Ms.

SINDU DIVAKARAN
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
SCHOOL OF BIO AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
 Phototherapy (light treatment) is the process of
using light to eliminate bilirubin in the blood.
 Baby's skin and blood absorb these light waves.
 Light waves absorbed convert bilirubin into
products, which can pass through their system.
 Lamps emitting light between the wavelengths
of 400 - 500 nanometres (peak at 460nm) are
specifically used for administering phototherapy
as bilirubin absorbs this wavelength of light.
 Visible blue light is used.
 Bilirubin, are present in the interstitial spaces and
superficial capillaries of the skin, subcutaneous tissues.
 During the phototherapy, these molecules are exposed to
light.
 Photons of energy are absorbed by the pigment, bilirubin.
 Leads to a sequence of photochemical reactions;
configurational isomerisation, structural isomerisation and
photo-oxidation.
 Energy converts bilirubin into its nontoxic isomers such as
photobilirubin ,lumilirubin which are more polar and thus
water soluble.
 Photo-isomers are eliminated from the body more easily
without undergoing the process of conjugation in the liver.
 As formation of lumirubin is the rate limiting step, less
amount of lumirubin is formed.
 Measure the irradiance at the skin with a
phototherapy radiometer.
 The irradiance level varies depending on
where the measurement is taken.
 Irradiance should be measured in 3 places
where the infant will be lying and an average
of the measurements should be made.
 The higher the irradiance the larger the rate
of bilirubin decline.
 Radiometer should read between 0.5 to 0.9 µ
W/cm2 /nm under normal fluorescent ceiling
lights.
 1.White Halogen lights -Positioned above
the infant and can deliver 10 to 30 µ W/cm2
/nm.
 Quartz halogen bulb
 Tendency to become hot
 Positioned at 52cm away from baby.
 2. 2 Blue and 2 White Fluorescent lights -
Blue light is the most effective light for
reducing the bilirubin.
 Delivers 12µW/cm2 /nm.
 Light should not be delivered from the side
of the infant.
 3.Biliblanket - Blue Halogen light -Uses a halogen
bulb directed into a fiberoptic mat.
 Filter removes the ultraviolet and infrared
components and the eventual light is a blue-green
colour.
 Blanket to give double phototherapy and increases
the surface area exposed.
 4.Bilibed – Blue Fluorescent light -Blue fluorescent
tube is fitted into a plastic crib with a stretched
plastic cover over the top for the baby to lie on.
 Baby is dressed in the Bilicombi baby suit and nursed
on the soft plastic cover.
 Suit attaches to the crib by Velcro attachments.
 Irradiance delivered is up to 40 µ W/cm2 /nm.
 progressive and gradual damage to your skin
on a molecular level.
 risk of developing skin cancer.
 lead to immunosuppression.
 eyes more sensitive to light
Laser treatment increases the potential for laser
accidents also increases.
 The Joint Commission EC.02.02.01

 The hospital minimizes risks associated with

selecting and using hazardous energy sources.

 This includes ionizing (radiation and x- ray

equipment) and non-ionizing equipment
(LASER’s and MRI’s)
 Hazardous effects related to unintentional direct
contact with the laser beam

 Eye related
 Interaction hazards (Plume and Fire)
 Skin related
 Corneal/Sclera Injury:caused by wavelengths that do
not pass through fluid (roughly above 1400 nm and
below 400 nm)
 Retinal Burns Injury: caused by wavelengths that do
pass through fluid from (roughly 400-1400nm)
 Injury can result from exposure to:
 direct beam
 mirror reflection (surgical instruments)
 diffuse beam (tissue reflection)
Damage dependent on:
 intensity - lens of eye can focus beam onto the retina
 wavelength - absorbed by different parts of the eye
 duration - fraction of second, before you can blink
Plume - smoke from vaporization
Creates a visibility problem
Can cause nausea
 Can be Carbon, Aerosolized blood, Gases –
including benzene, toluene and
formaldehyde
particle size - 0.1 microns
smoke evacuator is the preferred control
method
 Can occur if the laser beam comes into
contact with combustible or volatile
materials, such as:
 gauge pads
 surgical drapes
 gowns
 alcohol
 anesthetic gases
 plastic trach tubes
 Thermal burn
 Laser effects on tissue are dependent
on 4 factors:
 power density of laser beam
 wavelength
 duration of exposure
 effects of circulation and conduction
 Hazards associated with the generation of the
laser beam
 Electrical
 High voltage – many lasers require high
voltage to generate the laser beam.
 Accidental exposure can result in
electrical shock or death
 Chemical
 Dye lasers use hazardous dyes to
generate the laser beam (hazardous
waste)
 Engineering-
 control measures that are built into the laser
system, such as:
 enclosing the electrical system, within a
cabinet
 enclosingthe beam within fiber optics
or mechanical arms
 Administrative Control
 a. Controlled Entry-
 Closing doors and covering windows (when
required)
 Posting of the PROPER “Laser in Use” signs outside
all entries.
 B. Education-
 All personnel that may be exposed to the laser shall be
required to attend regular “in-services” on operating
the laser and laser safety.
 C. Standards-
 Each medical facility should develop their own set of
operating standards.
 Eyewear
 Each laser requires specific eyewear that is capable
of absorbing laser light of that specific wavelength
 Everyone in the laser OR must wear eye protection
including the patient.
 Patient – the patient’s eye’s can be protected by:
 covering with moist towels
 goggles
 intra-ocular shields
The surgeon must have eye protection, even
during microscopic and endoscopic procedures.
Lens filters that fit over the eyepiece can
be used
 Barriers
 Clothing
 Gloves
 Fire resistant gowns
 Fire resistant surgical drapes
 Moist gauze and drapes around surgical area
 all gauze and drapes around the surgical area
should be moistened with sterile saline.
smoke evacuators filter out the smallest particles
(0.1 µ) found in the laser plume
Smoke evacuator suction tube must be placed as
near to the site of laser ablation as possible
 Biostimulation, also known as LILT or LLLT
Low Intensity(Level) Laser Therapy, improves
post operative healing and yields excellent
antalgic effects.
 Also called photobiology
 Biostimulation is obtained using a defocalised
beam with low energy density.
 Light energy is absorbed by tissues, and
stimulates the metabolic processes inducing
tissue regeneration.
 It emits no heat, sound, or vibration.
 Also called as cold laser therapy
 Low levels of light does not heat the body
tissue.
 Level of light is low when compared to other
forms of laser therapy, such as those used to
destroy tumors and coagulate tissue.
 Superficial tissue is commonly treated with
wavelengths between 600 and 700
nanometers (nm).
 For deeper penetration, wavelengths
between 780 and 950 nm are used.
 Generates light of a single wavelength.
 No temperature elevation within the tissue, but
rather produce their effects from
photobiostimulation effect within the tissues.
 Low-level lasers do not cut or ablate the tissue.
 LLLT devices include the gallium arsenide, gallium
aluminum arsenide infrared semiconductor (gallium-
aluminum-arsenide), and helium-neon lasers.
 Output powers range from 50 to 500 mW with
wavelengths in the red and near infrared of the
electromagnetic spectrum, from 630 to 980 nm with
pulsed or continuous-wave emission.
 Application in periodontics including promotion of
wound healing and reduction of pain following
nonsurgical and surgical procedures.
 Biostimulatory and inhibitory effects of LLLT are
governed by the Arndt-Schulz law.
 Law states that low-dose will increase physiologic
processes, and strong stimuli will inhibit physiological
activity.
 Represents a set of structural, biochemical and
functional changes in living microorganisms.
 Acts directly on stimulating components of the so-
called antenna pigments of the respiratory chain and
manifest as an immediate effect cell vitalization by
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) mitochondrial
production increase.
 Induces intracellular metabolic changes, resulting in
faster cell division, proliferation rate, migration of
fibroblasts and rapid matrix production.
 1. Increases ATP synthesis
 2. Stimulates cell growth
 3. Increases cell metabolism
 4. Improves cell regeneration
 5. Invokes an anti-inflammatory response
 6. Promotes edema reduction
 7. Reduces fibrous tissue formation
 8. Stimulates nerve function
 Previously helium-neon (HeNe) laser of <1 mW.
 Limited by the need for an optic fiber, the size of the
machine and the still rather low power option
 Replaced by the indium-gallium-aluminum-phosphide
laser, a diode producing red laser in the range 600-
700 nm and able to deliver as much as 500 mW.
 Frequently used in dentistry is the gallium-aluminum-
arsenide laser.
 Operates in the spectrum between 780 and 830 nm.
The output is typically between 10 and 500 mW.
 Advantage of the diode lasers is the small size and
option for battery operation, making them rather
handy and portable. T
 Work in continuous mode, but can be mechanically or
electronically pulsed.
 Reduction of inflammation: It can occur
within hours to days.
 Pain relief
 Accelerated tissue regeneration: LLLT
stimulates cell proliferation of fibroblasts ,
keratinocytes , endothelial cells and
lymphocytes.
 Wound healing in a range of sites, like
surgical wounds, extraction sites, recurrent
aphthous ulcerations - Dental
 Minor injuries and sprains
 Sports medicine and physical therapy practices often use cold laser therapy in the
treatment of minor injuries and sprains, such as:
 ligament sprains
 muscle strains
 Tendonitis
 tennis elbow
 neck pain
 lower back pain
 knee pain
 pain associated with muscle spasms
 It’s also used to help reduce swelling and promote healing of the joints and soft
tissue
 Inflammation
 Dentists use cold lasers to treat inflamed tissues in the mouth and to
heal ulcerations. Doctors use it to treat inflammation caused by rheumatoid arthritis
(RA) and other chronic autoimmune diseases.
 Aches and pain
 Pain clinics use cold laser therapy to help people with acute or chronic pain from
conditions such as fibromyalgia and carpal tunnel syndrome.
 Skin rejuvenation
 Cold laser therapy is used to encourage skin rejuvenation.
Dermatologists use it to treat various skin problems, including:
 acne and acne scars
 psoriasis
 burns
 vitiligo
 edema, or swelling of the skin
 Dermatitis and rashes
 Wound healing
 Cold laser therapy is also used to treat difficult-to-heal wounds,
including wounds related to diabetes.
 Acupuncture
 Acupuncturists use cold laser therapy for clients who are
uncomfortable with needles. The low-level laser beams can
stimulate your acupoints the same way needles do, but without
piercing your skin.
A treatment that uses a drug, called a
photosensitizer or photosensitizing agent,
and a particular type of light.
 When photosensitizers are exposed to a
specific wavelength of light, photoactivation
causes the formation of singlet oxygen,
which produces peroxidative reactions that
can cause cell damage and death.
 Each photosensitizer is activated by light of a
specific wavelength.
 This wavelength determines how far the light
can travel into the body.
 3 steps : –
 1.Application of photosensitizer drug. 2. Incubation. –
3.Light activation
 In the first step of PDT for cancer treatment, a
photosensitizing agent is injected into the
bloodstream.
 Agent is absorbed by cells all over the body but stays
in cancer cells longer than it does in normal cells.
 Approximately 24 to 72 hours after injection, when
most of the agent has left normal cells but remains in
cancer cells, the tumor is exposed to light.
 Photosensitizer in the tumor absorbs the light and
produces an active form of oxygen that destroys
nearby cancer cells
 In addition to directly killing cancer cells,
PDT appears to shrink or destroy tumors in
two other ways.
 The photosensitizer can damage blood
vessels in the tumor, thereby preventing the
cancer from receiving necessary nutrients.
 PDT also may activate the immune system to
attack the tumor cells.
 Light used for PDT include laser, intense pulsed
light, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), blue light,
red light, and many other visible lights (including
natural sunlight).
 Laser light can be directed through fiber optic
cables (thin fibers that transmit light) to deliver
light to areas inside the body.
 A fiber optic cable can be inserted through
an endoscope (a thin, lighted tube used to look
at tissues inside the body) into
the lungs or esophagus to treat cancer in these
organs.
 Other light sources include light-emitting diodes
(LEDs), which may be used for surface tumors,
such as skin cancer
 Type I Reaction:-
 Direct reaction with substrate (cell
membrane or molecule)
 Transfer of H atom to form radicals
 Radical react either O2 to form oxygenated
products
 Type II reaction:-
 Transfer of oxygen to form singlet oxygen
 Type of PDT in which a machine is used to collect
the patient’ s blood cells, treat them outside the
body with a photosensitizing agent, expose them
to light, and then return them to the patient.
 FDA has approved ECP to help lessen the severity
of skin symptoms of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma
that has not responded to other therapies.
 Studies are under way to determine if ECP may
have some application for other blood cancers,
and also to help reduce rejection after
transplants.
 Selectivity to tumor cells
 Photostability
 Biological stability
 Good tissue penetration
 Photochemical Efficiency
 No cytotoxicity during
 Porfimer sodium - most widely used and studied photosensitizer.
 Activated by red light from a laser.
 Cancer of the esophagus and Barrett esophagus
 A type of non-small cell lung cancer that affects the lining of the
large breathing tubes (the bronchi) called endobronchial cancer.
 Benzoporphyrin derivative & Aminolevulinic acid :-
Aminolevulinic acid is a drug that’ s put right on the skin. It’ s
used to treat actinic keratosis (AK), a skin condition that can
become cancer, and is used only on the face or scalp. A special
blue light, rather than laser light, is used to activate this drug.
 Methyl ester of ALA-
 A disadvantage of the older forms of ALA is that they do not get
into the cancer cells very easily.
 Approved by the FDA for treatment of some types of actinic
keratoses of the face and scalp.
 Methyl ester of ALA is activated with a red light.
 No long term side effects when used
properly.
 Less invasive than surgery.
 Takes only a short time and is most often
done as an outpatient.
 Targeted very precisely.
 PDT can be repeated many times at the same
site if needed.
 Little or no scarring after the site heals.
 Costs less than other cancer treatments.
 Light needed to activate most photosensitizers
cannot pass through more than about one-third
of an inch of tissue (1 centimeter).
 PDT is usually used to treat tumors on or just
under the skin or on the lining of internal organs
or cavities.
 PDT is also less effective in treating other
tumors, because the light cannot pass far into
these tumors.
 PDT is a local treatment and generally cannot be
used to treat cancer that has spread
 Skin and eyes sensitive to light for
approximately 6 weeks after treatment
 Photosensitizers tend to build up in tumors
and the activating light is focused on the
tumor. As a result, damage to healthy tissue
is minimal.
 PDT can cause burns, swelling, pain, and
scarring in nearby healthy tissue.
 Other side effects include coughing, painful
breathing, trouble swallowing, stomach pain,
or shortness of breath; these side effects are
usually temporary.
 Obstructive Esophageal Cancer-
 Palliation of partially or totally obstructing tumors in
the esophagus.
 Photofrin powder, is dissolved in 5% dextrose for
injection.
 48 h post injection the photosensitizer localized to
the tumor is activated by light at
630 nm (laser) that is directed via a single-quartz
fiber optic and delivered to the tumor through the
biopsy channel of an endoscope.
 Light is scattered laterally to the tumor on the wall
of the esophagus or the fiber may be inserted
directly into the tumor.
 Experience mild to severe chest pain, fever,
abdominal pain
 Early Stage Endobronchial Tumors –
 Treatment of microinvasive, nonsmall cell
endobronchial tumors using Photofrin-PDT
 Patients received 2 mg/kg Photofrin and 2 d
later were treated endoscopically using a
diffuser fiber (usually 1 to 2.5 cm) delivering
200 J/cm of diffuser length at 630 nm.
 Because these lesions are very thin, the fiber
was held in the lumen adjacent to the lesion.
 Patients were rescoped 2 days following
treatment,and treated area was debrided.
 Obstructing Endobronchial Tumors
(Nonsmall Cell Lung Cancer-
 Palliative treatment of obstructive
endobronchial tumors.
 Photofrin, 630 nm light treatment 48 h later
 2 days following treatment patients are re-
endoscoped, and all necrotic tumor debris
and exudate must be removed because they
can further obstruct the airway.
 Adverse reactions included photosensitivity
reaction hemoptysis, cough, dyspnea, chest
pain, and fever
 Early Stage Esophageal Cancer-
 Barrett’s esophagus
 Endoscopic PDT was applied using a specially
designed balloon light applicator.
 Balloon is inserted, deflated and then
inflated in place to an appropriate pressure
to allow “unfolding” of the esophageal wall
without shutting down the blood flow.
 Cholangiocarcinoma- Bile duct cancer
 Head and Neck Cancer- adjuvant to surgery
in an attempt to “clean up” the remaining
cancer cells in the operative bed.
 Brain Tumors- glioblastoma or astrocytoma.
 Mesothelioma - asbestos-induced disease.
 ALA- -Aminolevulinic acid – Skin cancer,
Bladder cancer.
 mTHPc (Foscan)- chlorin-type
photosensitizer- Oral Cancer
 Injected with mTHPc (0.15 mg/kg) and 72 to
96 h later treated with varying light doses at
652 nm
 SnET2 – Breast cancer