:

• Extension of the network by acting as a repeater
• Very strong
• Allows traffic to pass on it
• Highly strong foundation
• Most expensive river crossings

2.6 Metal Box Culvert

The metal box culvert is the economic alternative of the bridge. These bridges are
manufactured from a standard structural plate or deep-corrugated structural plate. They are
the perfect bridge replacement maintaining the same road grade level.

Corrugated metal box culverts provide large cross-sectional areas for water conveyance
where vertical clearance is limited. Because they have nearly flat crowns and large widths

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

compared with their heights, they behave differently from conventional metal culverts, and
different methods are required for their design.

Fig 6: Metal Box Culvert

2.6.1 Advantages of Metal Box Culvert

The advantages are as follows:

• Durability
• Shorter construction period and easy installation
• Deformation ability
• Long service life
• The box culvert is a rigid frame structure and very simple in construction.
• It is Suitable for non-perennial streams where scrub depth is not significant but the
soil is weak.
• The bottom slab of the box culvert reduces pressure on the soil.

Box Culverts are used for drainage purposes. They are also used to make tunnels and used for
storage as well as material handling. Some culverts act as bridges. They easily accommodate
both pedestrian and vehicular traffic. We can choose the kind of culvert in accordance with
our specific needs. With precast box culverts, factors such as rain, site condition, temperature,
etc do not matter.

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS FOR CULVERT CONSTRUCTION
Surrounded by soil, a culvert may be made from a pipe, reinforced concrete or other material.
Materials for culvert construction are based on the following materials present below which
improves the quality of it.
The selection of material depends on:
• Structure strength
• Hydraulic efficiency
• Installation, local construction practices
• Durability
• Cost
The main materials for culvert construction are:
• Steel
• Structural Steel Plate (SSP)
• Corrugated Steel Pipe (CSP)
• Aluminum pipes
• Concrete
• High - density polyethylene (HDPE)
These main materials are discussed below with their advantages and benefits.

3.1 Steel

Fig 7: Steel

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

Steel, that is used in constructing culverts, are mainly Structural Steel Plate (SSP) and
Corrugated Steel Pipe (CSP).

3.1.1 Structural Steel Plate (SSP)

Fig 8: Structural Steel Plate (SSP)

Structural Steel Plate are used to construct arch culverts and metal box culverts. Structural
Steel Plate (SSP) provides greater corrosion resistance and are stronger than normal carbon
steel. SSP is also very strong, and it serves the purpose of building a highly durable culvert.
SSP steels meet the requirement to make a good culvert. The SSP specification is intended
primarily for use in members, where added durability and strength management is critical.

3.1.2 Corrugated Steel Pipe (CSP)

Corrugated Steel Pipe or Corrugated Metal Pipes (CMP) are used in pipe culverts where
the structure of the culvert is round in shape. It is combined with strength and high power.
CSP will not break down under the impact of loads due to the strength and the flexibility of
the pipe. With a variety of pipe shapes and options, corrugated steel pipe (CSP) products offer
users, the greatest flexibility to fit certain requirements.

3.1.3 Aluminum Pipes

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

Fig 10: Aluminum Pipes

Aluminum pipes can be constructed from structural plates or from a single piece of aluminum.
Aluminum is mainly used to construct metal box culverts. Aluminum pipes are lightweight
and offer good corrosion resistance. The advantages of using aluminum pipes are as follows:
• Lightweight
• Corrosion Resistance
• Ductility
• Recyclability

3.2 Concrete

Fig 11: Concrete

Concrete (reinforced) box culverts are the most common culverts that are found in both rural

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

and urban areas. Concrete pipes used in culvert has a history, an industry that today produces
a product for applications. With strength and durability, concrete has the lower environmental
impact that provides the following benefits:
• Increased cost savings
• Quicker installation
• Lower environmental impact

3.3 High - Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

Fig 12: High - Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

High - density polyethylene (HDPE) is used for its large ratio of strength and durability.
Specific standard and project requirements are engineered for gravity flow systems, which
makes HDPE a good material for construction of culverts, especially pipe culverts. High -
density polyethylene (HDPE) provides:
• Lightweight yet very strong
• Greater impact resistant.
• Long lasting and weather resistant
• Resistance towards insects and great for underground delivery of water
• Easily molded into nearly any shape
Can HDPE be used for a culvert?
Proven & Accepted. Most state transportation departments, regional agencies, and local
municipalities have approved corrugated plastic pipe for culverts, median and edge drains and
other applications. HDPE corrugated pipe meets AASHTO M252 or M294, depending on the
diameter.

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

CHAPTER 4
CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE OF CULVERTS

Construction or installation at a culvert site generally results in disturbance of the site's

soil, stream banks, or stream bed, and can result in the occurrence of unwanted problems such
as scour holes or slumping of banks adjacent to the culvert structure.

Culverts must be properly sized and installed and protected from erosion and scour. Many
U.S. agencies such as the Federal Highway Administration, Bureau of Land Management,
and Environmental Protection Agency, as well as state or local authorities, require that
culverts be designed and engineered to meet specific federal, state, or local regulations and
guidelines to ensure proper function and to protect against culvert failures.

Culverts are classified by standards for their load capacities, water flow capacities, life spans,
and installation requirements for bedding and backfill.Most agencies adhere to these standards
when designing, engineering, and specifying culverts.

4.1 Earth Work Excavation For Culverts

Fig 13: Earth Work Excavation For Culverts

Earthwork and Excavation for Box Culvert Raft:

• The excavation shall be done with safe side slopes per ground conditions, and
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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

sufficient margin for the minimum working area should be left (minimum 300mm).
• JCB or excavator shall carry out excavation, and excavated material shall be disposed
of using tractor trolleys or dumpers as directed.
• The pit level reached up to the PCC bottom shall be properly levelled and compacted
before laying Plain Cement Concrete.
• The SBC at the founding level shall be checked for the design SBC as given in the
construction drawing with the help of the Plate Load Test for the individual culvert.
• If the actual SBC is less than the design SBC, then granular filling up to thickness as
specified in the drawing shall be done in layers and compacted to 95% of modified
proctor density.

4.2 Reinforcement Binding for Box Culvert Raft:

• As per the approved construction drawings and bar bending schedule, reinforcement
of the raft is pre-straightened /cut/bent in the rebar yard.
• Reinforcement bars shall be shifted to the location in advance.
• Marking for the raft shall be done on the levelling course.
• Rebar shall be tied as per approved drawings and bar bending schedule. Chairs shall
be provided at appropriate places to avoid the sagging of the top reinforcement mesh.
• After completion of top reinforcement, erect the vertical wall bars with
binders/spacers.
• Necessary pipe support with an inclined member shall be provided to the vertical bars
temporarily from sides to avoid tilting of rods.

Fig 14: Reinforcement Binding for Box Culvert Raft:

4.3 Box Culvert Wall Formwork:

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

After completion of reinforcement work, forms in panels shall be erected, aligned and fixed
in position as required against the already tied reinforcement.
The forms shall be placed over the seating channel fixed by tie bolts through left-out holes in
an already concreted straight portion over the box culvert bottom haunch.

The forms shall be side supported with the help of struts taking reaction from the channel
placed against the embedded reinforcement in the already concreted raft.
There shall be retrievable tie rods passing through HDPE conduit pipes holding forms from
both faces of walls.

The line and level shall be achieved as per approved drawings and then cleared the wall for
concreting.

The schematic wall formwork arrangement shown above is only to support the methodology,
whereas the actual execution shall be done as per the final formwork/staging drawing issued
by the engineering department.

Fig 14.1: Box Culvert Wall Formwork:

4.4 Deck Slab Formwork & Reinforcement:

• Parallel with girder erection, fix the balance wall inner side shutter and align by taking
support from the staging erected as per staging and formwork drawing of box culvert.
• Apply shuttering oil to the formwork before fixing it in position.

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

• Fix soffit shuttering over cross girder, check the soffit shuttering level and introduce
necessary wooden packing below the shuttering joints for having provision for
deshuttering and levelling.
•
• Apply shuttering oil over the soffit shuttering and start reinforcement work as per the
Box culvert GFC drawings.
• Fix the prefabricated reinforcement bars for the deck and balance wall portion of the
wall as per GFC drawings.
• Reinforcement cover shall be maintained as per GFC drawing by means of cover
blocks placed at suitable intervals. The cover Block shall be of the same grade of
concrete as used in the deck.
• Fix the reinforcement bars for the crash barrier reinforcement as per the box culvert
GFC drawing.
• Fix the side/end shutter of the wall and deck after applying shuttering releasing agent.
• Foams or masking tape shall be used in joints to keep the formwork joints leak-proof.
• Support the side/end shutters by inclined support members, as shown in the
formwork/staging drawing.

Fig 14.2: Deck Slab Formwork & Reinforcement:

Box Culvert Deck Slab Concreting:

After checking of staging, formwork and reinforcement, cast the wall and deck. Concrete shall
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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

be placed in a single continuous pour in such a sequence, avoiding the formation of cold joints.
Concrete shall be produced in the controlled batching plant as per approved Mix Design and
shall be transported to the site by Transit Mixer.

4.5 PLACING OF CONCRETE

Fig 15: Placing Of Concrete

The Site Preparation Process

It is important to ensure that the site where the culvert will be installed is properly prepared
before beginning any concrete culvert installation procedures. The following are some of the
steps that should be taken to help ensure a successful installation:

1. Remove any existing vegetation or debris from the area. This will help limit damage
to the culvert during installation.
2. Level the area with a shovel or trowel. This will help ensure the proper placement of
the culvert later on.
3. Mark the location of the culvert with flagging or stakes. This will help you visualize
where it should be placed during installation.
4. Excavate a trench at the desired location and place reinforcing steel bars at both ends
of the trench. The bars should be at least 3 feet wide and 12 inches deep. Make sure
to leave a 2-foot gap between bars at both ends of the trench.

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

5. Place the concrete culvert in the trench, using a crane or heavy equipment if necessary.
Make sure to keep the gap between bars open at both ends of the trench while placing
the culvert in place. Pour concrete around the perimeter of the culvert until it reaches
full height, then close up the gap between bars.
6. Drive wooden stakes into the ground at each end of the culvert to help support it.
Finish the installation by leveling the ground around the culvert and securing the stakes with
wire ties or concrete screws.

The benefits of using a concrete culvert

A concrete culvert is an excellent way to improve your drainage system and protect your
property. Here are some of the benefits of using a concrete culvert:

• A concrete culvert is sturdy and can last for many years.

• It is easy to install and maintain.
• It can reduce water damage and flooding.
• It is suitable for a variety of soil types.
• It is a cost-effective solution.
• It can be used in both urban and rural areas.
If you are interested in using a concrete culvert to improve your drainage system, contact a
professional contractor.

Digging the Culvert

There are a few things you need to do before digging your culvert. First, determine where the
culvert will be installed. It is important to note the following:

• The culvert should be placed below the frost line. This is the line where the ground
freezes in winter and thaws in summer. Below the frost line, water can seep into the
ground and cause damage to foundations and pipes.
• The culvert should be placed away from trees, power lines, and other structures. The
closer the culvert is to these objects, the more likely it is that water will flow into or
over them during heavy rains or floods.
• Culverts should not be placed in ditches that are too deep or wide. The water in a ditch

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

can easily fill a culvert and cause it to overflow.

• Culverts should be placed at an angle so that water will flow away from the structure.
This will help to prevent flooding.

Once you have determined where the culvert will be installed, you need to mark the location
with a flag or rock. Next, dig a trench around the culvert.

The trench should be at least twice as deep as the height of the culvert. Make sure to fill in
the trench with soil and rocks so that there is no sign that the culvert has been dug.

The Installation Process

When it comes to installing concrete culverts, there are a few key steps that must be followed
in order to ensure a safe and successful installation. In this blog post, we will outline the
general installation process for concrete culverts, starting with the procurement of the correct
materials.

1. Plan your culvert installation: The first step in installing a concrete culvert is to plan
out the installation layout. This will help ensure that the culvert is properly installed
and configured to meet your specific needs.
2. Purchase the materials: Once you have determined the layout of your culvert, it is time
to purchase the materials necessary for its installation. This includes the concrete
culvert itself, as well as any necessary hardware and reinforcements.
3. Install the concrete culvert: Once all of the materials have been purchased and
assembled, it is time to install the concrete culvert. This can be a challenging task, but
with careful planning and execution, it can be done successfully.
4. Inspect and maintenance: Once the concrete culvert has been installed, it is important
to regularly inspect and maintain it in order to ensure its long-term viability. This
includes checking for cracks, corrosion, and other signs of wear and tear.

If you are interested in installing a concrete culvert in your own backyard, be sure to contact
a professional contractor like Hanson Concrete Culverts. Our team of experienced
professionals is prepared to help you plan and install yourculvert in a safe and timely manner.

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Culverts Curing

Fig 16: Culverts Curing

Curing of concrete is one of the most important factors in concrete construction as it is related
to properties such as characteristic strength, permeability, durability, etc.

Further, it is required to do the curing at the right time and a sufficient period of curing is
very important to achieve the exact properties of concrete.

Curing of concrete is done to avoid the evaporation of the water from the concrete when it
getting harden and maintaining the moisture in the concrete surface for hydration reactions.

Concrete curing is the process of maintaining adequate moisture in concrete within a proper
temperature range in order to aid cement hydration at early ages

Further, it is required to maintain the temperature gradient, which is the drop of temperature
per unit length, and the temperature difference between the core and the surface. In general,
temperature differences and gradient is maintained around 20-25 Celsius.

CHAPTER 5

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF CULVERT

5.1 Environmental impacts

Fig 17: Environmental impacts

Safe and stable stream crossings can accommodate wildlife and protect stream health, while
reducing expensive erosion and structural damage. Undersized and poorly placed culverts can
cause problems for water quality and aquatic organisms. Poorly designed culverts can degrade
water quality via scour and erosion, as well as restrict the movement of aquatic organisms
between upstream and downstream habitat. Fish are a common victim in the loss of
habitat due to poorly designed crossing structures.
Culverts that offer adequate aquatic organism passage reduce impediments to movement of
fish, wildlife, and other aquatic life that require instream passage. Poorly designed culverts
are also more apt to become jammed with sediment and debris during medium to large scale
rain events. If the culvert cannot pass the water volume in the stream, then the water may
overflow the road embankment. This may cause significant erosion, ultimately washing out
the culvert. The embankment material that is washed away can clog other structures
downstream, causing them to fail as well. It can also damage crops and property. A properly
sized structure and hard bank armoring can help to alleviate this pressure.
Aquatic organism passage compatible culvert replacement in Franklin, Vermont, just
upstream from Lake Carmi
Culvert style replacement is a widespread practice in stream restoration. Long-term benefits
of this practice include reduced risk of catastrophic failure and improved fish passage. If best
management practices are followed, short-term impacts on the aquatic biology are minimal.

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5.2 Fish passage

Fig 18: Fish passage

While the culvert discharge capacity derives from hydrological and hydraulic engineering
considerations,[10] this results often in large velocities in the barrel, creating a possible fish
passage barrier. Critical culvert parameters in terms of fish passage are the dimensions of the
barrel, particularly its length, cross-sectional shape, and invert slope. The behavioural
response by fish species to culvert dimensions, light conditions, and flow turbulence may play
a role in their swimming ability and culvert passage rate. There is no simple technical means
to ascertain the turbulence characteristics most relevant to fish passage in culverts, but it is
understood that the flow turbulence plays a key role in fish behaviour.[11][12]

The interactions between swimming fish and vortical structures involve a broad range of

relevant length and time scales.[13] Recent discussions emphasised the role of secondary

flow motion, considerations of fish dimensions in relation to the spectrum of turbulence

scales, and the beneficial role of turbulent structures provided that fish are able to exploit
them.[11][14][15][16][17][18][19] The current literature on culvert fish passage focused mostly on
fast-swimming fish species, but a few studies argued for better guidelines for small-bodied
fish including juveniles. Finally, a solid understanding of turbulence typology is a basic
requirement to any successful hydraulic structure design conducive of upstream fish passage.

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5.3 Minimum energy loss culverts

Fig 19: Minimum energy loss culverts

In the coastal plains of Queensland, Australia, torrential rains during the wet season place a
heavy demand on culverts. The natural slope of the flood plains is often very small, and little
fall (or head loss) is permissible in the culverts. Researchers developed and patented the
design procedure of minimum energy loss culverts which yield small afflux.
A minimum energy loss culvert or waterway is a structure designed with the concept of
minimum head loss. The flow in the approach channel is contracted through a streamlined
inlet into the barrel where the channel width is minimum, and then it is expanded in a
streamlined outlet before being finally released into the downstream natural channel. Both the
inlet and the outlet must be streamlined to avoid significant form losses. The barrel invert is
often lowered to increase the discharge capacity.
The concept of minimum energy loss culverts was developed by a shire engineer
in Victoria and a professor at the University of Queensland during the late 1960s. While a
number of small-size structures were designed and built in Victoria, some major structures
were designed, tested and built in south-east Queensland.

5.4 Forestry

In forestry, proper use of cross-drainage culverts can improve water quality while allowing
forestry operations to continue.

CHAPATER 6
FAILURES

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Culvert failures can occur for a wide variety of reasons including maintenance,
environmental, and installation-related failures, functional or process failures related to
capacity and volume causing the erosion of the soil around or under them, and structural or
material failures that cause culverts to fail due to collapse or corrosion of the materials from
which they are made.

If the failure is sudden and catastrophic, it can result in injury or loss of life. Sudden road
collapses are often the result of poorly designed and engineered culvert crossing sites or
unexpected changes in the surrounding environment cause design parameters to be exceeded.
Water passing through undersized culverts will scour away the surrounding soil over time.

This can cause a sudden failure during medium-sized rain events. Accidents from culvert
failure can also occur if a culvert has not been adequately sized and a flood event overwhelms
the culvert, or disrupts the road or railway above it.

Ongoing culvert function without failure depends on proper design and engineering
considerations being given to load, hydraulic flow, surrounding soil analysis, backfill and
bedding compaction, and erosion protection. Improperly designed backfill support around
culverts can result in material collapse or failure from inadequate load support.

For existing culverts which have experienced degradation, loss of structural integrity or need
to meet new codes or standards, rehabilitation using a reline pipe may be preferred versus
replacement.

Sizing of a reline culvert uses the same hydraulic flow design criteria as that of a new culvert
however as the reline culvert is meant to be inserted into an existing culvert or host pipe,
reline installation requires the grouting of the annular space between the host pipe and the
surface of reline pipe typically using a low compression strength grout so as to prevent or
reduce seepage and soil migration.
Grouting also serves as a means in establishing a structural connection between the liner, host
pipe and soil. Depending on the size and annular space to be filled as well as the pipe elevation
between the inlet and outlet, it may be necessary to add grout in multiple stages or "lifts".

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If multiple lifts are required, then a grouting plan is required, which should define the
placement of grout feed tubes, air tubes, type of grout to be used, and if injecting or pumping
grout, then the required developed pressure for injection.

As the diameter of the reline pipe will be smaller than the host pipe, the cross-sectional flow
area will be smaller.

By selecting a reline pipe with a very smooth internal surface with an approximate Hazen-
Williams Friction Factor C value of between 140–150, the decreased flow area can be offset,
and hydraulic flow rates potentially increased by way of reduced surface flow resistance.

Examples of pipe materials with high C-factors are high-density polyethylene (150)
and polyvinyl chloride (140).

Fig 20: Failure Of Culvert

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CHAPTER 7
CONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGE

Selection 0f Site For Bridge

1. The choice of the right site is a crucial decision in the planning and designing of a
bridge.
2. It may not be possible always to have a wide choice of sites for a bridge.
3. This is particularly so in case of bridges in urban areas and flyovers.
4. For river bridges in rural areas, usually a wider choice may be available.
Selection Criteria For Bridge Site

Selection Criteria For Bridge Site

• For selecting a suitable site for a major bridge, the investigating engineer should make
a reconnaissance survey to get impression of the landscape and to decide on the type
of the structure to the site.
• Care should be taken to investigate a number of probable alternative sites and then
decide on the site which is likely to serve the needs of the bridge at the least cost.
• A brief description of the reasons for the selection of a particular site should be
furnished in the investigation report along with salient details of alternative sites
investigated and rejected

Selection Criteria For Bridge Site Preliminary Study(Techno-Economic

Feasibility Survey) Different Studies Performs During Preliminary
SURVEY Are:

• Topography
• Catchment area
• Hydrology
• Geo-technical data
• Seismology
• Navigation
• Construction resources
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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

• Nearby bridges
• Traffic data

Topography

Details can be obtained from Survey of India Map.

In addition, one cross section each across the river at the selected sites should be taken.

Catchment Area

This will also get from the same map (Survey of India) Used mainly for the flood analysis.

Hydrologic Particulars

Study about the low water level, highest flood level , slope of surface of water, flood velocity
and discharge of river.

Data obtained from local enquiries or from the data available for the nearest gauging site
from irrigation or flood control dept.

Geo-Technical And Seismic Data

Study perform to get the stability of the river, location of faults, their activity and their likely
repercussions on a major structure to be put up and particulars of past earthquakes in the site
vicinity.

Study perform also to get soil classification, grain size and depth at which hard strata is likely
to be met with.

Mainly Augur boring test is used to collect the soil samples and further to study its engineering
properties.

Navigational Requirements

Some kind of navigation will exist on almost all major rivers.

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Study investigate about the size, density and volume of traffic of vessels and boats so that it
can be safely cross the river without any nuisance to both the vessels and bridge.

Construction Resources:

Investigation includes availability of quarry, skilled labor and need for special equipment such
as crushers, batching plants, handling equipment etc.

Details Of Other Bridges Across The River

Study conducting mainly to correlate general criteria used for selection of sites and design of
that bridge.

Also to get the behavior of the river at existing bridges on either reach. Will help considerably
in determining the protection works, depth of foundation, type of foundation etc required at
each site.

Traffic Study

If the alternative locations can be separated by a considerable distance, the volume and type
of traffic that will pass at each location may be different in some cases.
Economic Point of View.

Detailed traffic survey have to be conducted to get awareness of growth of traffic, density,
volume and future possibilities of expansion of traffic lanes etc.

CHAPTER 8
MATERIALS USED IN BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

8.1.Aggregate

Fig 21: Aggregate

8.2 SAND

Fig 22: SAND

8.3 STEEL

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Fig 23: STEEL

Stones, Timber, Concrete and Steel are the traditional materials that are used to carry
out bridge construction. During the initial period, timber and stones were used in the
construction, as they are directly obtained from nature and easily available. Brick was
used as a subgroup construction material along with stone construction.

Stones as construction materials were very popular because of its durable properties.
Many historic bridges made from stones are still present as a symbol of past
architectural culture. But some of the timber bridge have been washed away or are in
the stage of degradation due to their exposure to the environmental conditions.

As time passed, the bridge construction has undergone more development in terms of
materials used for construction than based on the bridge technology. The concrete and
steel are manmade refined materials. The bridge construction with these artificial
materials can be called the second period of the bridge engineering.

This hence was the start of modern bridge engineering technology. Modern bridges
make use of concrete or steel or in combination. Different other innovative materials are
being developed so that they can well suit with the bridge terminologies. Incorporation
of fibers which comes in the category of high strength gaining materials is now
incorporated for the construction of bridges. These materials are also used in order to
strengthen the existing bridges.

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Stones for Bridge Construction

For a long time in the history, the stone has been used in and as a single form. They are
mainly used in the form of arches. This is because they possess higher compressive
strength. The use of stones gave the engineers ease of constructing bridges that are
aesthetically top and high in durability.

When considering the history of bridge construction with stones, the Romans were the
greatest builders of bridges with stones. They had a clear idea and understanding of the
load over bridge, the geometry as well as the material properties. This made them construct
very larger span bridges when compared with any other bridge construction during that
period.

8.4 Strand Jacks

Fig 24: Strand Jacks

Hydraulic strand jacks provide an effective solution for lifting bridge segments into position.
In addition to construction, they can also be used in decommissioning projects – supporting
the weight of bridge spans as they are disconnected from the main structure.

8.5 Controlled Lifting Pumps to Power Bridge Construction Equipment

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Fig 25 :Lifting Pumps

• Bridge construction equipment not only needs to be powerful – it must also provide
precision. A controlled lifting pump provides precise and synchronized lifting of
multiple lift points. They can be used for a variety of different bridge applications,
including:
• Controlling multiple hydraulic cylinders for pushing, pulling, or lifting segments or
box beam girders as part of a new build.
• Lifting components to allow access for inspection, repair and replacement of bearings.
• Operating form travelers or launching gantries during segmental bridge construction.
• Moving steel girders in unison (to prevent binding or misalignment).
• Operating hydraulic cylinders to lift and support bridge counterweights. (Allowing
access for inspection, repair, or replacement).

8.6 Electric Hydraulic Pumps

Fig 26: Electric Hydraulic Pumps

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Electric hydraulic pumps are smaller and simpler than controlled lifting pumps. Typically,
these are used to lift, push, or pull bridge components. Bridge-related applications include
• Operating individual hydraulic lifting cylinders.
• Powering other hydraulic tools such as rebar cutters, nut splitters and torque wrenches.

8.7 High Tonnage Cylinders

Fig 27: High Tonnage Cylinders

High-tonnage hydraulic cylinders work together with hydraulic pumps to align and position
precast segments – typically in the latter stages of installation. They’re also used within form
travelers (bridge launching equipment) and launching gantries.

High Tonnage Cylinders can support up to 1000 tons. This makes them ideal for supporting
the weight of bridge segments, girders, and box beams. For example, as a bridge segment
moves into place, the cylinders can lift the nose of the bridge segment as it reaches the next
pierposition.

Besides bridge construction, they also play a key part in lifting bridge sections to allow
inspection, repair, or replacement to take place.

Data needed for designing a bridge:

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1. A plan of the site showing all obstacles to be bridged such as rivers, streets, roads or
railroads, the contour lines of valleys and the desired alignment of the new traffic
route.
2. Longitudinal section of the ground along the axis of the planned bridge with the
conditions for clearances or required flood widths. Desired vertical alignment of the
new route.
3. Required width of the bridge, width of lanes, median, walkways, safety rails etc.
4. Soil conditions for foundations, results of borings with a report on the geological
situation and soil mechanics data. The degree of difficulty of foundation work has a
considerable influence on the choice of the structural system and on the economical
span length.
5. Local conditions like accessibility for the transport of equipment, materials and
structural elements. Which materials are available and economical in that part of the
country? Is water or electric power at hand? Can a high standard of technology be
used or must the bridge be built with primitive methods and a small number of skilled
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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

laborers?
6. Weather and environmental conditions, floods, high and low tide levels, periods of
drought, range of temperatures, and length of frost periods.
7. Topography of the environment - open land, flat or mountainous land, scenic country.
Town with small old houses or city with high rise buildings. The scale of the
environment has an influence on the design.
8. Environmental requirements regarding aesthetic quality. Bridges in towns that affect
the urban environment and that are frequently seen at close range - especially
pedestrian bridges - need more delicate shaping and treatment than bridges in open
country. Is protection of pedestrians against spray and noise needed? Is noise
protection necessary for houses close to the bridge?

The designer should visit the bridge site and its environment.
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Rough sketch of bridge design:

When the engineer is sure that a design idea has emerged in his mind, he should pick up a
pencil and a scale and by the help of sketching, learned at school, he should start from
sketching the probable road direction, beam depth(For beam bridge) the piers, the abutments
and the bottom edge of the beam is drawn.

For a heavily funded project, high slenderness ratio is preferable otherwise if the decisive
factor is the cost then slenderness ratio can be reduced.

Analyze the sketch critically for the proportion between the spans, the clearance under the
beam, soil conditions around the piers and the abutments, the adaptiveness of the piers to the
surroundings, no. of piers and for the curvature of the vertical alignment.

More than one sketches may follow after the critical analysis with changes in the design and
supporting conditions.

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Work out the alternatives, discuss with colleagues, architects advisors and the client to draw
out a final sketch.

Only now should calculations begin, and in the first place with simple and rough
approximations to check whether the assumed dimensions will be sufficient and whether the
necessary sectional areas of reinforcing steel or of pre-stressing tendons will leave sufficient
space, to allow the concrete to be placed and compacted without difficulty.

Then some runs with computer programs can be made, using different depths or other
variables in order to find the most economical dimensions; these should, however, only be
chosen if no other essential requirements, such as aesthetics, length of approaches, grades etc.
are affected.

Once the designer or the design team has made its choice, then the principle design drawings
with all dimensions and explanations can be drawn up for approval of the authorities.

As the map alone is not sufficient to clearly show the locality and impact on the environment
and appearance so a model or some well shot photos can help the citizens, client and critics
to realize the existence of bridge.

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Chapter 9
Construction procedure for bridge

9.1 Finalizing the bridge design:

After the approval of the design, the final design work can begin with rigorous calculations
of forces, stresses etc. for all kinds of loads or attacks and then the structural detailing has to
be done. The scaffolding and equipment, which will be needed for the construction of the
particular type of bridge, also has to be worked out. Numerous drawings and tables with
thousands of numbers and figures for all dimensions, sizes and levels must be made with
specifications for the required type and quality of the building materials. This phase entails
the greatest amount of work for the bridge engineer, and calls for considerable knowledge and
skill.

Bridges are made up of various structural elements that keep the bridges functional and safe
for long-term use. While not every bridge is built the same, these general components make
up a basic bridge structure.

9.2 Deck:

The deck is the roadway surface of the bridge, where vehicles, pedestrians or other forms of
traffic travel.

Fig : 28 :Deck

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9.3 Super structure:

The superstructure refers to the portion of the bridge above the piers or abutments and includes
the deck, beams, girders, arches, trusses or other load-bearing elements that support the bridge
deck.

Fig 29: Super structure

9.4 Substructure:

The substructure consists of the components that support the superstructure. It includes piers,
abutments, foundations and other elements that transfer the loads from the superstructure to
the ground.

Fig 30: Substructure

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9.5 Piers:

Piers are vertical support structures built to withstand and distribute the loads from the bridge
deck and superstructure. They are usually constructed in a series along the length of the bridge
to provide intermediate support.

Fig 31 :Piers

9.6 Abutments:

Abutments are support structures located at the ends of a bridge. They are designed to
withstand the horizontal forces and moments exerted by the superstructure and transfer those
forces to the ground. Abutments often incorporate retaining walls to hold back the earth and
provide stability.

Fig 32: Abutments

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9.7 Bearings:

Bearings are devices between the superstructure and substructure to allow for controlled
movement and rotation. They accommodate thermal expansion, contraction and other forces
that can induce bridge movements.

Fig 33 : Bearings

9.8 Girders:

Girders are horizontal beams that span between piers or abutments and support the bridge
deck. They are typically made of steel, concrete or a combination of both.

Fig 34: Girders

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

9.9 Arch:

An arch is a curved structural element that carries loads primarily by compression and
transfers them to the abutments or piers. Arches can be made of masonry, concrete or steel.

Fig 35: Arch

9.10 Trusses:

Trusses are frameworks made of interconnected members that form triangles or other
geometric shapes. They are often used for longer spans and can be made of steel or timber.

Fig 36: Trusses

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9.11 Cables:

Cable-supported bridges use cables as the primary load-bearing elements. These cables are
typically made of steel and can be arranged in various configurations, such as suspension or
cable-stayed bridges.

Fig 37: Cables

Fig 37.1 :Cables

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 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

Chapter 10
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BRIDGE AND CULVERT

It may appear that bridge and culvert structures are similar as they both serve the vital need
of transportation. However, they are very different in aspects like structural design,
construction, components, load-carrying capacity, costs, etc.
Table-1: Difference between Bridge and Culvert Structures

Items Bridge Box Culvert

A bridge is a large A box culvert is a tunnel-

structure constructed like structure built under
over sizable water or roadways or railways to
Definition
physical obstruction provide cross
that allows the passage drainage from one side to
of vehicles and people. the other.

The main components of

Major parts of bridges
a box culvert are single or
are superstructure,
multiple concrete boxes,
Parts decks, and
pipes, a top deck slab, and
substructures. (see
supporting parts. (see
Figure-1 and Figure-2).
Figure-3).

Concrete, steel, plastic,

Construction Reinforced concrete
aluminum, and high-
Materials and steel.
density polyethylene.

A minor bridge spans

Commonly, the length of
about 60 m, whereas a
Spans a culvert does not exceed
large bridge spans up to
6 m.
120 m.

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Bridges are built more Culverts are constructed

than 6 m above at a height of less than 6
Height
obstruction or m above the physical
waterbody. obstruction.

Bridges can withstand Culverts are not designed

Loads heavy and speeding to withstand speeding
vehicles. vehicles.

Both cast-in-situ
The Cast-in-situ and precast concrete can
method and sometimes be used to construct
precast technique can culverts without
be considered for a difficulties. The latter
Construction
certain bridge construction method
methods
component. However, requires less time but is
it requires a great expensive. However, it
budget and a massive does not require a high
labor force. budget and more
manpower.

The bridge requires

detailed and accurate
analysis and design;
Culverts do not require
Design and hence it requires a lot
such a high budget as
Cost of time to design and
bridges.
construct, and
consequently, a high
budget is needed.

Bridge requires a stable Culverts do not need a

Foundation deep foundation to deep foundation to
type transfer the load safely support their load. Spread
to the soil underneath. footing is sufficient.

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Abutments and piers

Culverts are buried in soil
Load transfer support and transfer the
that support a great part
mechanism bridge's load to the
of the culvert loads.
foundation.

Culverts are enclosed

structures that can be
Structural Bridges are commonly
rectangular, semi-
shape straight and linear.
circular, elliptical, or
pear-shaped.

A bridge structure is Culvert structure is built

Construction constructed over a to transfer water through
conditions sizable water body with tunnels or channels under
variable flow. roadways.

Bridges allow traffic Culvert adapts to

Modes of
movement only over its roadways both under and
traffic
decks. above its deck.

Culverts permit natural

Bridges offer an easier
water flow under a
route of transportation
Transportation roadway and impede
that reduces distances
flood, erosion, and
and saves time.
waterlogging.

The bridge structure It has a roof, sides, and

Others
does not have floors. roofs.

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CHAPTER 11
CONCLUSION

In this training we learnt about the construction and designing procedure of bridges and
culverts and their uses and what is difference between bridge and culvert.
The primary purpose of a culvert is to convey surface water. However, when properly
designed, it may also be used to restrict flow for upstream detention and reduce downstream
storm runoff peaks.

Culverts are an essential component of our infrastructure, allowing water to flow under roads,
railways, and other transportation corridors. They are typically made of concrete, steel, or
plastic and come in a variety of shapes and sizes.

The difference between a bridge and culvert is that a bridge is intended to allow passage over
an obstacle such as a road. A culvert is provided for the ‘benefit’ of the water and typically
has a base over which the water flows. A bridge is provided for the passage for the passage
of traffic and provides a base over which tht traffic can pass.

The design is carried out on the basis of hydraulics and structure limitations. The hydraulic
design is based on the obtained hydraulic data of the area. The dimensions of the box culvert
were obtained from the hydraulic design. The designed box culvert is a two cell with a total
length of 27m and total width of 3.14m. The structural design is defined as the stability and
safety of the box culvert from the applied loads. After designing based on the maximum
bending moment and shear value, the required reinforcements are 1-∅16 @ 300 mm c/c
(EF⁄V) and ∅12 @ 250 mm c/c (EF⁄H) 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤. 2- ∅12 @ 250 mm c/c at top and
bottom for the top and bottom slabs.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, P.V.K.K.IT POLYTECHNIC COLLGE, Page 45

 CONSTRUCTION OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, P.V.K.K.IT POLYTECHNIC COLLGE, Page 46