TORNADO

A. YU. VARAKSIN M. E. ROMASH,

and V. N. KOPEITSEV
UDC 532.529: 536.24
LRC 26.233
H34

Publication supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research,

Project 10-08-07030

A. Yu. Varaksin, M. E. Romash, and V. N. Kopeitsev. Tornado, Moscow,

Fizmatlit Press, 2011, 344 p., ISBN 978-5-9221-1249-9.

This book is devoted to the fundamental problems of investigation of free

concentrated vortices. The possibilities of mathematical modeling of whirl-
winds (tornados) are discussed. It states and solves, for the first time in do-
mestic and global practice, the problem of physical (laboratory) modeling of
whirlwinds without using mechanical whirling devices. The issues of genera-
tion and stability of free vortices and methods for controlling their character-
istics are analyzed. The possibilities for affecting atmospheric whirling forma-
tions of various scales are described.
The book is designed for scientists investigating hydrodynamics and heat
and mass transfer of vortex flows, as well as for university teachers, students,
and post-graduate students.
 CONTENTS

FOREWORD ix
NOMENCLATURE xvii

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER 1

1.1. Preliminary Remarks 1

1.2 Basic Definitions 2
1.3 Winds 3
1.3.1 The Beaufort wind force scale 4

1.4 Hurricanes 5
1.4.1 Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale 6
1.4.2 The 2005 hurricane season 6
1.4.3 Hurricane Katrina 12
1.4.4 Hurricane whirlwinds (tornados) 18

1.5 Whirlwinds (tornados) 25

1.5.1 Fujita tornado scale 25
1.5.2 The enhanced tornado scale 30

1.6 Some Conclusions 40

CHAPTER 2
BRIEF DATA ON CYCLONES (ANTICYCLONES) 45

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 CONTENTS

2.1 Preliminary Remarks 45

2.2 The Earth Atmosphere 46
2.2.1 The atmosphere composition and structure 46
2.2.2 The atmospheric pressure field 48
2.2.3 Vertical atmospheric balance 49
2.2.4 Frontal zones 52
2.2.5 Weather fronts 53
2.2.6 Weather in the passing fronts 55

2.3 Properties of Cyclones (Anticyclones) 56

2.3.1 Development stages 56
2.3.2 Specific features of air movement 57
2.3.3 Frequency and sites of generation 58
2.3.4 Typical pressure values 60

2.4 Natural Phenomena Accompanying Cyclones (Anticyclones) 60

2.4.1 Atmospheric precipitations in the system of cyclones 60
2.4.2 Hurricane winds in the system of cyclones (anticyclones) 61

2.5 Heat (Cold) Transfer by Extratropical Cyclones 63

2.5.1 Main mechanisms of heat (cold) transfer 63
2.5.2 Effects of vortices on heat transfer by ocean currents 66

2.6 Tropical Cyclones 67

CHAPTER 3
BRIEF DATA ON WHIRLWINDS 71

3.1 Preliminary Remarks 71

3.2 Whirlwind Clouds 72
3.2.1 General characterization 73

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 TORNADO

3.2.2 Shapes and dimensions 73

3.2.3 The internal structure 73
3.2.4 Horizontal whirlwind clouds 77
3.2.5 Towering whirlwind clouds 78

3.3 The Whirlwind Structure 79

3.3.1 Funnel 79
3.3.2 The cascade 81

3.4 Whirlwind Shapes 83

3.4.1 Dense whirlwinds 83
3.4.2 Blurred whirlwinds 88
3.4.3 Groups of whirlwinds 91

3.5 Properties of Whirlwinds 91

3.5.1 Stages of development 91
3.5.2 The speed of movement, lifetime, and path length 93
3.5.3 Sizes and weight 94
3.5.4 Frequency and places of generation 95

3.6. Types of Whirlwinds and Vortices 95

3.6.1 Invisible whirlwinds and vortices 95
3.6.2 Dust whirlwinds and vortices 96
3.6.3 Waterspouts and vortices 98
3.6.4 Fire whirlwinds and vortices 103
3.6.5 Snow whirlwinds and vortices 106

3.7 Brief Description of the Most Known Whirlwinds 107

3.7.1 Russia 107
3.7.2 Western Europe 118
3.7.3 United States of America 120

3.8 Study of Tornados and Possibilities for Protection 141

3.8.1 Study and forecasting of tornados 141
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 CONTENTS

3.8.2 Damage from tornados 146

3.8.3 Protection against tornados 148

CHAPTER 4
BASES OF THE THEORY OF VORTEX MOTION 153

4.1 Preliminary Remarks 153

4.2 Systems of Coordinates 154
4.3 Some Definitions 154
4.3.1 Streamline 154
4.3.2 Filament. Stream tube 155
4.3.3 Vortex line 155
4.3.4 Vortex rope. Vortex tube 157
4.4 Characteristics of Vortex Flows 157
4.4.1 Azimuthal (tangential) velocity 157
4.4.2 Twisting parameter 158
4.4.3 Vorticity. Angular velocity 159
4.4.4 Circulation 160
4.4.5 The Rossby number 160
4.5 Elementary Data on Vortices 162
4.5.1 Free (potential) vortex 162
4.5.2 Forced vortex (solid-state rotation) 162
4.5.3 A combined (Rankine) vortex 163
4.6 Basic Equations 165
4.6.1 The continuity equation 165
4.6.2 The Navier–Stokes equation 166
4.6.3 The vorticity equation 167
4.7 Elements of Hydrostatics 171
4.7.1 Dropping liquid equilibrium in a rotating vessel 171
4.7.2 Equilibrium of gases. Dry-adiabatic gradient 173
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 TORNADO

4.8 Coriolis Force and Its Impact on the Motion

of the Material Point 174
4.8.1 The cause of the Coriolis force 174
4.8.2 Impact of the Coriolis force on vertical motion 178
4.8.3 Impact of the Coriolis force on motion
in the horizontal plane 185

CHAPTER 5

MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF WHIRLWINDS 191

5.1 Preliminary Remarks 191

5.2 A Simple Analytical Model 192
5.2.1 A very simple solution for tornados 192
5.2.2 Exact solution for tornados 195
5.2.3 Stratified tornados 196
5.3 Analysis of Vortex Instability 198
5.3.1 Derivation of the vorticity equation 198
5.3.2 Analysis of the vorticity equation 200
5.3.3 Calculation results 202
5.4 Analytical Solution of the Navier–Stokes Equations 205
5.4.1 Generalized solution for vortex sink 205
5.4.2 Using the solution for analysis of tornados 210
5.5 Modeling the Ascending Twisted Flow 211
5.5.1 Formation of an ascending twisted flow 211
5.5.2 The system of equations with account
for the Coriolis force 213
5.5.3 Development of twisting in the bottom part
of an ascending flow 218
5.5.4 Steady-state flow in the bottom part
of an ascending flow 220

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 CONTENTS

5.6 Numerical Simulation of Tornados 224

CHAPTER 6
PHYSICAL MODELING OF TORNADOS 229

6.1 Preliminary Remarks 229

6.2 Experimental Unit 230
6.2.1 Description of the unit 233
6.2.2 Thermal conditions 234
6.3 Results 235
6.3.1 The underlying surface (temperature distribution) 235
6.3.2 Air (temperature distribution) 237
6.3.3 Generalization of data (Rayleigh number) 242
6.3.4 Integrated parameters of vortex structures 243
6.3.5 Dynamics of vortex structures 245
6.3.6 Traces of vortex structures 247
6.3.7 Visualization of the vortex funnel 249
6.3.8 The parameter of twisting. Rossby number 256
6.3.9 Instantaneous velocity field 259

CHAPTER 7

A NEW METHOD FOR TORNADO CONTROL 263

7.1 Preliminary Remarks 263

7.2 Brief Information on Control Methods 264
7.3 Experimental Unit 266
7.4 Vortex-Mesh Interaction: Basic Ideas 266
7.5 Vortex Interaction with Single-Mesh Structures 271
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 TORNADO

7.6 Vortex Interaction with Two-Mesh Structures 278

7.7 The New Passive-Active Protection Method:
Physical Principles and Advantages 280
7.7.1 Non-use of a solid barrier 280
7.7.2 Generation of small-scale turbulence 280
7.7.3 Effect of aerodynamic increase of the “working” surface 284
7.7.4 Long-distance interaction 285
7.7.5 Effect of enhanced impact at smaller distances 288
7.7.6 Small height of the mesh structure 289
7.7.7 Effect of increasing the relative size of the mesh protective
structure at smaller distances 289
7.7.8 Effect of rapid and seasonal installation 291
7.7.9 Effect of protection against debris 291

CONCLUSIONS 293

REFERENCES 299

ANNEX 1 315

ANNEX 2 331

ANNEX 3 347

INDEX 365

vii
FOREWORD

This book is devoted to investigation of free concentrated air vortices (whirl-

winds), which are common in the environment and in technologies. Vortex
or eddy motion is a common form of air motion. There exist many types of
vortex motion of the atmospheric air, differing in sizes, typical speeds, and
lifetimes. We should note specifically vortex motions that have catastrophic
effects, such as whirlwinds (tornados), vortex storms, and hurricanes.
Examples of technical devices using vortex flows include: cyclone sep-
arators and vortex tubes, centrifugal burners, vortex furnace chambers, and
burners (Piralishvili et al., 2000), various vortex generators, and many others.
The use of vortex effects provides broad opportunities for intensification of
different processes (mixing and combustion) and control of their stability.
Vortex structures often generate along surfaces of different aircraft and
space rocket facilities, as well as in their aerodynamic wakes (Ginevskii and
Zhelannikov, 2008). Controlling the flow around bodies with the aid of vortex
cells is a promising and significant line of the modern fluid and gas dynamics
(Baranov et al., 2003).
Investigations of free (not bounded by walls) concentrated (vorticity lo-
calized in space) vortices are difficult for a number of reasons, such as their
spontaneous generation, space and time instability, impossibility of controlling
characteristics, etc.
Whirlwinds (or tornados) represent one of the particular, but very intrigu-
ing and mysterious manifestations of natural free vortices. Therefore, the au-
thors of this book decided to use this term in the book title.
The first, introductory, chapter gives brief data on the basic forms of air
motion. It includes the definitions of cyclones (tropical and extratropical), hur-
ricanes, storms, whirlwinds, hurricane whirlwinds, and vortices. It describes
the 12-level Beaufort wind force scale. The next section describes the Saf-
fir–Simpson hurricane scale, which includes 5 categories and is the extend-
ed Beaufort scale for winds of hurricane force. Then, some characteristics of
ix
 FOREWORD

hurricanes are discussed, based on the review of Atlantic hurricanes of 2005,

which was the year of the greatest in history cyclonic activity. It should be
noted that the paths of Atlantic hurricanes coincide with the regions of the
most active whirlwinds (tornados). The development of hurricanes is dis-
cussed using the example of Katrina hurricane, which takes a special place in
terms of damage force and the number of casualties among all hurricanes ever
occurring over USA. At the end of the section, data on hurricane whirlwinds
that often accompany Atlantic hurricanes are provided.
Further on, the first chapter provides the initial data on whirlwinds (tor-
nados). It describes the classical Fujita tornado scale. This scale includes six
categories and is an enhanced scale of winds and hurricanes for very strong
winds, characterizing tornados. It describes the enhanced Fujita tornado scale,
containing evaluation of wind speeds, causing specific damage by different
indicators (construction sites, structures, and elements of the landscape).
The final section of the first chapter makes some conclusions on hydrody-
namic similarity of different forms of atmospheric air vortex motion.
The second chapter includes brief information on the largest vortices ex-
isting in the Earth atmosphere, such as cyclones and anticyclones. The authors
are strongly convinced that the knowledge and use of long-lasting cyclone and
anticyclone research in order to analyze small-scale atmospheric vortices, such
as whirlwinds (tornados), can be most expedient, since their hydrodynamic
nature is similar.
A great part of material, used on the second chapter, was taken from the
classical monograph of Pogosyan (1976), not claiming to be original. At the
beginning of the chapter, the composition and structure of the Earth atmo-
sphere as well as elementary data on the atmospheric pressure field are given.
Important notions on dry and moist adiabatic air temperature gradients are in-
troduced; they are used to define stable and unstable atmosphere equilibrium.
The conditions of formation of front areas and different atmospheric fronts,
greatly affecting the weather, are described. Data on the extratropical cyclones
and anticyclones, including the stages of their development, specific features
of air motion, the frequency and places of development and typical pressure
values are given. Atmospheric precipitations in the system of cyclones and
hurricane winds in the system of anticyclones are described. At the end of the
chapter, brief data on tropical cyclones are provided. A comparative analysis
of the conditions of generation and the properties of cyclones in tropical and
extratropical latitudes is made.

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 TORNADO

The third chapter provides a brief review of whirlwinds (tornados) and

vertical vortices. A significant part of the materials, used in this chapter, is
taken from the monograph by Nalivkin (1969), which is a bibliographic rarity
since long ago. It includes detailed data on the issues discussed and cannot
be claimed as original. The available factual material on the meteorological
phenomenon, such as whirlwinds (tornados), is provided in this chapter so as
to try a qualitative transition from the collection of descriptive data on whirl-
winds (tornados) to their modeling and analysis in the subsequent chapters.
At the beginning of the third chapter, whirlwind (vortex) clouds are de-
scribed. The part of the cloud, possessing an intense vortex motion, is an in-
tegral part of the whirlwind (tornados). Horizontal and towering whirlwind
clouds are discussed. Data on the whirlwind structure are provided. In ad-
dition to vortex formations in the mother (whirlwind) cloud, the whirlwind
includes a funnel and a cascade. The basic types of funnels and cascades of
atmospheric whirlwinds are described. Data on possible shapes of whirlwinds
are provided, and the main features of dense and blurred whirlwinds are dis-
cussed. The basic features of whirlwinds, such as development stages, motion
speed, lifetime, path length, typical sizes and their frequency, are described.
Data on different types of whirlwinds and vortices, such as invisible, dusty,
water, fire, and snow vortices, are provided. By their structure, the availability,
and the type of the carried substances, the invisible (dusty, water, etc.) vortices
are similar to invisible (dusty, water, etc.) whirlwinds. The most known whirl-
winds which occurred in the last 100–200 years in Russia (Moscow Whirl-
wind, Moscow Region Whirlwind), Western Europe (Monville Whirlwind,
etc.) and USA (Irving Tornado, Delphos Tornado, and Three State Tornado)
are described. An array of statistical data, concerning the prevalence of torna-
dos in USA, is discussed. At the end of the chapter, data on the investigations
of tornados, their damage and protection methods are provided.
The fourth chapter presents elementary data on vortex flows. The material
of the chapter was taken from different sources and is auxiliary by its charac-
ter, since the chapter is designed to help better understand the material of the
subsequent chapters. The basic notions, used for describing the kinematics of
vortex flows as well as basic characteristics of such flows, are described. Data
on very simple vortices — free, forced, and combined (Rankine vortex) — are
provided. The main hydrodynamics equations, such as the continuity equa-
tion, Navier–Stokes equation, and vorticity equation, are written in detail. The
vorticity equation plays a very important role in understanding the complex
physics of vortex flows; therefore, it is given a special attention. Solutions of

xi
 FOREWORD

elementary hydrostatic problems, such as the problem of the dropping liquid

equilibrium in a rotating vessel and the problem of gas equilibrium, are pro-
vided. The dry adiabatic gradient, a key notion of geophysical hydrodynamics,
is defined. The final section of the fourth chapter discusses in detail the causes
of the Coriolis force, responsible for the formation of the overwhelming ma-
jority of devastating vortex structures in the Earth atmosphere. The solutions
of classical problems of vertical motion of material point and of motion of
heavy material point in the horizontal plane due to the Coriolis force are dis-
cussed.
The fifth chapter describes some mathematical models of whirlwinds. Un-
fortunately, the use of the methods of direct numerical simulation, intensively
developed in the recent years, is difficult in tornado studies, primarily, because
of serious problems related to correct formulation of boundary and initial con-
ditions. Today, the simplified analytical and semi-empirical models of whirl-
winds, described in this chapter, are very important.
Models of tornados of different complexities are discussed. At the begin-
ning of the chapter, a simple analytical model of tornados, based on the Ber-
noulli equation for motionless air (tornado’s funnel) and moving (rotating) air,
is provided. A very simple solution for incompressible air, an accurate solution
for compressible air, and a solution for a stratified tornado are obtained. It is
demonstrated that even a simple model describes adequately the properties
of real whirlwinds. An analytical model, describing the initial stage of torna-
do development, is described. This model is based on the vorticity equation,
taking into account the impact of the Coriolis force and the presence of solid
(or liquid) particles. The process of development of vortex atmospheric for-
mations due to instability, caused by the growing vertical velocity component
towards the ground or the increasing concentration of suspended particles, is
analyzed.
The next section of the chapter gives a new class of analytical solutions of
the Navier–Stokes equations, which make it possible to predict characteristics
of complex vortex flows, including tornados. The known very simple solution
of the Euler (or Navier–Stokes) equations for a flat vortex sink (vortex source)
is generalized to the case, when an axial flow is superimposed on axisymmet-
ric vortex sinks. A new solution (exactly, a family of solutions) for a viscous
incompressible fluid allows construction of patterns of various vortex flows. In
particular, it can be used to study the formation of tornados near the surface
as well as to interpret the effect of a sharp expansion of the funnel at some
elevation above the ground. The last model described is the analytical model,

xii
 TORNADO

based on the system of hydrodynamics equations within the model of an ideal

incompressible fluid with due account for the Coriolis force. The appearance
of twist (swirl) in the positive direction (anticlockwise in the Northern Hemi-
sphere) in the part of the ascending twisted vortex near the ground due to a
substantial role of the Coriolis force in the development of tornados is justi-
fied. Accurate and approximate solutions, describing the steady-state flow in
the bottom part of the ascending twisted vortex are built. The produced solu-
tions make it possible to construct a physical pattern of the flow, contradicting
the common ideas of the tornado development and stability, which, however,
agrees very well with multiple full-scale observations.
The final section of the fifth chapter describes the results of some research,
devoted to numerical simulation of tornados.
The sixth chapter provides the results of original experimental research of
free concentrated vortices, being analogs of whirlwinds (tornados). The prin-
cipal opportunity for physical modeling of whirlwinds under laboratory condi-
tions without using mechanical twisting devices is demonstrated.
At the beginning of the sixth chapter, a simple experimental device for
controlled heating of the underlying surface (metal sheet) from beneath in or-
der to create unstable air stratification is described. Unstable air stratification
under specific conditions leads to the generation of free concentrated vortices
which are the subject of our investigation. The basic parameters of thermal
conditions, used for the generation and study of whirlwind characteristics, are
provided. Thermal modes of heating (cooling) of the underlying surface, as
well as the space–time field of air temperatures, in which unstable stratifica-
tion results in free vortices, are studied. The obtained data allow evaluating
the air heating rates and the horizontal and vertical temperature gradients, re-
quired for generating vortex structures. Some integral parameters of concen-
trated vortices (geometric dimensions, lifetime, motion velocity, etc.) using
video filming are evaluated. Different types of trajectories of motion of the
vortex structure basis are identified. The efficiency of different methods of vi-
sualization of free concentrated vortices is shown. The use of a flat light knife
(laser knife), together with visualization by means of magnesium and smoke
particles enabled the study of whirlwind funnel formation and evolution. The
results of measurement of the instantaneous velocity field in free concentrated
vortices are presented.
The seventh chapter includes the results of physical modeling of free vor-
tices in order to identify methods for their monitoring. The results of experi-
ments on the generation and study of stability of an unsteady-state vortex, de-

xiii
 FOREWORD

scribed in the previous chapter, allowed a qualitatively new level of modeling

and formulating, for the first time, the problem of study of different methods
of impact on vortex structures.
The seventh chapter begins with brief information on passive and active
methods of controlling vortex atmospheric formations. It is noted that, despite
numerous attempts made by scientists from different countries in order to pro-
pose different methods of impact on the above vortex atmospheric formations,
no efficient methods for controlling natural phenomena exist so far. Further
in the chapter, the results of experimental studies of the possibilities for con-
trolling air vortices are provided. The chapter describes the proposed and test-
ed method of impact on whirlwinds (tornados), i.e., the placement of barriers
in the form of vertical and horizontal meshes along the paths of vortex struc-
tures. The efficiency of this method was verified under laboratory conditions
by studying the impact of such barriers on the dynamics of a free vortex with
the structure similar to real tornados. A comparative analysis of mechanisms
and efficiency of vertical and horizontal meshes was made. It is noted that
such protection structures, due to their simple fabrication and low costs, are
unrivaled among the currently proposed methods of control in terms of cost
effectiveness.
The final section of the seventh chapter gives a brief analysis of the basic
physical mechanisms of impact of the proposed passive-active method on tor-
nados, which precondition its advantages.
The annexes include the description of the methods for estimating the tor-
nado hazardousness of the area. These data are taken from the official guide-
lines of the Russian State Committee on Nuclear and Radiation Safety. The
guidelines include recommendations on calculating the whirlwind character-
istics on the sites of location and construction of nuclear power facilities and
describe all stages of evaluation of the tornado hazardousness of the area, in-
cluding whirlwind parameters, needed to specify loads on buildings and struc-
tures important in terms of safety. These methods can be used to develop mea-
sures for protection of especially important facilities, located in areas with low
tornado hazardousness.
The authors express their gratitude to Scott Benjamin, Kristen Bobo, Jef-
frey Brown, Ann Webb, Krister Vindenes, Renata Virzintaite, Bryan Guarente,
Florencia Guedes, Hans Seidenstuecker, John Carrel, Debbie Clark, Tim Lin-
denbaum, Jackie Langholz, Daryl Marquardt, Jerilyn Myran, Frank W. Peters,
Jon Person, Alexandru Rosca, Martin Rey, Michael Phelps, and Robert Elzey
for the opportunity to use their photo material.

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 TORNADO

The authors also express their sincere gratitude to Academicians of the Rus-
sian Academy of Sciences V. E. Fortov, A. I. Leontiev, G. A. Filippov, V. A.
Levin, and A. M. Lipanov, Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy
of Sciences V. M. Batenin and Yu. V. Polezhaev, Professor A. F. Polyakov for
support of this work, and to postgraduate students M. A. Gorbachev and Yu.
A. Churov for their involvement in a series of investigations the results of
which are used in this book.
This book was supported by the Russian Science Foundation (Grant no.
14-19-00453).

xv
NOMENCLATURE

Dimensional quantities

a rate of gravitational settling of solid (liquid) particles; sound

velocity, m/s; thermal diffusivity of gas, m2/s
A region (zone) surface area, m2
cp isobaric heat capacity of gas, J/kg⋅K
cv isochoric heat capacity of gas, J/kg⋅K
d diameter of the streamlined body, m
f1 first Coriolis parameter, s–1
fG2 second Coriolis parameter, s–1
FG vector of the total mass force, N
Fc Coriolis force vector, N
Fx, Fy, Fz projections of the vector of the total mass force in the Cartesian
system of coordinates, N
g acceleration of gravity, m/s2
h typical vertical size; model screen height; protected facility
height, m
h1 mesh structure height, m
h2 height of the surface flow generating a vortex, m
H vortex height, m
l laboratory vortex height, m
l1 fixed barrier height, m
l2 mesh barrier height, m
lc Coriolis circle length, m
L space scale, tornado height, m
Lk propagation path length of the k intensity tornado, m
m material point mass, kg
p gas pressure, Pa
R the Earth radius, m; the universal gas constant, J/(kg⋅K)

xvii
 NOMENCLATURE

Rc Coriolis circle radius, m

r, φ, z radial, azimuthal (tangential), and axial coordinates in the cylin-
drical system of coordinates, m, rad., m
S entropy, J/K; total damage area, m2
T temperature of gas and underlying surface, K;
effective period of observations, s
Ta air temperature over the underlying surface, K
Tc temperature at the center of the underlying surface, K
U forward velocity of tornado, m/s
Uk forward velocity of the k intensity tornado, m/s
UGp forward velocity of the probable tornado, m/s
U gas velocity vector, m/s
Ur, Uφ, Uz projections of the gas velocity vector in the cylindrical system
of coordinates, m/s
Ux, Uy, Uz projections of the gas velocity vector in the Cartesian system
of coordinates, m/s
V rotational velocity of the tornado funnel wall, m/s
Vk rotational velocity of the k intensity tornado funnel wall, m/s
VGp rotational velocity of the probable tornado funnel wall, m/s
V vector of material particle velocity, m/s
Vx, Vy, Vz vector of material particle velocity projection in the Cartesian
system of coordinates, m/s
Wk propagation path width of the k intensity tornado, m
x, y, z longitudinal, lateral, and vertical coordinates in the Cartesian
system of coordinates, m

Greek symbols

β coefficient of volumetric expansion, K–1

Γ circulation, m2/s; temperature gradient, K/m
Δp p pressure difference between the center of the funnel and the
periphery of the probable tornado, Pa
μ coefficient of dynamic viscosity, N⋅s/m2
ν kinematic viscosity coefficient, m2/s
ρ gas density, kg/m3
ρp density of solid (liquid) particles, kg/m3
φ geographical latitude, rad.
τ time, s

xviii
 TORNADO

τc time of cooling of the underlying surface; time of motion

along the Coriolis circle, s
τh time of heating of the underlying surface, s
Ψ stream function, m3/s
G
ω gas vorticity vector, s–1
ω r , ω φ, ω z projection of the gas vorticity vector in the cylindrical system
of coordinates, s–1
ω x , ω y , ω z projection of the gas vorticity vector in the Cartesian system
of coordinates, s–1
Ω vector magnitude of the angular velocity; angular rotational
G velocity of the Earth, s–1
Ω vector of angular rotational velocity, s–1
Ω x , Ω y , Ω z projections of the angular velocity vector in the Cartesian sys-
tem of coordinates, s–1

Dimensionless quantities

a ratio of the actual number of tornados to the recorded number

k adiabatic index; tornado intensity class
kp calculated intensity class of probable tornado
mk the highest class of recorded tornados of the class in the area
n polytropic index; number of tornados recorded in the area
nk number of tornados recorded in the area, class k
N total number of tornados crossing the area
P annual probability of a tornado of the specific intensity class
P0 annual probability of a tornado-like event
Ps annual probability of a tornado-like event in the area
Ra Rayleigh number
Red Reynolds number for flow past a body
Rer radial Reynolds number
Reφ vortex Reynolds number
Ro Rossby number
S parameter of twisting

Greek symbols

Φ volume concentration of solid (liquid) particles

ψ stream function
xix
 NOMENCLATURE

Subscripts

∞ value at infinity
0 value at the initial instant of time; on the ground surface;
on the core boundary
c value at the center of the underlying surface
f value on the funnel surface
k value for the k intensity tornado
max maximum value
min minimum value
p value for the probable tornado.

xx
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER

1.1 Preliminary Remarks

The goal of this introductory chapter is to present brief data on the basic forms
of air vortex movement and discuss some of their characteristics.
Section 1.2 provides definitions of the basic forms of atmospheric air vor-
tex movement: cyclones (tropical and extratropical), hurricanes, storms, torna-
dos, hurricane tornados, and vortices. This simplifies the material understand-
ing, since these definitions (terms) are used throughout the book.
The following three sections of Chapter 1 provide the basic data on winds,
hurricanes, and tornados.
Section 1.3 presents the 12-level Beaufort wind force scale. The minimum
wind force, correspondent to the maximum level 12 of the Beaufort scale, is
32.7 m/s. The wind is called hurricane at this level.
Section 1.4 is devoted to hurricanes. First, the section presents the Saffir–
Simpson hurricane wind scale, which classifies hurricanes into five categories,
extending the wind force scale to hurricane force winds. Thus, the above wind
force of 33 m/s corresponds to a weak hurricane of the lowest category 1. It
further discusses some hurricane characteristics using the review of the 2005
Atlantic hurricanes. The paths of Atlantic hurricanes coincide with regions of
maximum whirlwind (tornado) activity. The year 2005 was very indicative,
because it was characterized by the record cyclone activity. The section also
uses hurricane Katrina to discuss the dynamics of hurricane development. This
hurricane was especially devastating by its force and the number of casualties
of all hurricanes ever occurring over the USA. At the end of the section, data
on the hurricane-type tornados in Atlantic hurricanes are analyzed. The infor-
mation on tornados sheds some light on the complex dynamics and hydrody-
namic similarity of vortical atmospheric formations of different scales.
1
2 CHAPTER 1

Section 1.5 presents data on whirlwinds (tornados). At the beginning, it

presents the Fujita scale of tornados, including six categories, which extends
the wind and hurricane scale to the strongest winds characterizing tornados.
Indeed, the wind speed 33 m/s (level 12 by the wind scale) corresponds only
to the lower level of a weak tornado F1, whereas the wind speed 70 m/s (cat-
egory 5 by the hurricane scale) does not reach the lower level of a strong
tornado F3. Violent tornados of the top category F5 are characterized by the
wind speed 117 m/s or more. It is noted that the classical Fujita scale does
not correlate the wind speed with the damage. The enhanced Fujita scale for
tornados, described further in this section, has no such drawback and contains
the assessment of the wind speed with a specific level of damage by different
indicators (construction sites, landscape elements and structures).
The final Section 1.6 provides some conclusions concerning the entire di-
versity of atmospheric air movement forms.
1.2 Basic Definitions
Definitions of the basic forms of vortical movement of atmospheric air, in-
cluding the description of their characteristics (sizes, wind speed, etc.), are
given below.
Cyclone is a giant atmospheric vortex, characterized by a reduced air pres-
sure in the center and the anti-clockwise air rotation in the Northern Hemi-
sphere and the clockwise air rotation in the Southern Hemisphere.
Cyclones are divided into tropical and extratropical.
A tropical cyclone is a cyclone that originates and develops in tropical lat-
itudes. The normal width of a tropical cyclone makes several hundreds of kilo-
meters, with the height from 6 to 15 km. The central part, the eye of the storm,
has the lowest pressure, weak winds, and low clouds. The eye of the storm
is surrounded by a ring of the cyclone walls, constituted by dense clouds and
characterized by hurricane rotational speeds. The cyclone walls evolve into
the peripheral part, where the wind speed gradually falls to no-wind condition.
An extratropical cyclone is a cyclone that emerges and develops in extra-
tropical latitudes. Its lateral dimensions exceed the dimensions of a tropical cy-
clone, making from one thousand kilometers (at the stage of development) to
several thousands of kilometers (at the stage of the so-called central cyclone).
Extratropical cyclones are characterized by relatively small wind speeds, al-
though, in some cases, they may reach storm or even hurricane wind speeds.
A hurricane is a tropical cyclone, characterized by an extremely reduced
pressure in the center and the wind speed reaching very high values. A hur-
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