TENSORS

Mathematics of
Differential Geometry
and Relativity

Zafar Ahsan
 TENSORS
Mathematics of Differential Geometry
and Relativity
 TENSORS
Mathematics of Differential Geometry
and Relativity

ZAFAR AHSAN
Department of Mathematics
Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh

Delhi-110092
2015
TENSORS: Mathematics of Differential Geometry and Relativity
Zafar Ahsan

© 2015 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from
the publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-5088-5

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj
Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Mudrak, 30-A, Patparganj, Delhi-110091.
 Contents

Preface .............................................................................................. vii

1. Tensors and Their Algebra ....................................................................1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Transformation of Coordinates 3
1.3 Summation Convention 5
1.4 Kronecker Delta 5
1.5 Scalar, Contravariant and Covariant Vectors 7
1.6 Tensors of Higher Rank 11
1.7 Symmetry of Tensors 14
1.8 Algebra of Tensors 21
1.9 Irreducible Tensor 27
Exercises 28

2. Riemannian Space and Metric Tensor .................................................31

2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 The Metric Tensor 33
2.3 Raising and Lowering of Indices—Associated Tensor 40
2.4 Vector Magnitude 41
2.5 Relative and Absolute Tensors 45
2.6 Levi-Civita Tensor 46
Exercises 52

3. Christoffel Symbols and Covariant Differentiation ............................. 54

3.1 Introduction 54
3.2 Christoffel Symbols 54
3.3 Transformation Laws for Christoffel Symbols 57
3.4 Equation of a Geodesic 58
3.5 Affine Parameter 61
3.6 Geodesic Coordinate System 62
3.7 Covariant Differentiation 72
3.8 Rules for Covariant Differentiation 76
3.9 Some Useful Formulas 79
3.10 Intrinsic Derivative: Parallel Transport 87
v
vi Contents

3.11 Null Geodesics 89

3.12 Alternative Derivation of Equation of Geodesic 93
Exercises 95
4. The Riemann Curvature Tensor ..........................................................97
4.1 Introduction 97
4.2 The Riemann Curvature Tensor 97
4.3 Commutation of Covariant Derivative: Another Way of
Defining the Riemann Curvature Tensor 99
4.4 Covariant form of the Riemann Curvature Tensor 101
4.5 Properties of the Riemann Curvature Tensor 102
4.6 Uniqueness of Riemann Curvature Tensor 107
4.7 Number of Algebraically Independent Components of
the Riemann Curvature Tensor 109
4.8 The Ricci Tensor and the Scalar Curvature 111
4.9 The Einstein Tensor 116
4.10 The Integrability of Riemann Tensor and
the Flatness of the Space 123
4.11 Einstein Space 130
4.12 Curvature of a Riemannian Space 132
4.13 Spaces of Constant Curvature 134
Exercises 136
5. Some Advanced Topics ...................................................................... 138
5.1 Introduction 138
5.2 Geodesic Deviation 138
5.3 Decomposition of Riemann Curvature Tensor 142
5.4 Electric and Magnetic Parts of the Riemann and
Weyl Tensors 152
5.5 Classification of Gravitational Fields 154
5.6 Invariants of the Riemann Tensor 156
5.7 Lie Derivative 159
5.8 The Killing Equation 167
5.9 The Curvature Tensor and Killing Vectors 171
5.10 Curvature Tensors Involving Riemann Tensor 175
Exercises 182
6. Applications ....................................................................................... 183
6.1 Introduction 183
6.2 Maxwell’s Equations 183
6.3 Special Coordinate System 190
6.4 Energy-momentum Tensors 192
6.5 Kinematical Quantities—Raychaudhuri’s Equation 196
6.6 Solutions of Einstein Field Equations 202
6.7 Some Important Tensors 214
Bibliography ....................................................................... 219
Answers and Hints to Exercises ........................................... 221
Index ................................................................................. 229
 Preface

The principal aim of tensor analysis is to investigate the relations which remain
valid when we change from one coordinate system to any other. The laws of
physics cannot depend on the frame of reference which the physicist chooses
for the description of such laws. Accordingly it is aesthetically desirable and
sometime convenient to utilise tensors as the mathematical background in
which these laws can be formulated. Albert Einstein (1879–1955) found it
an excellent tool for the presentation of his general theory of relativity and
as a result, tensors came into great prominance. Now it has applications in
most branches of theoretical physics and engineering, such as mechanics, fluid
mechanics, elasticity, plasticity and electromagnetism, etc.
The present book is intended to serve as a text for the postgraduate
students of mathematics, physics and engineering. It is ideally suited for
the students and teachers who are engaged in research in general theory of
relativity and differential geometry. The book is self contained and requires
only a knowledge of elementary calculus, differential equations and classical
mechanics as pre-requisites. It comprises six chapters, and each chapter
contains a large number of solved examples. Each chapter ends up with a
carefully selected set of unsolved problems, and the answers and hints for the
solution of these problems are given at the end of the book.
Chapter 1 deals with an introduction of tensors and their algebra.
The symmetry properties of the tensors have also been discussed here. In
Chapter 2, the notion of the Riemannian space is defined which lead to the
concept of fundamental tensors. Relative, absolute and Levi-Civita tensors
are also defined and discussed here along with related results. Christoffel
symbols, covariant and intrinsic differentiations and related results form
the contents of Chapter 3 along with the equation of a geodesic and affine
parameter. In Chapter 4, a detailed account of the Riemann curvature tensor
and its properties is discussed. The integrability condition and uniqueness of
the Riemann tensor along with the Ricci and Einstein tensors, the flatness of
the space, the Einstein spaces and the spaces of constant curvature have also
been discussed in this chapter. Chapter 5 deals with some advanced topics
like equation of geodesic deviation, the decomposition of Riemann tensor,
its invariants and the classification of gravitational fields. This chapter also
covers a detailed discussion of Lie derivative and related results.

vii
viii Preface

The final chapter deals with the applications of tensors to relativity

theory and differential geometry. The book concludes with a list of references.
Mathematical equations appearing in the book have been numbered serially in
each chapter. If, for example, Eq. (12) of Chapter 1 is used in any subsequent
chapter, it will represented by Eq. (1.12).
While preparing the manuscript of this book, I have consulted many
standard works. I am indebted to the authors of these works. I am thankful to
my publisher, PHI Learning, in particular, the editorial and production teams
for their nice efforts in bringing out the book. Finally, I wish to thank my
family members for the encouragement and patience they have shown during
the preparation of the manuscript.
Any suggestions or comments for improving the contents will be warmly
appreciated.
Zafar Ahsan
 Chapter 1

Tensors and Their Algebra

1.1 Introduction
In many areas of mathematical, physical and engineering sciences, it is often
necessary to consider two types of quantities. First, those which have
magnitude only. Such quantities are known as scalars. Mass, length,
volume, density, work, electric charge, time, temperature, etc. are the
examples of scalars. The second type are those which have both magnitude
and direction. These are known as vectors. Some of the examples of vectors
are velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, etc.
Quite often the notion of vector is not sufficient to represent a physical
quantity. What happens when we need to keep the track of two (or more)
pieces of information for a given physical quantity? For such situation, we
need a tensor. A tensor contains the information about the directions and
the magnitudes in those directions. Thus, for example, the stress at a point
depends upon two directions; one normal to the surface and the other that
represents the force creating stress and thus stress cannot be described by a
vector quantity. As another example, the measurement of charge density will
depend upon the four velocity of the observer and thus can be represented by
a vector, while the measurement of electric field strength in some direction
will not only depend upon this direction but also on the four velocity of the
observer and thus such measurement cannot be described by a vector quantity
alone. These and similar other examples led to the generalization of a vector
quantity to a quantity known as tensor.
Life would have been miserable without tensors as we cannot walk across a
room without using a tensor (the pressure tensor), it is impossible to align the
wheels on our car without using a tensor (the inertia tensor) and definitely
one cannot understand Einstein’s theory of gravity without using tensors.
The word “tensor” itself was introduced in 1846 by William Rowan Hamilton
to describe something different from what is now meant by a tensor. The
contemporary usage was brought in by Woldemar Voigt in 1898. The word
tensor is derived from the Latin word tensus meaning stress or tension. In
anatomy the word tensor means a muscle that stretches or tightens some part
of the body.
The concept of tensors has its origin in the development of differential
geometry by Gauss, Riemann and Christoffel. The tensor calculus (also

1
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Geometry And Relativity

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