ISSN 1022 - 2502, E-ISSN 2408- 8528

Dhaka Univ. J. Sci. 72(1): 85-91, 2024 (January) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3329/dujs.v72i1.71196

Numerical Analysis of Various Types of Flows Over NACA 4415 Airfoil

Md. Lutfar Rahman Sarkar1,2 and M. Z. I. Bangalee1,2*
1
Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh
2
Research group of Fluid Flow Modeling and Simulation
Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh
(Received : 11 October 2023 ; Accepted: 13 December 2023)
Abstract
Because of the high-speed aircrafts, the distance to the other side of the world seems to be closer, as if it were situated just
next door. Aerospace engineering has undergone a revolution thanks to research into airfoils. This research work has been
focused on analyzing the aerodynamic performances of the NACA 4415 airfoil in turbulent flows while Mach numbers,
and Reynolds numbers, have been taken into account. The chord length of and
have been considered for this study. Computational fluid dynamics were employed to determine the lift, drag, and
pitching moment forces, as well as their respective non-dimensional coefficients. As a result, maximum lift, moment forces
have been found after the angle of attacks, and stagnation areas are increasing dramatically behind the airfoil,
proportion to the increments with the angle of attack. Additionally, the effects of pressure and velocity on every point of the
airfoil's surface were studied through the analysis of pressure and velocity contours.
Keywords: Aerodynamics, Airfoil, CFD, Lift, Drag, Moment, Pressure, Velocity;

I. Introduction

At the turn of the 20th century, powered flight became a

reality, and the significance of aerodynamics increased
dramatically. As a result, research into the aerodynamic
behavior of lifting surfaces like fixed wings on aeroplanes
and later, rotors on helicopters, became more and more
Fig. 1. Airfoil Nomenclature
popular. When Ludwig Prandtl and his colleagues at
Gottingen, Germany, demonstrated that the aerodynamic
Understanding the flow characteristics across the aircraft's
consideration of wings could be divided into two parts: (1)
lifting surfaces is one path to enhance the aerodynamic
the study of a wing's section, an airfoil, and (2) the fixation
performances of the craft during cruising and manoeuvres.
of such airfoil properties to account for the complete, finite
When the gradient of pressure is unfavourable, the
wing, the analysis of aeroplane wings advanced
boundary layer flow is typically stable at small Reynolds
significantly between 1912 and 1918. This method is still in
numbers, and this leads through laminar separation with or
use today; in fact, the National Aeronautics and Space
without turbulent reattachment. Without externally
Administration's (NASA) aeronautics research in the 1970s
produced noises, the separation might extend beyond the
and 1980s included a significant amount of theoretical
airfoil's trailing edge, where it would significantly increase
calculation and experimental measurement of the features
pressure drag1. The flow-control separation is therefore
of contemporary airfoils.
crucial, especially in cases of separation delay. To give the
Airfoil is a two dimensional cross-sectioned area of three- near-wall region more momentum, separation
dimensional wing. In 1884, Horatio F. Phillips patented the postponement uses the kernel2. One method for regulating
shapes of airfoil for the first time. Phillips, the Englishman flow separation on a number of aeroplanes in recent years
named carried out the first significant wind tunnel tests on has been the vortex generator (VG).
airfoils. The Wright brothers tested airfoils on their own in
a wind tunnel in 1902, creating somewhat effective forms Numerous experimental and numerical studies of the VGs
that helped them achieve their successful first flight on have been done. Several VG configurations have undergone
December 17, 1903. It is obvious that airfoil design in the testing to determine how well they manage flow. According
early years of powered flight was essentially individualized to Godard et al.3 and Betterton et al.4, VG with distanced
and tailored. But around the beginning of the 1930s, counter-rotating arrays seems more effective at postponing
NACA-the precursor to NASA-started a series of separation than co-rotating array forward wedges and
conclusive airfoil experiments using airfoil forms that were linked counter-rotating devices. Wheeler5 demonstrated that
create logically and methodically. Today, several of these apexes pointing downstream are more effective at lowering
NACA airfoils are still in service. drag and raising the airfoil stall angle than apexes pointing
*
Author for correspondence. e-mail: zabid@du.ac.bd
86 Md. Lutfar Rahman Sarkar and M. Z. I. Bangalee

forward, which disrupt the flow along the side wall. investigation. Yavuz et al.21 studied and claimed that using
Numerous researchers have also studied the VGs slats can increase maximum lift coefficient from
parametrically. Godard3, Pauley6, and Ahmad7, among to . The stall conditions also increased
others, discovered that the skewed angle of the VG will from angle of attack to . From this
affect the skin friction and vortex strength downstream of 22
idea, Julian et al. experimented on NACA 4415 airfoil by
the VG. Ahmad8 and Bur et al.9 have evaluated the impact using single and double slat to investigate the aerodynamic
of spacing between each pair of VGs in the interim. Several performances. He found that stall condition occurred at the
additional studies have investigated sub-VG, micro-VG, same angle of attack for both single and double slat.
and blowing VG to examine their impact on flow Though increased by for double slat where
management10-13.
for single slat. Change of does not affect
significantly for single slat. It produces double increment
The flow behaviour above the airfoil with and without VGs
for double slat compare to single slat. In comparison to a
has been better understood using computational fluid
double slat, a single slat can enhance an airfoil's
dynamics (CFD). The best flow devices are simple to
aerodynamic performance. Without a slat, fluid flow
develop using CFD. The findings of the CFD simulation
separation forms on the upper side of the airfoil based on
demonstrated that passive VG is successful in reattaching
fluid flow visualization. Both single and double slats are
the detached shear layer and minimizing the separation
effective at handling the fluid flow separation, although
zone size14. Researchers have employed computational
their effects are not radically different. In conclusion, single
techniques to study turbulent boundary layer flow and
slats are preferable to double slats since they are more
vortex shedding using the large eddy simulation (LES)
effective overall.
model and the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)
model15-16. Johansen et al.16 found that comparing the
Based on an extensive and thorough review of the existing
RANS model to typical LES models, it allowed for much
literature, it has been determined that our research
coarser grids in the boundary layer and had a value that was
endeavors will primarily focus on the meticulous
pretty acceptable. Zhen et al.17 used RANS and Spalart-
examination of the aerodynamic characteristics associated
Allmaras turbulence model for numerical methods and
with the regular NACA 4415 airfoil. This analysis will
found satisfactory results compared to experimental data.
encompass two distinct chord lengths, as well as an
They investigated that maximum lift coefficient increases
innovative modified version of the NACA 4415 airfoil. The
when VGs are placed nearer to the separation point.
primary objective is to uncover and comprehensively
Rectangular and curve edge VGs produce better result than
understand the intricate nuances inherent to these airfoil
triangular VGs.
configurations.
The shape of the airfoil plays a major role in aerodynamic
The investigation will center around the meticulous study of
performance. Many different airfoil configurations have
the lift, drag, and moment forces acting upon these airfoil
been employed for a variety of uses. In terms of
designs, in conjunction with the corresponding
aerodynamic performance, the airfoil still has some
dimensionless coefficients. It is firmly believed that these
restrictions. By placing a slat next to the airfoil, you can
fundamental parameters are essential for obtaining a
enhance its aerodynamic performance. Slat is one of the
comprehensive and holistic understanding of the
passive flow controllers that is most frequently employed,
aerodynamic behavior exhibited by these airfoils.
particularly in aviation. Slats can add more lift force to an
airfoil, increasing its lift capacity. As a passive flow control
To gain unparalleled insights into the underlying
device, the slat can also be employed. By guiding the flow
phenomena and establish a solid foundation for the
of fluid towards the main airfoil, the slat may regulate the
analysis, the pressure, velocity, and modified turbulent
flow. Slats can speed up the fluid flow in addition to
viscosity contours associated with these airfoils will be
guiding it. One result of the slat is that fluid flow re-
meticulously scrutinized and analyzed. By doing so, a
circulation on the upper side of the airfoil can be
deeper appreciation and understanding of the intricate
diminished or even eliminated 18. That re-circulation of flow
intricacies and complexities of the airflow patterns at
is caused by the fluid flow separation19. The existence of
varying angles of attack can be achieved. Consequently, a
fluid flow separation is harmful because it may result in an
comprehensive elucidation of the aerodynamic behavior
airfoil stall20.
displayed by these airfoil configurations can be fostered.
Airfoils and wings are topics of investigation. Both
The ultimate objective is to make some contributions to the
experimental and computational methods are used in it.
existing knowledge in the field by enriching the
Tank towing has been the subject of experimental
understanding of aerodynamic performances and behavior
Numerical Analysis of Various Types of Flows Over NACA 4415 Airfoil 87

of the regular NACA 4415 airfoil. Through meticulous

analysis and detailed visualization of the flow patterns, Spalart-Allmaras Turbulence Model
valuable insights will be provided for further research and Spalart-Allmaras is a single modeled transport equation that
development in the aerospace engineering domain. calculates turbulence for viscosity and use it to measure
modified turbulent viscosity. Aerodynamic flows were the
II. Mathematical Modeling subject of the Spalart-Allmaras model development. It does
cause substantially bigger inaccuracies for some free shear
Reynolds Averaging
flows, particularly plane and round jet flows, however it is
not calibrated for ordinary industrial flows. Furthermore, it
For turbulence model, in the process of Reynolds
is unreliable for predicting how homogenous, isotropic
averaging, the variables have been decomposed into two
turbulence may degrade.
parts. One is mean variable, which is averaged by time and
the other is fluctuation part. For velocity:
The transport equation is:
‾
˜ ˜
where ‾ is mean velocity and is its fluctuating ˜ ˜
component. [ { ˜ } ( ) ]
˜

˜
By implementing the idea, we can also decompose any
scalar quantity:

‾ Wall Boundary Conditions

With the addition of a -insensitive wall treatment in

where can be any scalar quantity like pressure, ANSYS Fluent, a simulation software, the Spalart-Allmaras
temperature, energy or any relevant quantities. model has been expanded to include all of the solution
variables from their viscous sublayer formulation
By substituting such variables into continuity, momentum
equations, and taking the averages with respect to time on
these equations, dropping bar sign, we get:

to the logarithmic layer of

( )
( )

[ ( )] the notations are defined by as:

( ̅̅̅̅̅̅)

The above equations (3) - (4) are called Reynolds Averaged

Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations. The term ̅̅̅̅̅̅ is
called Reynolds stresses. A common approach to find
values of the term is Boussinesq hypothesis 23. Values of the constants are and .

̅̅̅̅̅̅ ( ) Turbulence Model

( ) Up until the last decade of the twentieth century, the

model was the most often used two-equation model.
Chou24, Davidov25, and Harlow and Nakayama26
It is used in Spalart-Allmaras, model, model. made the first development attempts based on this
We are going to discuss about Spalart-Allmaras and paradigm. The version of the model introduced by Jones
turbulence models in following sections. and Launder27 marked the beginning of its widespread use.
Later, Launder and Sharma28 "retuned" the closure
88 Md. Lutfar Rahman Sarkar and M. Z. I. Bangalee

coefficients of the model and developed what is known as

the Standard model29.

By solving two different transport equations, two-equations

turbulence models enable the estimation of both, the
turbulent length and the scale of time. Since, fluent has
emerged as the workhorse of real-world flow calculations.
Its prevalence in industrial flow and heat transfer
simulations can be attributed to its robustness, economy,
and tolerable accuracy for a variety of turbulent flows. It is
semi-empirical model, and the model equations are derived
using phenomenological considerations and empirical
evidence.

The model is a transportation equation consisting of

two equations for turbulence phenomena where is derived
from the exact equation and is derived considering Fig. 2. Comparison of CL at Various
physical phenomena occured. In addition, the model was
derived for fully turbulent flow where molecular viscosity Now, drag coefficients have been compared with Pope &
has negligible effects. So, mainly represents the kinetic Harper30.
energy where has the meaning of viscous dissipation rate.
The numerical comparisons of two aerodynamic non-
The equations that can be determined for kinetic energy, dimensional coefficients
and the rate of dissipation, are:

[( ) ]

and

[( ) ]

III. Results and Discussion

To ensure the validity of this research work, the numerical

results have been compared with some research papers. At Fig. 3. Comparison of Cd at Various
first, lift coefficients have been validated with Zhen et al. 17,
Pope & Harper30, Efstratios31, Fouatih et al.32 are the proof of the validity of this research work. Now,
some other numerical findings are given below.
Numerical Analysis of Various Types of Flows Over NACA 4415 Airfoil 89

Fig. 6. Drag force at different

Fig. 4. Lift force at different The drag forces increase gradually with the increments of
the angle of attack. The surfaces of the airfoil experience
The figures show the numerical data of lift and moment more resistance of air flow for high angle of attack,
forces according to Sapalart-Allmaras and turbulence especially at post stall condition. The chaotic behavior of
model. It is clearly shown that lift and moment forces the unstable body causes such phenomena.
increase uniformly till and starts decreasing after that
angle of attack. It proves that the stall condition is situated By getting the model validation for of chord
at such angle. At post stall condition, it is obvious that these length, the extended work is to find some contours for
forces lose another chord length,

Fig. 7. Pressure contour at

The maximum pressure has been found where the flow

interacts directly to the airfoil surface. This is the reason to
get maximum pressure at the leading edge of the airfoil.
Fig. 5. Pitching moment force at different The upper surface experience the minimum pressure at such
occurrence.
their values due to bluff condition.

Fig. 8. Pressure contour at

90 Md. Lutfar Rahman Sarkar and M. Z. I. Bangalee

At high angle of attack, the air flow interacts at lower incrementing the angle. Furthermore, the graph of drag
surface of the airfoil. This causes to find high pressures at forces rise up dramatically at post stall angles. However,
the bottom of the airfoil. The low pressure is found at just the maximum pressure has been found where the fluid flow
the upper surface of leading edge. interacts directly to the airfoil surfaces. On the other hand,
velocity show the opposite characteristics. Finally, the
By focusing at the velocity at every point of the airfoil velocity contours provide the information about the huge
surface, contrasts have been found to velocity contours, stagnation area at high angles of attack which have been
comparing to pressure contours. found behind the trailing edge. This knowledge could be
implemented while manufacturing aircraft with the NACA
The minimum velocity has been found where fluid flow 4415 airfoil.
comes to attack directly to the airfoil surface. Zero velocity
is found there and it is called total condition. For low angle Acknowledgement
of attack, e.g. , total condition is found almost at the
leading edge of the airfoil. The maximum velocity has been We are highly grateful to Centennial Research Grant,
University of Dhaka and the University Grants Commission
of Bangladesh for providing the financial support. This
work was also supported by the Bose center for Advanced
Study and Research in Natural Sciences, University of
Dhaka, and the fellowship granted by the ministry of
science and technology, Bangladesh.

References

1. Stack, J.P. and S. M. Mangalam, 1990. Method and apparatus

for detecting laminar flow separation and reattachment.
Fig. 9. Velocity contour at National Aeronautics and Space Administration NASA, U.S.
Patent 4, 936, 146.
found at the upper surface of the airfoil. 2. Shan, H., L. Jiang, C. Liu, M. Love, and B. Maines, 2008.
Numerical study of passive and active flow separation control
over a NACA0012 airfoil. Journal of Computers E fluids,
37(8), 975-992.
3. Godard, G. and M. Stanislas, 2006. Control of a decelerating
boundary layer. Part 1: Optimization of passive vortex
generators. Journal of Aerospace Science and Technology,
10(3), 181-191.
4. Betterton, J.G., K. C. Hackett, P. R. Ashill, M. J. Wilson, I. J.
Woodcock, C. P. Tilman and K. J. Langan, 2000. Laser
doppler anemometry investigation on sub boundary layer
vortex generators for flow control. In 10th symposium on
Fig. 10. Velocity contour at application of laser techniques to fluid mechanics, Lisbon10.
5. Wheeler, G.O., 1991. Low drag vortex generators. U.S.
At very high angle of attack, for , the total
Patent 5, 058, 837.
condition is found at the lower surface of the surface. The
maximum pressure has been found just upper side of the 6. Godard, G. and M. Stanislas, 2006. Control of a decelerating
boundary layer. Part 1: Optimization of passive vortex
leading edge. At such high angle of attack, a huge generators. Journal of Aerospace Science and Technology,
stagnation area has been discovered behind the trailing 10(3), 181-191.
edge. At post stall condition, since the airfoil becomes a
7. Pauley, W.R. and J. K. Eaton, 1988. Experimental study of
bluff body and it starts to fall, it left a vacuum region just the development of longitudinal vortex pairs embedded in a
behind its trailing edge. turbulent boundary layer. Journal of American Institute for
Aeronautics and Astronautics, 26(7), 816-823.
IV. Conclusions 8. Ahmad, K., J. Watterson, J. Cole and I. Briggs, 2005. Sub-
boundary layer vortex generator control of a separated
To sum up by analyzing the aerodynamic performances of diffuser flow. In 35th Journal of American Institute for
the NACA 4415 airfoil, the stall condition has been found Aeronautics and Astronautics Fluid Dynamics Conference
in the angle between and . In addition, lift and and Exhibit, 4650.
moment forces, according to their dimensionless
coefficients, increase till that angle and starts declining after
Numerical Analysis of Various Types of Flows Over NACA 4415 Airfoil 91

9. Bur, R., D. Coponet and Y. Carpels, 2009. Separation control 21. Y uz, T., E. ç, B. ı kış, Ö. E , . B d T.
by vortex generator devices in a transonic channel flow. Aydemir, 2015. Performance analysis of the airfoil-slat
Journal of Shock Waves, 19, 521-530. arrangements for hydro and wind turbine applications.
Journal of Renewable Energy, 74, 414-421.
10. Lin, J.C., 2002. Review of research on low-profile vortex
generators to control boundary-layer separation. Journal of 22. Julian, J., W. Iskandar, F. Wahyuni, A. Armansyah, and F.
Progress in Aerospace Sciences, 38(4-5), 389-420. Ferdyanto, 2022. Effect of Single Slat and Double Slat on
Aerodynamic Performance of NACA 4415. International
11. Lin, J., 1999. Control of turbulent boundary-layer separation Journal of Marine Engineering Innovation and Research,
using micro-vortex generators. In 30th Fluid Dynamics 7(2).
Conference, 3404.
23. Hinze, J.O., 1975. Turbulence, McGrawHill Publishing Co.
12. Babinsky, H., N. Makinson and C. Morgan, 2007. Micro- New York.
vortex generator flow control for supersonic engine inlets. In
45th Journal of American Institute for Aeronautics and 24. Chou, P.Y., 1945. On velocity correlations and the solutions
Astronautics Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, 521. of the equations of turbulent fluctuation. Journal of Quarterly
of Applied Mathematics, 3(1), 38-54.
13. Jiang, P., Z. Wang and I. Gursul, 2010. Effects of unsteady
trailing-edge blowing on delta wing aerodynamics. Journal of 25. Davidov, B., 1. 1961. On the statistical dynamics of an
Aircraft, 47(2), 591-602. incompressible turbulent fluid. Journal of Doklady Akademii
nauk SSSR, 136, 47.
14. Shan, H., L. Jiang and C. Liu, 2005. Direct numerical
simulation of flow separation around a NACA 0012 airfoil. 26. Harlow, F.H. and P. I. Nakayama, 1968. Transport of
Journal of Computers & fluids, 34(9), 1096-1114. turbulence energy decay rate (No. LA-3854). Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory, New Mexico.
15. Velte, C. M., M. O. L. Hansen, and D. Cavar, 2008. Flow
analysis of vortex generators on wing sections by 27. Jones, W.P. and B. E. Launder, 1972. The prediction of
stereoscopic particle image velocimetry measurements. laminarization with a two-equation model of turbulence.
Journal of Environmental Research Letters, 3(1), 015006. International journal of heat and mass transfer, 15(2), 301-
314.
16. Johansen, S. T., J. Wu and W. Shyy, 2004. Filter-based
unsteady RANS computations. International Journal of Heat 28. Launder, B.E. and B. I. Sharma, 1974. Application of the
and fluid flow, 25(1), 10-21. energy-dissipation model of turbulence to the calculation of
flow near a spinning disc. Journal of Letters in heat and mass
17. Zhen, T.K., M. Zubair and IK. A. Ahmad, 2011. transfer, 1(2), 131-137.
Experimental and numerical investigation of the effects of
passive vortex generators on Aludra UAV performance. 29. Wilcox, D.C., 1998. Turbulence modeling for CFD. La
Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, 24(5), 577-583. Canada, CA: DCW industries, 2, 103-217.
18. Sarjito, N. Aklis and T. Hartanto, 2017. An optimization of 30. Barlow, J.B., W. H. Rae and A. Pope, 1999. Low-speed wind
flap and slat angle airfoil NACA 2410 using CFD. In Journal tunnel testing. John Wiley & Sons.
of American Institute of Physics Conference
Proceedings,1831(1), 020038. 31. Efstratios, S., 1988. The aerodynamic performance of the
NACA-4415aerofoil section at low Reynolds numbers. MSc
19. Julian, J., Harinaldi, Budiarso, C. C. Wang and M. J. Chern, (Research), Department of Aerospace Engineering,
2018. Effect of plasma actuator in boundary layer on flat University of Glasgow.
plate model with turbulent promoter. Journal of Proceedings
of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part G: Journal of 32. Fouatih, O. M., M. Medale, O. Imine and B. Imine, 2016.
Aerospace Engineering, 232(16), 3001-3010. Design optimization of the aerodynamic passive flow control
on NACA 4415airfoil using vortex generators. European
20. Sudhakar, S. and N. Karthikeyan, 2021. Flow Separation Journal of Mechanics-B/Fluids, 56, 82-96.
Control on a NACA-4415 Airfoil at Low Reynolds Number.
In Proceedings of 16th Asian Congress of Fluid Mechanics,
323-334.