Conceptual Design of eVTOL Aircraft

Wayne Johnson
Christopher Silva

NASA Ames Research Center

Short Course on Electric VTOL

AHS International’s 74th Annual Forum and Technology Display
Phoenix, Arizona
May 14, 2018
Introduction

• Conceptual design
– Define aircraft to perform required mission
• Identify aircraft type, including propulsion system
• Size components and subsystems (weight, power, energy)
– Component design and optimization
• Estimate performance and cost
– Emphasis on breadth and speed of analysis
– Followed by preliminary design and detailed design

• Of Vertical Take-Off and Landing aircraft

– VTOL required for air taxi operations
– Efficient VTOL requires low disk-loading rotors, flying edgewise at low
speed (possibly transition to high speed configuration)

• With electric propulsion

– Including hybrid configurations

May 2018 2
Outline

• Introduction
• Design Tools
• NDARC – Conceptual Design Code
• Propulsion Systems
• Control, Trim, Power, Size
• Interesting and Important Factors
– Weights
– Performance, Loads, Structures
– Propulsion
• Sizing
• Requirements
• Design Metrics

May 2018 3
Conceptual Design Approaches

• Conceptual design approaches vary, and mix techniques

• Fixed point iteration with empirical, surrogate models (NDARC)

– Classic method when empirical data is available for trending
– Captures complex requirements (min gage, crashworthiness, corrosion)
– Vehicle weight and size needs to be reconciled with geometry
• Geometry-centered (OpenVSP)
– Perhaps most common, especially for non-traditional approaches
– Begin with a sketch
• High-fidelity bottoms-up analysis (CREATE-AV)
– Computation-intensive, leveraging high performance computing
– Representative of actual arrangement; limited assumptions
– Need calibration for un-modeled constraints and conditions
• Surrogate and optimization-centric (OpenMDAO)
– High-fidelity analysis performed to build surrogates
– Adjoint calculation of analytic derivatives within high fidelity codes
– Huge numbers of design variables simultaneously

May 2018 4
NASA RVLT Conceptual Design Tool Suite
• Tool suite geared to design space
exploration and optimization
• https://software.nasa.gov
– NDARC: Design
– RCOTools: OpenMDAO
– ANOPP/ANOPP2: Noise
– NPSS (special access): Engines
• SIMPLI-FLYD: Handling qual/control
• CAMRAD II (Johnson): Aeromechanics
• IXGEN (M4): Blade stiffness
• OpenMDAO: Execute jobs, optimize
• OpenVSP: Initial geometry
– Rhino (McNeel): Final geometry
• Needs: Structures, Transient Thermal,
Cost/economics
May 2018 5
NASA Concept Vehicles for Air Taxi Operations

• Explored design-space: payload, range, aircraft type, propulsion

system

» Single-passenger (250-lb payload), 50-nm range electric

quadrotor

» Six-passenger (1200-lb payload), 4x50 = 200-nm range

hybrid side-by-side helicopter

» Fifteen-passenger (3000-lb payload), 8x50 = 400-nm range

turbo-electric tiltwing

• Research areas identified to support aircraft development for

emerging aviation markets, in particular VTOL air taxi operations

• These concept vehicles will be used as examples

May 2018 6
Outline

• Introduction
• Design Tools
• NDARC – Conceptual Design Code
• Propulsion Systems
• Control, Trim, Power, Size
• Interesting and Important Factors
– Weights
– Performance, Loads, Structures
– Propulsion
• Sizing
• Requirements
• Design Metrics

May 2018 7
NDARC — NASA Design and Analysis of Rotorcraft

• Conceptual/preliminary design computer program

– Design task: Develop consistent description of system to perform mission
and satisfy design requirements
• Size aircraft: determine dimensions, weight, power, energy of all components and
subsystems
– Iterate with external optimization of primary design variables (eg disk
loading, tip speed)
– With aircraft and rotor optimization using higher fidelity analyses
• Analysis task: Off-design mission performance, flight performance for point
operating conditions

• NDARC has been distributed to 140+ organizations

– Initial release (1.0) May 2009
– Current release (1.13) May 2018
– User training offered about once per year
• Distribution controlled by Software Release Authority at NASA Ames
Research Center (https://software.nasa.gov/software/ARC-16265-1)
May 2018 8
Key Attributes of NDARC

• General aircraft and propulsion system architecture

– Aircraft model built from set of components
– Flexible sizing constraints, based on multiple missions and
performance points
– Capture technology impact, at system and component levels

• Surrogate models of component performance and weight

– Allows for very short runtime and rapid concept iteration
– Requires calibration of the models

• Accurate prediction of future aircraft design depends on

– Identification of all aircraft subsystems
– Calibration of surrogate models for performance and weight
– Skill at estimating technology impact

May 2018 9
NDARC Components to Construct Aircraft
Critical to achieving capability to model wide array of rotorcraft concepts is
decomposition of aircraft into set of fundamental components

rotors,
propellers,
ducted fans

connects
energy source:
rotating
burned,
components
renewed,
turbojet, turboshaft, fuel cell, or stored
turbofan, motor, solar cell
reaction drive generator,
May 2018 10
compressor
Digression on Language — NDARC terms

Rotor = rotating wings, usually shaft driven

helicopter rotors, proprotors, propellers, or ducted fans
co-rotating, retractable, stoppable, or stowable

Engine = transfer power by shaft torque

turboshaft, reciprocating, compressor, motor, or generator

Fuel tank = energy source (burned, renewed, stored)

measured as weight (hydrocarbon, hydrogen)
or measured as energy (battery)
transfer energy from supplier to user (wires)

Drive train = connect rotating components (rotors and engines)

transmission, or direct drive

Pilot’s controls = command thrust and pitch/roll/yaw moments on aircraft

with or without person
collective stick, lateral and longitudinal cyclic sticks, pedals
May 2018 11
Aircraft with Rotors

May 2018 12
Lots of Rotors

May 2018 13
Rotors and Wings

May 2018 14
Aircraft without Rotors

May 2018 15
Tilting and Swiveling and Stopping Things

May 2018 16
Outline

• Introduction
• Design Tools
• NDARC – Conceptual Design Code
• Propulsion Systems
• Control, Trim, Power, Size
• Interesting and Important Factors
– Weights
– Performance, Loads, Structures
– Propulsion
• Sizing
• Requirements
• Design Metrics

May 2018 17
Propulsion Architecture

• Turboshaft propulsion
– Mechanical drive train, connecting
engine groups and rotors
– Engine group, consisting of one or
more turboshaft engines
– Fuel tank system
• Weight changes as fuel used, fuel
is measured in weight

• Electric or hybrid propulsion

Drive Engine Fuel Charge

Rotor(s)
Train Group Tank Group

Mechanical Power
May 2018
Fuel or Energy 18
NDARC Propulsion — Turboshaft

May 2018 19
Reciprocating Engine

May 2018 20
Turbojet / Turbofan

May 2018 21
Fuel Cell

May 2018 22
Solar Cell

May 2018 23
Electric Motor

May 2018 24
Hybrid

May 2018 25
Turbo-Electric

May 2018 26
Outline

• Introduction
• Design Tools
• NDARC – Conceptual Design Code
• Propulsion Systems
• Control, Trim, Power, Size
• Interesting and Important Factors
– Weights
– Performance, Loads, Structures
– Propulsion
• Sizing
• Requirements
• Design Metrics

May 2018 27
Control, Trim, Power, Size

• Depend on aircraft and propulsion configuration

• Conventional helicopter: single main rotor and tail rotor, with

turboshaft propulsion
– Control: 4 pilot’s controls (coll, cyclic, pedal) connected to 4 rotor controls
(mr collective and cyclic, tr collective)
– Trim: Zero net force and moment on aircraft obtained using 4 pilot’s controls
plus 2 aircraft attitude angles (pitch and roll)
– Power required: engine power = rotor power + transmission loss +
accessory power (perhaps distributed to multiple engines)
– Engine size: power = maximum required over all conditions
– Fuel tank size: maximum fuel required over all missions

May 2018 28
Control, Trim, Power, Size

• Twin main rotor aircraft (tandem, side-by-side, coaxial)

– Control: redundant rotor controls (6 = 2 x coll and cyclic)
• Component control combinations that produce no net thrust or moment
on aircraft not used for trim
• Tandem: 4 pilot’s controls connected to mr coll and lateral cyclic

• Tiltrotor aircraft
– Control: two or more modes of operation
• Airplane mode: 4 pilot’s controls connected rotor collective, elevator,
aileron, rudder

• Auxiliary thrust (compound)

– Trim: adjust prop collective for fixed aircraft pitch angle

• eVTOL — configurations more complicated, including propulsion

May 2018 29
Aircraft Trim and Control

• Must be able to trim (fly) aircraft

in all flight modes

• Control definition key feature

for configuration generality in
NDARC

• Aircraft controls (including

pilot’s controls) connected to
component controls
– Aircraft controls used for trim
– Configuration variables (e.g. tilt)

• One or more control states

– Different connections (matrix T)
– For example: helicopter mode and
airplane mode flight

May 2018 30
Control with Many Lifting Rotors

• With four or more rotors, can control aircraft using

changes in rotor thrust
– Produce net thrust, pitch moment, roll moment on aircraft
• And differential torque for yaw control
• Connect to 4 pilot’s controls (collective, cyclic, pedal)
– Redundant rotor controls with 5 or more rotors
• Rotor control gains must be chosen to minimize individual
thrust change required
• No reactionless combinations of controls

• Control methods
– Collective pitch control
• Rotor speed fixed in flight state; can vary rotor speed for
performance optimization
• Actuator bandwidth sufficient for maneuvering and gust
alleviation
• Many options for drive train architecture
– Rotor speed control
• Rotor blade pitch fixed, no swashplate or pitch bearing
(collective change needed if tilt rotors)
• Independent rotor+motor subsystems
May 2018 31
Control, Trim, Power Required, Engine Size

• Electric quadrotor with rpm control

– Control: 4 pilot’s controls (coll, cyclic, pedal) connected to 4 rotor controls
(rotor rpm)
– Power required: engine power = rotor power + transmission loss +
accessory power, for each motor+rotor subsystem
• Possibly direct drive (no weight or power loss of propulsion component)
– Motor Size: power = maximum required over all conditions
• Probably same size for all motors (maximum of power required for each)
– Battery size: maximum energy required over all missions

May 2018 32
Control, Trim, Power, Size

• Hybrid (turboshaft + motor) propulsion

– Power required: turboshaft power = rotor power + transmission loss
+ accessory power + (generator power or –motor power)
• Motor/generator power specified for each operating condition
– Motor at full power for hover, generator at fraction power for cruise
• Turboshaft engine sized by cruise, when motor/generator absorbing
power
– Engine Size: turboshaft power = maximum required over all
conditions
– Motor size: prescribed for design,
with external optimization
– Battery size: maximum energy
required over all missions
• Including missions without charging

May 2018 33
Control, Trim, Power, Size

• Turbo-electric propulsion
– Trim: add generator power = motor power
required
• Adjust generator power so zero energy flow
through battery
– Power required: turboshaft power =
generator power + trans loss + accessory
• Possibly direct drive
– Power required: motor power = rotor
power + trans loss + accessory
– Engine and Motor Size: power =
maximum required over all conditions
– Battery size: maximum energy required
over all missions
• Possibly no battery, just energy distribution
• Possibly turboshaft/generator out condition
(very large discharge rate)

May 2018 34
Outline

• Introduction
• Design Tools
• NDARC – Conceptual Design Code
• Propulsion Systems
• Control, Trim, Power, Size
• Interesting and Important Factors
– Weights
– Performance, Loads, Structures
– Propulsion
• Sizing
• Requirements
• Design Metrics

May 2018 35
Weights

Design gross weight (typically from sizing task)

Structural design gross weight, maximum takeoff weight (influence weight
estimates)
gross weight
operating weight
useful load
weight empty, fixed useful load, payload, fuel

Payload, operating weight, empty weight definitions from SAWE RP7D

Weight information follows SAWE RP8A Group Weight Statement format

• With extensions that reflect parametric weight estimation
– Format facilitates comparison with other aircraft

Must account for all aircraft subsystems

May 2018 36
Parametric Component Weights

Parametric equations based on accuracy of sum of all parametric weights

weight of existing helicopters and (42 aircraft, 15-75% of empty weight)
tiltrotors (and some fixed wing average
component weights)
5%
6%
Parametric equation average error:
rotor blades and hub 9% 11%
fuselage 7% 9%
wing 3%, tail 23%
drive system 8%
flight controls 9%

Include weight increments and

calibration/technology factors

Weight breakdown based on

extended SAWE RP8A weight
statement

May 2018 37
Parametric Component Weights
fuselage length and main rotor radius
• Aggregate accuracy ±5%
– Based on flying aircraft designed
for safe, cost-effective operation
• Domain of weights data base

blade stiffness (flap frequency)

disk loading

• To break a weight trend,

need to do something very
different in the design
May 2018 38
Technology Factors

• Component weights:
– parametric weight model, with technology factor χ, plus input
increment

• component weight models developed by AFDD and NASA

– also some models from Boeing, GARTEUR (Aerospatiale and MBB),
Tishchenko, Torenbeek, Raymer

• Baseline technology factor values from calibration to existing

aircraft
– Match parametric equation (for variation with size) to weight of most-
similar design

May 2018 39
Weight Technology Factors

• Tech factors at least account for Technology Factors for NASA Concept Designs
advanced materials and design rotor flight control
boosted controls 0.46 (0.30 coll only)
methods actuators 0.71 (0.50 coll only)
non-boosted controls 1.10 (0.90 coll only)
– sometimes >1 because of new fuselage
basic 0.76
requirements (e.g. fatigue life) crashworthiness 0.90
crash weight 6-15% basic
landing gear
basic 1.00
crash weight 15% basic
rotor
blade 0.92
hub 0.76
• To develop research targets, or propeller 1.40
show benefits of advanced fuel tank
tank 0.84
technology plumbing
drive system
0.66

– optimistic estimate common gear box

drive shaft
0.74
0.69
engine group
cowling 0.50
• When developing new aircraft pylon
support
0.85
1.10
accessories 0.82
– try to be realistic wing
side-by-side 0.80
– consider current technology tiltwing basic 0.65

May 2018 40
Contingency Weights

• To predict what future aircraft will look like:

– Using 5% contingency, parametric equation overall accuracy ±5%
=> 0-10% (conservatism)

• To allow for weight growth in aircraft detailed design

and development, recommend
– 10% chief engineer's reserve
– And power reserve

May 2018 41
Systems and Equipment

• Fixed weights of aircraft

– Engine systems — accessories
– Systems and equipment
• Automatic flight control system
• Instruments group
• Electrical group
• Avionics group (mission equipment)
• Furnishings and equipment group
– Fixed useful load

• Resources
– Equipment weights of existing aircraft
– New technology developments

• Historically, these weight estimates very optimistic

– Expected/promised weight savings did not materialize
– Growth of requirements
May 2018 42
Outline

• Introduction
• Design Tools
• NDARC – Conceptual Design Code
• Propulsion Systems
• Control, Trim, Power, Size
• Interesting and Important Factors
– Weights
– Performance, Loads, Structures
– Propulsion
• Sizing
• Requirements
• Design Metrics

May 2018 43
Performance
• Electric propulsion enabled by aerodynamic efficiency of the
aircraft, in both hover and cruise

• Aircraft optimization
– Disk loading: minimize aircraft weight,
power, energy
• Small aircraft with edgewise rotors optimize with low disk loading

– Rotor-rotor interference: optimum cruise performance

– Interactional aerodynamics impact performance and operation
• Tiltwing: wing separation or buffet during conversion
• Tiltrotor: hover download, rotor-tail interactions
• Active flow control may be required

• Rotor shape optimization

– Blade twist and taper, tip sweep and droop
– System metrics, balancing hover and cruise performance

• Drag minimization: hub, rotor support, airframe

May 2018 44
 Rotor-Rotor Interactions

• Rotor-rotor interactions impact

performance, vibration, noise,
handling qualities

• Quadrotor — reduce cruise

power by
– Elevating rear rotors above
front rotors

power change (%)

• Also reduces noise and
vibration
– Forward center-of-gravity, so
front and rear rotors trim closer
to same thrust

May 2018 45
Rotor-Rotor interactions

• The rotors act like a single wing, and induced drag varies as (W/btot)2
• You need analysis which captures wake interactions and aircraft system
effects to make the right design choices
– Outboard advancing is quite a bit better than outboard retreating
– Twist trades between hover and forward flight need system effects
– The supports/wings are sources of drag and weight, and maybe lift
Outboard retreating
Peak L/De ~ 9.4

2 isolated rotors = 8.9

SMR Class B Main Rotor = 7.7

Outboard advancing
Peak L/De ~ 10.5
Peak b/D ~ 0.85-0.9

January 2018 46
Performance — Aircraft Optimization
• Interesting trim characteristics of multi-rotor aircraft: collective control or
rotor speed control

May 2018 47
Rotor Design

• Rotor or propeller design impacts weight, vibration, handling qualities

• Rotor design loads

– Requirements depend on operating envelope
– Calculated using comprehensive analysis, confirmed by test
– Determine strength required, hence weight

• Example — Quadrotor
– Flapping rotor
• 4% hinge offset, with 45 deg pitch-flap coupling to minimize flapping relative shaft
– Hingeless rotor (more like a classic propeller)
• Higher blade and hub loads => higher rotor weight, larger weight for vibration control
• Resulting aircraft has 25% larger design gross weight

• Active control of rotorcraft vibration

– Up to 90% reduction of loads and vibration using HHC or IBC demonstrated
through analysis, wind tunnel test, and flight test

May 2018 48
Rotor Design Loads

Quadrotor — fixed pitch, hingeless; level flight and 2g turn

mean hub moment blade oscillatory vertical shear

design load for hingeless design load for

helicopter rotor lift-offset rotor

May 2018 49
Outline

• Introduction
• Design Tools
• NDARC – Conceptual Design Code
• Propulsion Systems
• Control, Trim, Power, Size
• Interesting and Important Factors
– Weights
– Performance, Loads, Structures
– Propulsion
• Sizing
• Requirements
• Design Metrics

May 2018 50
Electric Motors

• Motor weight scales with output torque

– W = KQn, n ≈ 0.85
– So use high speed, low torque motor for light weight
• Efficiency depends on speed and power
– Contingency power
– Reduced rotor speed

• Power electronics and thermal management

May 2018 51
Drives

• High speed motor + transmission almost always lighter than direct drive
• With weights of motor+trans based on parametric equations:

disk loading = 4
tip speed = 550

• Direct drive: requires light weight, low speed, high torque motor
– Operating with large mean and oscillatory loads from rotor on shaft

May 2018 52
Number of Rotors

• With weights of propulsion system based on parametric equations:

motor+transmission motor+trans+rotors

weight = 5000
disk loading = 4
tip speed = 550
CT/σ = 0.10
flap freq = 1.25

• Adding weight (and drag) of structure that support the rotors

changes the optimum
– Usually single main rotor configuration (even with tail rotor)
better than tandem
May 2018 53
Battery

• Typical Li-ion battery discharge characteristics

effi
c
red iency
uct
(in ion
res terna
ista l
nce
)

capacity
reduction

• Account for efficiency reduction with discharge rate, and unusable

energy
May 2018 54
Li-Ion Battery

• State-of-the-Art: Tradeoff of power and energy

• Discharge current (fraction capacity, 1/hr) = specific power /
specific energy

May 2018 55
Impact of Battery Technology
• Need light-weight, high-power batteries
• Baseline designs: battery installed & useable specific energy = 400 Wh/kg
• State-of-the-art = 100-150 Wh/kg installed & useable

electric quadrotor
hybrid side-by-side

fuel
battery

payload
ba
tte
ry
operating weight
payload

operating weight

installed specific energy installed specific energy

May 2018 56
Hover Discharge Current
need high discharge
current capability
electric side-by-side
current: I = xC

Cruise efficiency: battery energy

May 2018
Hover efficiency: battery power 57
Outline

• Introduction
• Design Tools
• NDARC – Conceptual Design Code
• Propulsion Systems
• Control, Trim, Power, Size
• Interesting and Important Factors
– Weights
– Performance, Loads, Structures
– Propulsion
• Sizing
• Requirements
• Design Metrics

May 2018 58
Sizing

• Design task: develop consistent description of system to perform

mission and satisfy design requirements
– Size aircraft: determine dimensions, weight, power, energy of all
components and subsystems
• Iterate with external optimization of primary design variables (eg disk
loading, tip speed)
– With aircraft and rotor optimization using higher fidelity analyses

• From design flight conditions and missions, can determine

– Total engine power (or power can be fixed)
– Design gross weight
– Maximum takeoff weight
– Drive system torque limit
– Fuel tank capacity (energy or weight)
– Antitorque or auxiliary-thrust design thrust

May 2018 59
Outline

• Introduction
• Design Tools
• NDARC – Conceptual Design Code
• Propulsion Systems
• Control, Trim, Power, Size
• Interesting and Important Factors
– Weights
– Performance, Loads, Structures
– Propulsion
• Sizing
• Requirements
• Design Metrics

May 2018 60
Design Missions and Conditions

• Design mission segments

– Hover time, low speed and transition, climb and descent, cruise,
reserve
– Optionally adjust range or endurance for fixed energy

• Flight conditions
– MTOW, SDGW, VROC, Vmax or Vcruise
– Motor failure(s) (determine control, trim, thrust, power)

• Safety and airworthiness

– FMECA (failure mode, effects, and criticality analysis)
– Component reliability
– Propulsion system failures

May 2018 61
Simple Mission

Reserves
20 min @ VBE
or 10% Fuel
Altitude
Cruise @ VBR
5k/ISA+20oC Mission 1

Takeoff Landing
HOGE HOGE
2 min 2 min

SL/ISA+20oC Mission 2

Range
0 X nm

May 2018 62
Urban Air Mobility Mission

• 6 place, 1200 lb payload

• Range = 75 nm
• Cruise Vbr with 10 kt headwind
• Takeoff and landing at 6000 ft / ISA

• Taxi: 15 sec at 10% power

• Transition: 10 sec at max power
• Cruise: capable of 500 fpm climb
• Reserve: Vbe

• Ref: Patterson, Antcliff, and Kohlman, AHS Forum, May 2018

May 2018 63
Safety and Airworthiness

• Airworthiness approval means a document, issued by the FAA for an aircraft, which
certifies that the aircraft conforms to its approved design and is in a condition for
safe operation (14 CFR 21.1(b)(2))

• Every innovative aircraft type and non-traditional propulsion system requires an

extensive failure mode, effects, and criticality analysis (FMECA)

• Crashworthiness
– Affects design of airframe structure, landing gear, passenger accommodation
and restraint
– Conceptual design: need impact on weights

• Propulsion system failures

– Consider to single and multiple motor/engine failure, all power failure
– Need requirements for control, and approaches for safe landing
– Conceptual design: aircraft type (number and orientation of rotors, control
methods) and design flight conditions for sizing

May 2018 64
Outline

• Introduction
• Design Tools
• NDARC – Conceptual Design Code
• Propulsion Systems
• Control, Trim, Power, Size
• Interesting and Important Factors
– Weights
– Performance, Loads, Structures
– Propulsion
• Sizing
• Requirements
• Design Metrics

May 2018 65
Design Metrics

• Feasibility of concept
– Sensitivity to requirements and technology
• Weight, power, energy
– Principal drivers of cost
– Feasibility may require meeting threshold values
• Hover lb/hp, cruise L/De, battery C-rate
• Cost
– Development, purchase, maintenance, operating costs
• Emissions
– Accounting for grid emissions may be necessary
• Noise and annoyance
– FAA Depart, Flyover, Descent (dB)
– Annoyance is subject of active research with human subjects
• Passenger acceptance
– Vibration, handling qualities

May 2018 66
Feasibility of Concept

Electric, side-by-side, 6 passengers

May 2018 67
Operational Effectiveness — Cost
fuel/energy cost flying design mission

• Purchase price
– Approximately (± 20% accuracy) driven by quadrotor

empty weight, installed power, complexity

– Plus cost of electronic systems (MEP)
– Plus cost of batteries

• Maintenance cost
– Data available for helicopter flying traditional
missions
– But not for unconventional aircraft, in air taxi
operations, with to-be-established side-by-side
maintenance concept

• Operating costs
– Fuel or energy is significant component
– Battery replacement costs important

May 2018 68
Noise and Annoyance

• Anticipate requirement for significant noise reduction in order to operate

in urban environment

• Regulations establish noise metrics and requirements for rotorcraft

– Suitability and applicability to air taxi operations not yet established
– Possibly new metrics will be needed

• Air taxi vehicles designed with low hover tip speed

• Low tip speed probably not sufficient

• Aircraft configuration impacts noise

– Rotor-rotor interactions will increase blade-vortex interaction noise
• Blade shape and spacing can be optimized for low BVI and HSI noise

• Active control of rotor noise: 6-12 dB reduction demonstrated through

analysis, wind tunnel test, and flight test
May 2018 69
Concluding Remarks

• Overview of conceptual design of eVTOL aircraft

– NDARC design code
– Interesting and important factors

• Available tools encompass complex aircraft and

propulsion configurations of eVTOL concepts from
community of innovation

• Good prediction of characteristics of future aircraft

depends on accurate estimates of performance and
weights of all subsystems
– Which must be substantiated by higher-fidelity analyses and
extensive ground, wind tunnel, and flight testing

May 2018 70
References — NDARC

NDARC Development
Johnson, W. "NDARC. NASA Design and Analysis of Rotorcraft." NASA TP 2009-215402, December 2009; NASA TP 2015-218751, April 2015.
Johnson, W. "NDARC - NASA Design and Analysis of Rotorcraft. Theoretical Basis and Architecture." American Helicopter Society Specialists'
Conference on Aeromechanics, San Francisco, CA, January 2010.
Johnson, W. "NDARC - NASA Design and Analysis of Rotorcraft. Validation and Demonstration." American Helicopter Society Specialists' Conference
on Aeromechanics, San Francisco, CA, January 2010.
Johnson, W. "Propulsion System Models for Rotorcraft Conceptual Design." American Helicopter Society 5th Decennial Aeromechanics Specialists'
Conference, San Francisco, CA, January 2014.
Russell, C., and Johnson, W. "Application of Climate Impact Metrics to Civil Tiltrotor Design." AIAA Paper No. 2013-1087, January 2013.

Design Environment
Sinsay, J.D.; Hadka, D.M.; and Lego, S.E. "An Integrated Design Environment for NDARC." American Helicopter Society Specialists' Conference on
Aeromechanics Design for Vertical Lift, San Francisco, CA, January 2016.
Meyn, L.A. "Rotorcraft Optimization Tools: Incorporating Rotorcraft Design codes into Multi-Disciplinary Design, Analysis, and Optimization." American
Helicopter Society Technical Conference on Aeromechanics Design for Transformative Vertical Flight, San Francisco, CA, January 2018.

Handling Qualities Assessment for Conceptual Design

Lawrence, B. "Incorporating Handling Qualities Analysis into Rotorcraft Conceptual Design." American Helicopter Society Rotorcraft Handling Qualities
Specialists' Meeting, Huntsville, AL, Feburary 2014.
Lawrence, B.; Theodore, C.R.; Johnson, W.; and Berger, T. "Handling Qualities Optimization for Rotorcraft Conceptual Design." Royal Aeronautical
Society Rotorcraft Virtual Engineering Conference, Liverpool, UK, November 2016.
Lawrence, B.; Theodore, C.R.; Tobias, E.L.; Berger, T.; Tischler, M.B.; Elmore, J.; and Gallaher, A. "Integrating Flight Dynamics and Control Analysis
and Simulation in Rotorcraft Conceptual Design." American Helicopter Society 72nd Annual Forum, West Palm Beach, FL, May 2016.

May 2018 71
References — NDARC

Advanced Aircraft Designs

Silva, C.; Yeo, H.; and Johnson, W. "Design of a Slowed-Rotor Compound Helicopter for Future Joint Service Missions." American Helicopter Society
Specialists' Conference on Aeromechanics, San Francisco, CA, January 2010.
Johnson, W.; Moodie, A.M.; and Yeo, H. "Design and Performance of Lift-Offset Rotorcraft for Short-Haul Missions." American Helicopter Society
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