Paper No.

: 11 Japanese History and Society

Module : 34 Japanese Foreign Policy

Development Team

Principal Investigator : Prof. Anita Khanna

Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

Paper Coordinator : Prof. H.S. Prabhakar

Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Content Writer : Ms. Parul Bakshi
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

Content Reviewer : Prof. Konsam Ibo Singh

Manipur University, Imphal

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 Description of Module

Subject Name Japanese

Paper Name Japanese History and Society

Module title Japanese Foreign Policy

Module ID JPN-P11-M34

Quadrant 1 E-Text

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 Japanese Foreign Policy

Objectives of the Module:

The objective of this Module is to explain the key elements of Japanese foreign policy, introduce
different agencies involved in the process of policy making, create an understanding as to how
important and complicated it is conducting relations with different regions and countries of the
world, and international institutions. Even though relations with all countries and institutions are
important, for reasons of limited space only certain specific cases are taken up for in depth
explanations. Besides, the module also explains how certain domestic and external factors
compel Japan today to revise and reinterpret its content and approach to the basic conduct of its
foreign relations.

Therefore, it is important to understand the role of Japanese Foreign Ministry, and the Diet as
key elements in the decision making process of foreign policy. Accommodating or resisting
domestic big business interests and public opinion, Japan’s changing international economic
policies, changing strategic mission are to be seen as a response to the changing security
environment in its neighborhood, major regional and global issues like development, health,
terrorism, PKOs, environmental challenges, etc. These help us understand and assess different
aspects of Japan’s foreign policy terrain.

While studying the increasing importance of Asian countries at international level one cannot
neglect the role of Japan and its foreign policy. To understand this better, it is necessary to view
the theme from different viewpoints.

Background – The origins of Japanese Foreign Policy

The geographical isolation of Japan as the East China Sea and straits of Korea separate Japan
from Continental Asia have largely contributed to the seclusion policy of Japan, mainly followed
during the Tokugawa period (1602-1852). Even though it is difficult to trace a well structured
foreign policy of Japan before the Meiji period, it isn’t that Japan did not have any foreign
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 relations. Instead Japan’s relationship with the rest of the world was largely defined through the
Chinese world order before the Tokugawa period (1600-1868). Herein Japan was a part of trade
routes of Southeast and East Asia, where along with material exchanges ideological exchanges
also took place, resulting in the amalgamation of the cultures of China, Japan and Korea.

By the 16th century Japan had trade relations not only with the Asian region but also with
Western countries. However due to rising concerns about the Western intentions of propagating
their religion of Christianity and its detrimental impact on the Japanese social structure resulted
in an official limitation to foreign trade with only Dutch and Chinese traders. However it wasn’t
long before Japan became attractive to European expansionism and colonialism. As China was
overtaken by Western forces many western countries also started demanding opening trade
relations with Japan. As a result during the 1850s and 1860s Japan was forced to sign numerous
unequal treaties.

It was with the Meiji Restoration of 1868 that Japan started formulating an official foreign policy.
The main aim of Japan’s foreign policy then was to be able to end the unequal treaties and make
Japan an equal at the international platform. Japan was able to do so only after it had proved its
military might through the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95 and more importantly the Russo-
Japanese War of 1904-05. Their victory in the Sino-Japanese War did not cultivate the desired
results as Germany, France and Russia intervened with what is known as the Triple Intervention.
It was only after Japan defeated Russia, which was the first instance of an Asian nation defeating
a Western power, that Japan gained a respectful position among the western nations. The Anglo-
Japanese Alliance of 1902 also laid the foundation for future retreatment of the unequal treaties.

During the First World War Japan was in alliance with Russia, France and Great Britain and it
used the opportunity of war to boost its economic as well as militaristic capabilities. As western
interest in the region declined Japan expanded its influence in Korea, Taiwan and parts of China.
In the years leading to the Second World War, Japan continued on its path to imperialism and
created a puppet state in Manchuria. The rising militarism ultimately culminated in the Second
World War and with the attack on Pearl Harbour, America became directly involved.
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 Post War Developments

Japan surrendered in August 1945 and was brought under the occupation of Supreme
Commander of Allied Powers (SCAP). In the post war period Japan primarily focused on
reconstructing its economy and adhered to the pacifist constitution, as created with the American
guidance in 1947. The Constitution embodied for Japan a passive and low profile role for the
country. Japan followed a policy of political neutrality in its foreign affairs as preference was
given to economic ties rather than political and diplomatic ones. Such a stance was known as
seikei-bunri wherein economics was seen as separate to politics, thus even when two countries
could not agree on the political level they could nevertheless have an economic relationship with
each other. Such a policy helped Japan to keep its economic interests alive and concentrate on
rebuilding and expanding its economy to surpass the pre war economic levels.

Post Occupation in 1952, Japan was caught within the ongoing Cold War, where it found it
difficult to carve a role for itself in the international community. Moreover due to the Mutual
Security Alliance between USA and Japan, many considered Japan to not be a normal state, and
continue to believe so till date. Its dependence on USA through the Security Alliance has been a
prominent and defining feature of Japan’s Foreign Policy, which will be discussed in the next
section.

In respect to other neighboring countries Japan used its Official Development Assistance (ODA)
as a tool to propagate friendly diplomatic ties, initially in form of reparation payments and later
through assistance to development projects in many Southeast Asian countries. FDI and
technology transfer also become important pillars of diplomacy. However these measures were
criticized as being an economic tool rather than a diplomatic one, as Japan tended to focus on the
Southeast Asian markets to boost its own economy during the high growth period.

Foreign Relations of Japan

Japan’s foreign relations vary from country to country depending on its dep endence and

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 historical ties with them. The following sections emphasize on a few countries and regions and
its relations with Japan which form a prominent aspect of Japan’s foreign policy.

1) Japan- US Relations

The relationship between the two countries has been and is of utmost importance in regard to
Japan’s foreign policy, as it encompasses not only a political relationship, but also
encompassing economic, security and strategic relations. Even though the San Francisco Peace
Treaty rendered Japan an independent nation, the Treaty of Mutual Security Alliance continued
to bind US and Japan together. Under the security pact Japan was promised the American
security shield in an event of threat to the sovereignty of the Japanese nation. As the pacifist
constitution renounced Japan’s right to have defense forces, this treaty formed the only defense
provision the country had at the time. Meanwhile Japan also followed what is known as the
“Yoshida Doctrine” in its foreign policy. This doctrine named after PM Yoshida Shigeru
emphasized on the need to focus on economic development of the country rather than spending
its resources on military capabilities. It also encouraged the continuation of Japan’s position
under the American nuclear umbrella. Rather there were instances where despite American
insistence PM Yoshida did not enlarge the scope of Self Defense Forces (SDF).

The revision of the treaty took place in 1960 which put in place the new Treaty for Mutual
Cooperation and Security. However the revision took place amid widespread opposition from
Japanese who did not wish for continued dependence on USA. Nevertheless amid political and
social turmoil the treat was revised and it stated that in an event of armed attack both
governments would consult and take appropriate action. Also unlike the previous 1952 treaty, the
revised treaty provided for a 10 year term which could be revoked on a one year notice by either
country. Furthermore, an agreement was reached to return Okinawa to Japan in 1972. The 1970s
brought some changes in the dynamics of the relationship between the two countries, Nixon
shocks made Japan realize the political and economic dependence it had on USA. USA wanted
Japan to play a more active role in security related issues as Japan was now economically
developed and could share the burden of the military alliance. Also the increasing trade deficit
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 prompted America to take measures like imposing import surcharge and eventually making yen a
free floating currency.

With the end of Cold War further focus shifted towards economic relations as the perceived
threat of communism was seen to have come to an end. USA remained to be the closest ally of
Japan in all aspects but with the bubble burst of Japanese economy, the economic prowess of
Japan came to a standstill. Nevertheless the beginning of 21st century seems to have given the
security alliance between the two nations a new boost which is largely seen to have been
originated from the rise of China. The importance of Japan as an ally of USA was reinstated
during the policy statement of USA’s “pivot to Asia”. Furthermore drastic steps have been taken
by PM Shinzo Abe to better equip Japan as an equal or more balanced partner of USA in the
security alliance. These include the New Security Laws, the assertion of the right to collective
self defense and revised National Defense Programme Guidelines, which together have
exponentially increased the powers of SDF and Japanese military.

2) Japan – China Relations

Japan has historically had a strong influential relationship with China; as a result they share
certain cultural similarities. However with time the relationship with China soured and has been
unstable and volatile to a large extent. There are convergences as well as divergences in their
relationship and thus the foreign policy portrays the same. Post war a section of Japanese, both in
the government and among the people, favoured close and brotherly relations with China.
However being allied to USA they were coerced to accept Taiwan as the legitimate Chinese
nation instead of the mainland PRC. It was only after Nixon’s shock that Japan was able to
establish diplomatic relations with the mainland. Nevertheless Japan did maintain trade relations
with mainland China keeping in mind the large presence of market in the country. Therefore
China has always been of prominence to Japan, being a close and geographically and
demographically huge entity. Even post normalization of relations it took Japan almost 6 years to
conclude a peace treaty with the PRC due to China’s insistence to include a clause spelling out
that China and Japan would not seek “hegemony” in the region and will oppose efforts by any
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 other nation to do so. The normalisation of relations was thus completed with the signing of a
peace treaty between Beijing and Tokyo in 1978 and it was viewed as a momentous development
in the history of modern East Asia.

However reemergence of a number of historical issues have strained contemporary relations

between the two nations. These issues include Japan’s reluctance in mentioning details in regard to
its history such as atrocities committed by Japanese in China like the Nanjing massacre, repeated
visits by high government officials to the Yasukuni Shrine which embodies the spirits of Class A
criminals as rendered by the Tokyo Trials, the issue of Chinese and Korean comfort women who
were used as sex slaves during the war, as well as territorial issues in the Senkaku Islands. Such
constrains have also affected the economic relationship among the nations, for example the
nationalization of Senkakus by Japanese government resulted in anti Japan protests in China which
have estimated a loss of about 10 billion Yen to Japanese firms based in China. The heavy
interdependence of Japan on the Chinese economy calls for the need to maintain stable amiable
relations with the country. Therefore it is of utmost importance for the Japanese foreign policy to
take this into consideration while on the other hand Japan is said to be attempting to curb the
growing power of China.

3) Japan – Korea Relations

Korea has been of pivotal importance to Japan as it served a link towards mainland Asia, cultural
exchanges and ideas. Post the Korean War, Japan had to develop diplomatic relations with North
and South Korea and overcome its historical baggage stemming from the annexation of Korea by
Japan since 1910. The bilateral relationship has diverged in different ways with both the
countries.

South Korea has emerged as an important politico-economic partner for Japan. However
historical issues have remained a bone of contention among the two. These include textbook
issue wherein the history textbooks of Japan neglect the colonization of Korea and the atrocities
committed by Japan from 1910-45, also comfort women issue has been a persistent challenge in

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 the bilateral ties, repeated visits to Yasukuni Shrine by PM and other Japanese government
officials and territorial disputes over Takeshima. Such challenges have been an obstacle to
peaceful and progressive ties. Nevertheless efforts are being made by Japan to apologize as well
as resolve as many issues as possible, most recent being an attempt to conclude the comfort
women issue. However such initiatives have not been very successful so far.

In case of North Korea the divergence stems directly from the political ideological difference to
begin with. Over the years various cases of Japanese being abducted by North Korea, and its
nuclear threat has been the perceived obstacle in any attempts to improve relations. Nevertheless
Japan does have limited economic ties with the nation which is often used as a means to reach
some political arrangements as well.

4) Japan- Russia Relations

Japan and Russia are geographical neighbors and are thus strategically important for each other.
Historically, Korea became a bone of contention for both nations expanding their spheres of
influence, resulting in the Sino-Japanese War of 1904-05. Post Japanese victory followed by
Cold war the Northern territories became a challenge which hasn’t been resolved yet. Being a
close ally of USA also impacts the relationship between USSR and Japan as ideological
differences among the two became highlighted. With the collapse of Soviet Union attempts were
made to resolve the issue of Northern territories through a return of two islands, however
domestic constituency in both nations make it difficult to resort to an easy exchange.

Energy resources of Russia have become a driving factor in attempts to improve relations with
Japan, as Russia views Japan’s LNG market and Japan looks to diversify its energy sources
especially post the Fukushima disaster of 2013. Putin and Abe have been trying to discuss
mutual agreements on northern territories but with no conclusive stand as yet. Trade and energy
demands call for closer ties between the two as both are keen on boosting their economies. But
China and USA also impact and influence the bilateral relationship of Japan and Russia, thus

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 whether these nations can overcome their political obstacles by giving prominence to economic
factors is yet to be seen.

5) Japan – India Relations

Japan and India have had a more or less stable relationship since the end of war. Rather India
was one of the few Asian nations Japan did not have a historical baggage with and was on good
terms politically. Nonetheless the bilateral relationship went through its own period of strain
when India conducted its nuclear tests followed by Japanese sanctions. But the bilateral
relationship has been going strong especially since the beginning of 21st century. The status has
been raised to Special Strategic and Global Partnership, emphasizing on the growing importance
of the bilateral relation on the economic, political, military and strategic front. This sub section
has been covered in detail in Module 35.

6) Japan- Southeast Asia Relations

Japan’s relations with Southeast Asia have largely been based on economic ties especially in the
post War era. Southeast Asia was the main region for Japanese ODA as it created export market
for Japanese goods. The familiarity with the culture and region was also an incentive which
encouraged Japan to invest in Southeast Asia. The involvement in the region was also relevant so
as to maintain a stronghold in East Asia. Thus economic and strategic concerns continue to drive
the relationship with the region.

ASEAN was created in 1967 and has expanded its members to 10 countries since, making
ASEAN more or less a representative of the Southeast Asian region. Thus the relationship
between ASEAN and Japan forms the foundation of the relationship of Japan with the region.
Japan has therefore put in efforts to form a strong and stable tie with the ASEAN community
through measures varying across culture, science and technology, economically and politically.
More recently with the rising power of China, which is being viewed as an attempt of China to
become the hegemon in Asia by Japan has resulted in attempts to create even more stronger
relationship with ASEAN in order to counterbalance China’s sphere of influence. Hence
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 Japanese interests in the region have gone beyond economy to include strategic and military
concerns as well. Territorial disputes in the South China Sea, among a few Southeast Asian
countries and China is seen as an opportunity by Japan to showcase itself as the leader in the East
Asian region. Japan has therefore increased its military ties with countries like Thailand and
Philippines. But Southeast Asian countries are vary of the increasing military power of both
China as well as Japan.

7) Japan – Europe Relations

Japan has shared a long lasting relationship with Europe. Trade has been the most prominent
aspect of this relationship, historically as well as contemporarily. The European Union is
reconsidered to share the same political values as those of Japan which helps create an amiable
relationship for both. Europe also proved to be a major market for Japan especially during the
high growth years, and it continues to be one of the largest trading partners of Japan.

8) Japan – Middle East Relations

The Middle East has held most prominence for Japan when it comes to energy resources. It was
post the Oil crisis that Japan realized the importance of the region, as Japan is heavily dependent
on energy imports. Despite diversifying its energy resources to natural gas and nuclear energy,
Japan continues to rely on Middle Eastern oil imports for a majority of its energy dependence.
This dependence further exaggerated post the nuclear shutdown in Japan following the
Fukushima disaster of 2013. Such a situation directly impacts the foreign policy of Japan
wherein maintaining strong ties with the region become crucial for energy security. In order to
maintain the energy security aspect it is important to ensure the political and economic stability
of the region. Japan is mainly seen to contribute through its Official Development Assistance
Policy through which it provides loans, grants and technical cooperation to the region to induce
development.

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 9) Japan and United Nations

Japan is a part of various international organizations however its relationship with the UN is one
of the oldest ones. The government of Japan saw UN as a prominent institution which would
provide a neutral and risk minimizing arena for all participant nations. Japan has been an active
member and participant of the UN and its related organizations. Especially during the high
growth period of Japan it contributed heavily to UN and its affiliated programs. It has
specifically been proactive in the peace keeping operations wherein initially it only supported
through financial aid but with the changes in interpretation of its constitution it has been able to
utilize its SDF for a more active role in the PKOs. Japan is usually seen to go along with the
decisions of USA while voting on UN activities and programs. However its financial record
towards UN has even overpowered that of US. As a result of its long standing commitment
towards UN and its operations Japan has been claiming a more prominent position within the
organization. It has advocated the removal of the term “enemy state” used in UN to refer to
Japan since the Second World War. More importantly since 2005 Japan along with Germany,
Brazil and India has been an advocate of reforms in the UN-Security Council (UNSC). It has
been stressing on gaining a permanent seat in the council.

Overview

http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/other/bluebook/1978/1978-2.htm)

Given the narrow land space and severe scarcity of natural resources, Japan greatly depends on
international dynamics and situations for its survival. It thus has to make continuous endeavors
towards international harmony. Japan has been strengthening its ties with the international
community at the bilateral, regional and multilateral level. Over the years with an increase in
Japan's economic strength, its status in the international community has also grown stronger.
Since the end of World War II Japan has remained committed to peace and it maintains national
security with the necessary minimum self-defense force as permitted under the Japanese

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 constitution. It also has a security alliance with the United States, and has endeavored to promote
interchanges and cooperation with other countries as well.

Since the 1970s various developments have taken place at the international stage such as the
U.S.-China rapprochement which lead to the normalization of their diplomatic relations, the
normalization of diplomatic relations between Japan and China and the consequent development
in their cooperative economic relations, the termination of the Vietnam War and the move of
ASEAN countries towards development and regional integration, also Japan’s efforts to cope
with the disturbances in the Middle East and Africa. Furthermore, there was an economic
recession on a global scale triggered by the oil crisis of 1973 and 1978 leading to growing
economic difficulties of the developing nations. These have shaped the foreign policy stance of
Japan in due course of time.

Moreover, since 1980s and 1990s, Japan has been facing many challenges economically both at
the domestic and global level along with challenges to the security situation. As political,
economic, security and other activities get increasingly intertwined, and interdependence and
complementariness among nations continue to grow. This situation compels countries to avoid
confrontations and seek conciliation and cooperation on the basis of mutual understanding.
Realizing such a complex situation Japan is making positive contributions to peace and
prosperity of the world through its economic strength and political influence. It is only by
pursuing an active diplomacy in a global perspective that Japan finds a way to ensure veritable
peace and prosperity in the rigorous international political and economic environment.

Thus, the basic Japanese foreign policy objectives can be summarized as follows (Diplomatic
Blue Book): For the peace and stability of Asia and the world, Japan plays an active diplomatic
role and fulfills political responsibilities befitting its international position by promoting the
stabilizing elements. In East Asia, Japan continues its efforts to build an international
environment to ease tensions on the Korean Peninsula in cooperation with the United States and
other concerned nations. In the Middle East, Japan contributes to the realization of a lasting
peace by helping to stabilize the people's lives in the countries in the region.
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 The cornerstone of Japanese foreign policy is of course laid on its close relations of friendship
and cooperation with the United States including the security arrangements. Besides, realizing its
importance, Japan also promotes arms control measures such as disarmament and nuclear non-
proliferation that aims at the stabilization of international relations through cooperation in this
field. Japan also contributes even more positively to the international efforts to solve energy
problems in cooperation with other countries concerned through the International Energy
Agency (IEA) and other opportunities. Japan is participating actively in the international
cooperation to solve long-term energy problems. Such efforts include cooperation with the
United States in research and development in energy and other related fields as well as the
development of alternate and new energy sources. Japan feels it is particularly necessary that
peaceful utilization of atomic power, one of the most important forms of energy to replace
petroleum, should be promoted internationally in such a way as to avoid nuclear proliferation.
Hence, Japan positively contributes to the international efforts in this direction. However, since
Fukushima nuclear disaster in March 2011, Japan’s energy challenge is even more acute and
dependence on non-nuclear energy sources has increased.

In considering the study of goal and role of Japanese foreign policy, we get to understand the key
elements and relate them to Japanese behavior, involvement and interpretation. Thus,
understanding Japanese defense, foreign aid, trade and investment, environmental issues and
even cultural diplomacy become necessary to appreciate Japanese basic foreign policy
approaches. Present Japan, under the leadership of nationalist Prime Minister Abe Shinzo, is
setting on a course of reinterpretation of pacifist constitution that helps Japan to exercise the
right of collective self-defense.

Japan’s moves since the end of the cold war and the shift towards slow growth economy have
challenged quite a few post-war institutions including political parties and their leadership. The
recent proactive security strategy basically alters Japan’s security environment, and Japan is not
actually convincing in its shaping revised foreign policy stance. The future of the course of

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 Japan’s foreign policy would depend on the international dynamism, regional challenges as well
as domestic demands.

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