MODULE NO.

01
MECHANICS

16-09-2023 ENGINEERING PHYSICS BY M. ASFAK 2

 TODAY’S DISCUSSION

➢ DATE: 16/09/23
➢ CLASS NO. PHY/LEC.01/M.AK/160923

➢ TOPICS:
1. INTODUCTION
2. FRICTION ANALYSIS
3. CONSTRAINTS
4. PROBLEM INCLUDING CONSTRAINED AND FRICTION.
3. BASIC IDEA OF VECTOR CALCULUS AND PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

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 ❖ INTRODUCTION / PRE INFORMATION
➢ MECHANICS. WHAT?
➢ IT IS THE APPLIED BRANCH OF SCIENCE IN WHICH DEALS WITH BEHAVIOUR OF PARTICLE, OBJECT AND BODY
UNDER THE ACTION OF FORCE AND AS WELL AS BODY IN MOTION OR REST.

➢ STATIC: BODY AT REST CONDITION OR IN EQUILIBRIUM

➢ DYNAMIC: BODY IN MOTION DUE TO FORCE OR ANY DISTURBENCE.

➢ EQUILIBRIUM MEANS BALANCE. IN PHYSICS AND ENGINEERING:

➢ STATIC EQUILIBRIUM: OBJECTS ARE AT REST, WITH NO NET FORCES OR TORQUES ACTING ON THEM.
➢ DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM: OBJECTS MOVE AT A CONSTANT VELOCITY WITH NO NET FORCES AFFECTING THEIR
MOTION.

➢ CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM:-

TRANSLATIONAL: ΣF (SUM OF FORCES) = 0
ROTATIONAL: ΣΤ (SUM OF TORQUES) = 0
CENTER OF MASS DOESN'T ACCELERATE.

FBD: A FREE-BODY DIAGRAM (FBD) IS A SIMPLIFIED VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF AN ISOLATED OBJECT,

SHOWING ALL THE FORCES ACTING ON IT AS ARROWS WITH THEIR DIRECTIONS AND LABELS. IT HELPS ANALYZE
THE FORCES AFFECTING THE OBJECT'S MOTION OR EQUILIBRIUM.
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 ❖ FRICTION ANALYSIS
➔ FRICTION: It is a type of force that opposes the relative motion bodies in contact. Suppose an
object moves or tends to move while in contact with another object or medium there is a always a
frictional force.

➔ The two kinds of friction:

➢ a) Static
➢ b) Kinetic (Sliding and Rolling).

➔ STATIC FRICTION (𝒇𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 ) : Friction b/w two contact object at rest or tends to move. The maximum
static friction of a body can exert on the other body in contact with it, is called limiting friction. The
limiting friction is directly proportional to the normal contact force b/w two bodies.
16-09-2023 ENGINEERING PHYSICS BY M. ASFAK 5
 ❖ FRICTION ANALYSIS

𝒇𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝝁𝒔 𝑵
Where,
𝒇𝐦𝐚𝐱= the maximum possible force on static friction.
𝝁𝒔 = Coefficient of static friction.
𝑵 = Normal force
➔ KINETIC FRICTION (𝒇𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 ) : Friction between two object when there is relative motion along the
two contact surface.

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 ❖ FRICTION ANALYSIS

𝒇𝒌 = 𝝁𝒌 𝑵

Where,
𝒇𝒌= the maximum possible force on static friction.
𝝁𝒌= Coefficient of kinetic friction.
𝑵 = Normal force

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 ❖ FRICTION ANALYSIS

LAW OF FRICTION
A. The frictional force, when body do not slip over each other (𝒇𝒔 ) is given by 0 < 𝒇𝒔 < 𝝁𝒔 𝑵
B. The frictional force, when bodies slip over each other (𝒇𝒌).
C. The frictional force 𝒇𝒌 or 𝒇𝒔 does not depend on the area of contact as long as the normal force is
same. It depends only on surface properties of contact surface.
D. The kinetic frictional force is independent of the relative velocity of the sliding surfaces.

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 ❖ CONSTRAINT MOTION
CONSTRAINT OF MOTION:
The constraint are the obstacles or geometrical restriction on the motion of a particle or a system of
particles.
The force which are responsible for the constraints are called the forces of constraints.
The particle motion is restricted to occur only along some specified path, or on surface.

SOME EXAMPLES OF C.M :

1. The motion of a bead along a horizontally stretched wire. It is restricted to move on a straight path.
2. The motion of the bob of a simple pendulum. It is restricted to oscillate in the vertical plane.
3. The motion of a train on the rails. It is confined along the rails only.
4. The motion of the gas molecules which are confined in a container. The motion is restricted by the
wall of container.
5. The motion of a rigid body is such that the distance between only two particles of the body
remains always constant.
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 ❖ CONSTRAINT MOTION
CLASSIFICATION OF C.M
The constraints of motion can be classified on the basis of any parameter of interest. We will classify the
constraints in this case on the basis of only two parameters, namely, time and velocity.

➢ Depending on time, constraints are classified as scleronomic constraints and rheonomic constraints.

➢ SCLERONOMIC CONSTRAINTS : These are the constraints which do not explicitly depend on time. Example
the motion of a point mass in a simple pendulum with a rigid support. The equation of constraint x2 + y2 = l2
is independent of time. We can represent scleronomic constraints in an equational form as follows:

𝒇 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 , 𝒛𝟏 ; 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 , 𝒛𝟑 ; 𝒙𝒏 , 𝒚𝒏 , 𝒛𝒏 = 𝟎

➢ RHEONOMIC CONSTRAINTS : These are the constraints which explicitly depend on time. A bead sliding on
a moving wire is an example of a rheonomic constraint. If the effective length ‘l’ of a simple pendulum
varies with time because of change of temperature, then it becomes an example of rheonomic constraint
as I = 𝒇(t). Similarly, a rheonomic constraint can be expressed as follows:

𝒇 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 , 𝒛𝟏 ; 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 , 𝒛𝟑 ; 𝒙𝒏 , 𝒚𝒏 , 𝒛𝒏 ; 𝒕 = 𝟎
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 ❖ CONSTRAINT MOTION

➢ Depending on velocity the constraints can be classified as holonomic and non-holonomic constraints

➢ HOLONOMIC CONSTRAINTS : If the relation of the constraints can be expressed as an equation and if they
are independent of velocity then such constraints are called holonomic constraints. When expressed in
equational form we get.

𝒇 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 , 𝒛𝟏 ; 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 , 𝒛𝟑 ; 𝒙𝒏 , 𝒚𝒏 , 𝒛𝒏 ; 𝒕 = 𝟎

➢ NON-HOLONOMIC CONSTRAINTS : If the constraints cannot be expressed in equational form and they are
dependent on velocity then such constraints are called non-holonomic constraints. If a gas is kept in a
spherical container with radius a and r is the position vector of a gas molecule then the condition of
constraint for motion of a molecule is given by. It is thus an example of a non-holonomic constraint

𝒓ത ≤ 𝒂 ⇒ 𝒓 − 𝒂 ≤ 𝟎

LETS GO TO DISCUSS ABOUT SOME RPROBLEMS……………………………

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 ❖ PROBLEMS INCLUDING CONSTRAINTS AND FRICTION

PROBLEM 1: The pulley system is shown in figure. Using Constraint method find the relation b/w the
acceleration of A & B.

Soln. Let l is the total length of the string and x1 and x2 are displacements of A & B at any instant of
time from fixed dotted line fig. (b) then constraint eqn.

𝒍 = 𝒙𝟏 + 𝝅𝑹 + 𝒙𝟐 (R is the radius of pulley)

or, x1 + x2 = constant
Now, differentiating w.r.t. time we have

𝒅𝒙𝟏 𝒅𝒙𝟐
𝒅𝒕
+ 𝒅𝒕
=𝟎 (1.1)

or, v1 + v2 = 0 or v1 = -v2 (v is the velocity of the mass)

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 ❖ INTRODUCTION
❖ PROBLEMS / PRE INFORMATION
INCLUDING CONSTRAINTS AND FRICTION

Again differentiating w.r.t. time (t)

𝒅𝒗𝟏 𝒅𝒗𝟐
+ =0
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

or, 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎 (a is the acceleration of mass A and B)

𝒂𝟏 = − 𝒂𝟐
The relation b/w 𝒂𝟏 & 𝒂𝟐 they are oppositely directed.

PROBLEM 2: The pulley system is shown in figure (a). Using constraint method, find the relation
between the acceleration of the block A, B and C.
Soln.
Let at any instant time (t) the displacements of the moveable points from fixed dotted line are
x1, x2, x3 and x4 figure (b).

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 ❖ INTRODUCTION
❖ PROBLEMS / PRE INFORMATION
INCLUDING CONSTRAINTS AND FRICTION

Here, x1 + x4 = l1 (length of the first string)

And (x2 - x4)+(x3 - x4) = l2 (length of the second string) (2.1)

Now differentiating equations (2.2) and (2.3) with respect to t, we have

𝒙ሶ 𝟏 + 𝒙ሶ 𝟒 = 𝟎 (2.2)

𝒙ሶ 𝟐 + 𝒙ሶ 𝟑 − 𝟐𝒙ሶ 𝟒 = 𝟎 (2.3)

Again differentiating equations (2.2) and (2.3) w.r.t. t we have

𝒙ሷ 𝟏 + 𝒙ሷ 𝟒 = 𝟎 or 𝒙ሷ 𝟏 = − 𝒙ሷ 𝟒

And 𝒙ሷ 𝟐 + 𝒙ሷ 𝟑 − 𝟐𝒙ሷ 𝟒 = 𝟎 or 𝒙ሷ 𝟐 + 𝒙ሷ 𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙ሷ 𝟏 = 𝟎

Or, 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 + 𝟐𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎 (2.4)

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 ❖ INTRODUCTION
❖ PROBLEMS / PRE INFORMATION
INCLUDING CONSTRAINTS AND FRICTION

Where 𝒂𝟏 = 𝒙ሷ 𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒙ሷ 𝟐 , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝟑 = 𝒙ሷ 𝟑 , are accelerations of particles A, B and C. Equation (3.2) is the

required constraint relation between the accelerations of the block A, B and C.

PROBLEM 3: Three masses m1, m2 and m3 are connected by massless thread as shown in fig.(a) The
horizontal table is frictionless. Find the relation between acceleration 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝟑.

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  PROBLEMS
 INTRODUCTION
INCLUDING CONSTRAINTS
/ PRE INFORMATION
AND FRICTION

Where 𝒂𝟏 = 𝒙̈ 𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒙̈ 𝟐 , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝟑 = 𝒙̈ 𝟑 , are accelerations of particles A, B and C. Equation (3.2) is the

required constraint relation between the accelerations of the block A, B and C.

PROBLEM 3: Three masses m1, m2 and m3 are connected by massless thread as shown in fig.(a) The
horizontal table is frictionless. Find the relation between acceleration 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝟑 .

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  PROBLEMS
 INTRODUCTION
INCLUDING CONSTRAINTS
/ PRE INFORMATION
AND FRICTION

Soln.

Let x1, x2 and x3 are respective distances of block m₁, m₂ and m3 which is shown in fig.(b).
Since the total length of the thread is constant, so

x1 + x2 + 2x3 = Constant 3.1

Now differentiating twice w.r.t t we have

𝒙̈ 𝟏 + 𝒙̈ 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙̈ 𝟑 = 𝟎

Since x1, and x2 decreases with time, so 𝒙̈ 𝟏 = −𝒂𝟏 and 𝒙̈ 𝟐 = −𝒂𝟐. x3 increases with time, so 𝒙̈ 𝟑 = 𝒂𝟑.

Therefore −𝒂𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝟑 = 𝟎

𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐
Therefore 𝟑 3.2
𝟐

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  PROBLEMS
 INTRODUCTION
INCLUDING CONSTRAINTS
/ PRE INFORMATION
AND FRICTION

PROBLEM 4: A pole of length l and negligible mass leans against a wall at an angle 𝜽 with the
horizontal. Find the constraint relating vertical velocity of one end to the horizontal velocity of the
other. Fig.(a)

Soln.

Let the distances of A and B from P at any time t are x1 and x2 fig.(b)

Now from ∆𝑨𝑷𝑩, constraint eqn. is

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 4.1

Now differentiating w.r.t. t, we have

𝟐𝒙𝟏 . 𝒙̇ 𝟏 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 . 𝒙̇ 𝟐 = 𝟎 4.2

𝒙𝟏
But 𝒙̇ 𝟏 = −𝒗𝟏 , so 𝒙̇ 𝟐 = 𝒙𝟐
= 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒗𝟏 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽
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  PROBLEMS
 INTRODUCTION
INCLUDING CONSTRAINTS
/ PRE INFORMATION
AND FRICTION

∴ 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗𝟏 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 where 𝒗𝟐 is the velocity of the end B. This is the relation between horizontal velocity
and vertical velocity.

PROBLEM 5: In Fig.(a), the pulley and string are ideal and friction is absent. Find the acceleration of
wedge when the system is released.

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  PROBLEMS
 INTRODUCTION
INCLUDING CONSTRAINTS
/ PRE INFORMATION
AND FRICTION

Soln. At any instant of time t, from Fig.(b), the constraint equation,

x1 + x2 = constant 5.1

Now, differentiating twice with respect to time gives

𝒙̈ 𝟏 + 𝒙̈ 𝟐 = 𝟎

Or, −𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎 5.2

where 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝟐 are acceleration of masses m and M. 𝒂𝟏 is -ve because x1 decreases with time.

𝒂𝟏 = 𝒂 𝟐 5.3

Again from Newton's Law of motion for the system along x-direction

𝑻 − 𝐦(𝒂𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽)= M𝒂𝟐 5.4

where T is the tension in the string. From Fig.(b), N is the normal reaction.
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  PROBLEMS
 INTRODUCTION
INCLUDING CONSTRAINTS
/ PRE INFORMATION
AND FRICTION

𝒎𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝑻 = 𝒎(𝒂𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽) 5.5

Now solving equations (5.3), (5.4) and (5.5), we have

𝒎𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒂𝟐 =
𝑴 + 𝟐𝒎(𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)
PROBLEM 6: The coefficient friction between two blocks shown in Fig.(a) is μ. The table is smooth.
Find the maximum horizontal force to be applied to the block of mass M such that the blocks move
together.

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  PROBLEMS
 INTRODUCTION
INCLUDING CONSTRAINTS
/ PRE INFORMATION
AND FRICTION
Soln.

The force on m due to M is towards right. By Newton's third force of friction on M by m is

toward left (FBD). Since there is no acceleration in the vertical direction so from FDB,

N₁ = mg

In the horizontal direction

μN₁ = ma

where a is the acceleration in the horizontal direction.

So μmg = ma

Or, μg = a

And F- μN₁ = ma

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  PROBLEMS
 INTRODUCTION
INCLUDING CONSTRAINTS
/ PRE INFORMATION
AND FRICTION

Or, F= μN₁+ ma = μmg + Mμg

=(M + m)μg

So maximum horizontal force F = (M + m)μg

PROBLEM 7: A block of mass M = 3 kg is resting on a rough inclined plane of inclination 30° as shown
in Fig.(a). The co-efficient of friction between the block and the plane is µ = 0.25. What minimum
force F should be applied perpendicularly to the plane on the block, so that the block does not slip on
the plane.

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  PROBLEMS
 INTRODUCTION
INCLUDING CONSTRAINTS
/ PRE INFORMATION
AND FRICTION

Soln.

Here Mg sin 𝛉> µMg cos

So the block has a tendency to slip in the downward direction. For not slipping, suppose F be
the minimum force is required.

Now N=F + Mg cos 30° 7.1

where N is the Normal reaction

Here N=F + Mg cos 30°

And Mg cos 30°= µN = µ(F + Mg cos 30°)

𝑴𝐠 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝟎°
or,
𝝁

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  PROBLEMS
 INTRODUCTION
INCLUDING CONSTRAINTS
/ PRE INFORMATION
AND FRICTION

𝟏
𝟑×𝟏𝟎×𝟐 𝟑
= − 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎 × = 60 – 25.98 = 34.02 N
𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝟐

Therefore, The minimum force required is 34.02 N.

PROBLEM 8: In the arrangement shown in Fig. (a) the bodies have masses m1, m2 and m3. There is a
friction between the table and mass m₁. The friction co-efficient is µ. Find the acceleration of the body
m2. The masses of the pulleys and the threads are negligible

Soln.

The constraint eqn. gives

a₁ = a2 + a2 8.1

and T = 2T₁ 8.2

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  PROBLEMS
 INTRODUCTION
INCLUDING CONSTRAINTS
/ PRE INFORMATION
AND FRICTION

where a2 and a2, are accelerations of masses m2 and m3. a₁ is the acceleration of mass m₁. T and T1
are the tensions of the thread shown in Fig.(b)

Now from Newtons second Law

𝒎𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 𝒂𝟐 8.3

𝒎𝟑 − 𝑻𝟏 = 𝒎𝟑 𝒂𝟑 8.4

𝑻𝟏 − 𝝁𝒎𝟏 𝒈 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒂𝟏 8.5

By combining & rearranging (8.1) to (8.5) we can easily solve for a.

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS
MECHANICS L.03

SEPTEMBER 30, 2023

PHY_LEC03_300923
BY M.ASFAK
 REPRESENTATION OF A VECTOR
A vector is represented analy cally by bold-faced le er such as or pu ng an arrow on the top of it such as in Fig. 1

Figure 1: Representa on Figure 2: Equality Figure 3: Opposite Vector Figure 4: Coplanar Vector

DEFINITIONS ABOUT VECTORS

EQUALITY OF VECTORS: Two vectors and are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude and direc on. (Fig.1)
NEGATIVE VECTOR: A vector having the same magnitude but direc on opposite to that of the given vector is called a
nega ve vector rela ve to that vector. In Fig.3. and are opposite vectors.

UNIT VECTOR: A vector of unit magnitude is called a unit vector. If any vector is of magnitude then the unit vector
𝑨⃗
is represented by
𝑨⃗

NULL OR ZERO VECTOR: It is a vector having zero magnitude. It has no definite direc on. It is denoted by .
COPLANAR VECTORS: If a system of vectors lie in the same plane, then they are called coplanar vectors. In fig.4.
are coplanar vectors.
COLLINEAR OR PARALLEL VECTORS: Vectors which have the same line of ac on or having lines of ac on parallel to the
same line are called collinear vectors.

RECIPROCAL VECTORS: A vector 𝟏

having the same direc on as that of a given vector but magnitude as the
𝟏
reciprocal of is known as the reciprocal vector of . Thus 𝟏
𝑨⃗

POLAR VECTORS: A vector which has a linear mo on in a par cular direc on and changes its sign under inversion or
reflec on is called a polar vector. Linear velocity, linear momentum, force, etc., are examples of polar vectors.
AXIAL VECTOR: A vector corresponding to the rota on about a certain axis is called an axial vector Angular velocity,
angular momentum, torque, etc., are axial vectors

RESOLUTION OF A VECTOR INTO COMPONENTS

Any vector can be resolved into component vectors along three axes of the Cartesian coordinate system. Here the three
axes OX, OY and OZ are mutually perpendicular to each other.
If , be the unit vectors along the x, y and z axes.
 𝒙 𝒚 𝒛 be the vector intercepts of A along the x, y and z axes respec vely,

then we may write 𝒙 𝒚 𝒛

By geometry, the magnitude of the vector is

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

or, 𝟐
𝒙
𝟐
𝒚
𝟐
𝒛 (i)

The unit vector along is given by

𝒚
𝒙 𝒛 ……………………. (ii)

𝒙 𝒚 𝒛 ……..……………. (iii)

are called the direc on cosines of vector . Generally, they are represented by the
le ers I, m and n respec vely and , , are the angles. Figure 5: Vector components

If we put the values of 𝒙 𝒚 𝒛 from Eq. (i) in Eq. (ii), we get

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

Thus, the sum of squares of the direc on cosines is equal to unity.

PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS

The product of two vectors is classified as
1. Scalar product or dot product,
2. Vector product or cross product

1. SCALAR OR DOT PRODUCT

The scalar product of two vectors and is equal to the product of the magnitudes
of these vectors mul plied by the cosine of the angle between them as shown in fig.5.

Hence,
Where, = angle between direc ons of A and B
Note that is a scalar and not a vector.

Figure 6: Scalar product of two vectors

Note: Some proper es
  Scalar product of two vectors obeys commuta ve law

 If two vectors are mutually perpendicular, , . This condi on is known as the

orthogonality condi on of two vectors. If this property is applied to a unit vector, then

 Scalar product of two vectors is distribu ve

 Scalar mul plica on is associa ve. If m, n are two scalars and A, B are two vectors, then

Physical Applica ons of Scalar Product

WORK DONE: Work done by a force causing a displacement is given by Fig.7.

Figure 7: Workdone by force.

POWER: The rate of doing work is power. So, power where is the

Where, is velocity of the body.

ELECTRIC FLUX: Let us consider an elementary area ds in an electric field E [Fig.8].
The normal electric flux coming out of the area = ds where is the outward unit
normal to the surface.

MAGNETIC FLUX : The magne c flux of a magne c field of flux density

Figure 8: Normal components of electric flux
passing normally through an area is

2. VECTOR OR CROSS PRODUCT

The vector product of two vectors and is defined as a vector whose magnitude is equal to the product of the
magnitudes of the vectors and the sine of the angle between their direc ons and its direc on is perpendicular to the
plane containing and The vector product is represented as

The direc on of is determined by the screw rule [Fig.] or any right-hand rule.
Note: Some Proper es
 Vector product does not obey commuta ve law.

 The distribu ve law for cross products holds good.

 The vector product is associa ve.

 For the orthonormal vector triad , , Figure 9: Cross product of two vectors

 If 𝒙 𝒚 𝒛 𝒙 𝒚 𝒛

𝒙 𝒚 𝒛
𝒙 𝒚 𝒛
Physical Applica on of Vector Product
MOMENT OF A FORCE OR TORQUE ( ): The moment of a force (or torque) about a fixed point is the vector ,
where is the posi on vector of the par cle and is the applied force.

ANGULAR MOMENTUM ( ): Angular momentum of a par cle is defined as the moment of linear momentum, i.e.,
, where p is the momentum of the par cle.
FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD: When a charged par cle moves in a magne c field, a force act
on it. If a charge q moves with a velocity in a uniform magne c field , then the force experienced by the charge is

TRIPLE PRODUCT
Suppose we have three vectors . If the vector product of two vectors and is a vector, this may be mul plied
scalarly or vectorially with the first vector . This is known as triple product.
There are two types of triple product

1) is known as scalar triple product.

2) is known as vector triple product.
 1) SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT
The scalar triple product of three vectors is a scalar and is represented as

Proper es of scalar triple product

The scalar triple product of three vectors , represents the volume of a parallelepiped whose three adjacent sides
are .

The volume of the parallelepiped with sides , (Fig)

= (Height of the parallelepiped) x Area of the base

The sign of can be either posi ve or nega ve according as ,

and do or do not form a right- handed system. The scalar quan ty
denotes the volume of the parallelepiped.
Figure 10: Volume of the parallelepiped
Any face of the parallelepiped may be taken as base. Hence, its volume can be represented by any of the three
expressions

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
2) Vector Triple Product
The vector triple product of three vectors is a vector product of one vector with the vector product of the other
two vectors. The vector triple product of three vectors is .
Vector triple product can be wri en as the sum of two terms

In general,

The vector represents a vector coplanar with and . but , represents a vector coplanar
with and . So, the product does not represent the same vector.
 SCALAR AND VECTOR FIELDS
A field is a region in space in which a func on is defined at every point. According to the nature of the physical quan ty,
there are two main kinds of fields:
(a) Scalar fields
(b) Vector fields

SCALAR FIELD
The region of space in which a scalar quan ty is con nuous and is defined by a single value at every point of posi on
variable is known as scalar field.
A scalar field is represented by a scalar func on of posi on coordinates in space. If the scalar
quan ty is also varying with me, then func on is . The scalar field independent of me is called sta onary
or steady state scalar field.
Examples:
a) The scalar func on 𝟐
defines a scalar field.
b) The electrosta c poten al or gravita onal poten al at a point in space are the examples field.
c) The distribu on of temperature in a medium at a certain me defines a scalar field.
VECTOR FIELD
The region of space in which a vector quan ty is con nuous and is defined by a single value at every point o posi on
variable is called vector field. A vector field is represented by a vector func on of posi on of scalar co-
ordinates in space. If the vector quan ty is also varying with me then func on is . The vector field
independent of me is called sta onary vector field.
Examples:

a) The vector func on 𝟐

defines a vector field
b) The distribu on of electric and magne c field intensi es are the examples of vector fields.
c) The velocity of a moving par cle through medium represents vector field.

PARTIAL DERIVATIVE OF VECTORS

If a vector be the func on of three independent variables then par al deriva ve of with respect to
𝝏𝑨⃗
is wri en as
𝝏𝒙

∆𝒙→𝟎

Similarly,
 ∆𝒚→𝟎

and

∆𝒛→𝟎

If we alter three variables by the infinitesimal amounts dx, dy, dz then change of vector (differen al of )
The par al deriva ve of vectors are similar to those used in elementary calculus for scalar func on.

GRADIENT OF SCALAR FIELD

If be a scalar func on of posi on of coordinates in space, then y can be differen ated with respect
to keeping the other two coordinates constant. This type of differen a on is known as par al deriva ves.
The par al deriva ves along the three orthogonal axes are

The gradient of a scalar point func on is defined as and given by

 ……………………. (1)

where vector differen al operator (del) is defined as

The 'del' operator is a vector operator, when it operates on a scalar point func on; it converts the scalar func on
into a vector func on, grad is a vector quan ty.
According to the theory of par al deriva ves.

……………………. (2)

This shows how varies as we go a small distance (dx, dy, dz), away from the point ( ). The above rela on

can be wri en as
 ……………………. (3)

Where,
is the infinitesimal displacement vector.

GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE GRADIENT

Like an ordinary vector, a gradient has both magnitude and direc on. From above Eq. (3), we have

……………………. (4)

Where,

is the angle between the vector and , For a fixed value of Id , the maximum change of occurs when
= 0. So, for fixed distance , is greatest when one moves in the same direc on as .
Pu ng = 1 in Eq. (4) we get maximum rate of increase of the func on,

𝒎𝒂𝒙

The gradient of a scalar field is a vector whose magnitude is equal to the maximum rate of change of scalar field and
direc on is along that change. The func on is called poten al func on or simply poten al.
 EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE
Any surface over which the poten al is constant is called Electric field
an equipoten al surface. For an equipoten al surface is always
perpendicular to each point of the surface . Two equipoten al
surfaces can never intersect. The poten al difference between any
two points on an equipoten al surface is zero.
Example:
For a point charge, the electric field is radial. The equipoten al
surfaces are concentric spheres with charge at the centres. The
electric field is always perpendicular to an equipoten al surface.

The electric field intensity, where is the electric

poten al. Figure 11: Equipoten al surface

 DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVE
Suppose represented a unit vector along a specific direction. The component of along is . . This is
known as the directional derivative of along . The directional derivative of in the direction is the
component of along . Since is equal to the largest directional derivative of .
 DIVERGENCE OF VECTOR FIELD
The divergence of a vector field at any point is defined as the net ou low or flux of that field per unit volume. The
divergence of a vector point func on is denoted by div and can be wri en as

𝒙 𝒚 𝒛

𝒙 𝒚 𝒛

 PHYSICAL MEANING
is the measure of how much the vector spreads out (i.e., diverges) from the point in ques on.
 For example, the vector func on in Fig.(a) has a large posi ve divergence at the point A. It indicates a net ou low,
while a nega ve value of divergence [Fig. (b)] represents a net inflow and the func on in Fig. (c) has zero divergence at
A: it is not spreading out at all. In this case and it implies that there is no inflow or ou low.

A vector , which sa sfies the condi on div is called a solenoidal vector. For example, the magne c field
vector is a solenoidal vector.

CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD

The curl of a vector field at any point measures the rate of rota on of that vector. The curl of a vector field is also known
as circula on or rota on. The curl of a con nuously differen able vector point func on is defined by the
equa on

𝒙 𝒚 𝒛

𝒙 𝒚 𝒛
 𝒛 𝒚 𝒛 𝒙 𝒚 𝒙

 PHYSICAL MEANING
Curl It is a measure of how much the vector 'curl around’ the point in ques on. For example, the existence of curl of
, the velocity at a point in a space indicates circula on or vor city at that point of the liquid flow. If curl , it means
that if a wheel is placed in the liquid, it will not rotate. But if curl , the wheel will rotate.
If a free magne c pole is placed near a current-carrying conductor, the pole rotates around the conductor which means
𝒄 , so curl . But in the case of an electrosta c field. 𝒄 , so, curl .
The curl of a vector field at a point is defined as the amount of maximum line integral at any point in vector field per
unit area around a closed curve and is directed along the normal to the plane of the area.
∮𝒄 𝑨⃗.𝒅⃗𝒍
Thus, 𝒎𝒂𝒙
∆𝒔→𝟎 ∆𝒔

IRROTATIONAL VECTOR: If the curl of a vector field is zero then the vector field is called an irrota onal vector.
Gravita onal field, electrosta c fields, etc., are irrota onal fields.
  CURL IN THE CONTEXT OF ROTATIONAL MOTION
Consider a rigid body R rota ng about an axis passing through O [Fig.13] with an angular velocity . If be the
posi on vector of a point P on the rigid body, then its linear velocity

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑

𝟐 𝟑 𝟑 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐

So,

𝟐 𝟑 𝟑 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
Figure 12: Rota onal mo on of a rigid body
Thus, we see that the curl of a vector field is associated with the rota onal proper es of the vector field and shows
that the angular velocity of a uniformly rota ng body is one half the curl of the linear velocity

o Some Important Rules on Gradient, Divergence and Curl

o Line Integra on
Let be an element of length on a smooth curve PQ and
be con nuous vector point func on. The scalar product
of with the line element is called the line integral of
the vector and for an extended path it will be equal to
the integral
𝑸 𝑸

𝑷 𝑷

It is defined as the line integral of the vector along the

curve PQ [Fig], where is the angle between A and Figure 13: Elementary length dl along the curve PQ.
elementary length . In terms of the components of
along three cartesian coordinates, we have

𝑸 𝑸

𝒙 𝒚 𝒛
𝑷 𝑷
 𝑸

𝒙 𝒚 𝒛
𝑷

If the path of integra on is a closed curve, then we write instead of

If the value of line integral depends only on the ini al and final points in the vector field and independence of
the path then the vector field is called conserva ve field. All central force fields such as gravita onal field and
electrosta c field are conserva ve fields. For a conserva ve force field,

If the line integral over a closed path in a vector field is zero, then will be the gradient of a scalar func on
i.e. , where is the scalar point func on. If is conserva ve then will be zero.

CONSERVATION LAWS
CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
It states that the total momentum of an isolated system is constant, no ma er how strong the interac on among its
cons tuents and no ma er how complicated the mo ons.
If the linear momentum of a par cle, then from Newton's second law of mo on
where is the external force ac ng on the par cle. When external force .

i.e. = constant
This is in accordance with the law of conserva on of momentum. For a system containing a number of par cles, total
momentum of the system.
𝒏

𝒊
𝒊 𝒍

From Newton's second law and third law

𝒆𝒙𝒕

Where 𝒆𝒙𝒕
is the total external force ac ng on a system of par cles.
Now if total external forces ac ng on a system of par cles is zero than 𝒆𝒙𝒕
=0
So,

CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

It states that if net external torque ac ng on a system is zero, then total angular momentum of the system is conserved.

Angular momentum.
where is the posi on vector and is the linear momentum. Torque ( ) is defined as the me rate of change of angular
momentum. Hence torque

Now for a system of a par cles we can write

𝒏 𝒏

𝒊 𝒊 𝒊
𝒊 𝒍 𝒊 𝒍
 𝒏 𝒏 𝒏
𝒊 𝒊
𝒊 𝒊 𝒊 𝒊
𝒊 𝒍 𝒊 𝒍 𝒊 𝒍

𝒏 𝒏 𝒏
𝒊 𝒊
𝒊 𝒊 𝒊 𝒊
𝒍
𝒊 𝒍 𝒊 𝒍 𝒊 𝒍

𝒅𝒑⃗𝒊
where 𝒊 , is the net force ac ng on ith par cle.
𝒅𝒕

Here total force

𝒆𝒙𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒕

If 𝒆𝒙𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒕
the sum of all internal forces ac ng on all the par cles, then from Newton's third law the f between
any two par cles are equal and opposite so that their sum is zero. So, 𝒊𝒏𝒕
=0.
The internal forces occur in equal and opposite pairs, so the contribu on of internal forces in the total torque ( ) ac ng
on the system is zero.
So,
 𝒏
𝒆𝒙𝒕
𝒊 𝒊
𝒊 𝒍

If
Therefore, if total external torque ac ng on the system is zero, total angular momentum of the system remains
conserved. This is the principle of conserva on of angular momentum.

CONSERVATIVE FORCE
A force is said to be conserva ve force if the work done by the force on a par cle along closed path is equal to zero. If
is a conserva ve force, then

Electrosta c force, gravita onal force, central force, spring force are conserva ve forces.
The work done in conserva ve force field depends only upon the ini al and final points of the path.
Example
Let a par cle moves from the point P to the point along three different paths [Fig.(a)] in
conserva ve force field.
The work done in three different paths are i.e.
. . .

𝑷𝑸
𝑷𝑨𝑸 𝑷𝑩𝑸 𝑷𝑪𝑸
Figure 14(a): Three different path
Now we consider a closed path PAQCP, Fig.(b) in the conserva ve force field. lines
The par cle is moving from P to Q along PAQ and back Q to P along QCP path.
The total workdone
. .

𝑷𝑨𝑸𝑪𝑷
𝑷𝑨𝑸 𝑸𝑪𝑷
. .

𝑷𝑨𝑸𝑪𝑷
𝑷𝑨𝑸 𝑸𝑪𝑷
Or

So, for a conserva ve force field, the workdone along a closed path is zero.
For conserva ve force,

Where is the scalar poten al energy of the par cle.

Figure 14(b): Closed Path

POTENTIAL ENERGY
The poten al energy of a par cle is defined as the capacity of doing work by virtue of its posi on. It is denoted by
For conserva ve force field we have

By using Stoke's theorem the line integra on can be converted by surface integra on, where surface is bounded by
the closed path.

So, for conserva ve force

Since the curl of force is zero, the force can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar func on.
Where is the poten al energy of the par cle. The -ve sign indicates that the direc on of is along which the
poten al energy decreases.

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The work done by the conserva ve force in moving a par cle from posi on 1 to 2 is
𝟐 𝟐

𝟏𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝟐

𝟏 𝟐
𝟏

Where 𝟏 𝟐 are poten al energies at posi on 1 and 2.

The work done is equal to the difference between the poten al energy of the par cle in those two posi ons. If a
par cle of mass m moves from posi on I to posi on 2 under the ac on of an external force, then work done
𝟐 𝟐

𝟏𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
 𝟐

Since, ( = )
𝟐
𝟐

𝟐 𝟏

Where 𝟐 𝟏, are the kine c energies of the par cle at posi on 1 and 2 respec vely.

𝟏𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏

𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐

where E is called total mechanical energy of the par cle which is conserved. The total energy of an isolated system
always remains constant.
In a conserva ve force field, the total mechanical energy is conserved. It is independent of the posi on of the par cle.
NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCE
A force is said to be non-conserva ve if the work done in moving the
par cle from one posi on to the other depends on the path followed by
the par cle. Fric onal force, viscous force, rocket propulsion, air drag
force, tension force are the examples of non-conserva ve force. Fric onal
force, viscous force always opposes the mo on of a par cle. So, these
forces perform -ve work. Some of these -ve work around a closed path
cannot be zero. So fric onal force, viscous force are non-conserva ve
force. An object falling through the air experience conserva ve
gravita onal force and the non-conserva ve force of air fric on. Forces
Figure 15: Mo on of a block
that do not store energy are called non conserva ve or dissipa ve force.
Example : n a table top a block is moving from A to B in two different paths. The fric onal force does more work on the
block, if the block moves along the indirect path (path APB) across the table top. The fric onal force does less work, if
the block moves along the direct path (path AQB). Here the fric onal force is non-conserva ve force.
 1.18 RIGID BODY
Arigid body is a solid body in which deformation is zero or so smal, it can be neglected. The distance
between any two particles constituting the rigid body remains constant in time regardless of external force
exerted on it. A rigidbody is usually considered as a continuous distribution of mass. In a rigid body, the
internal force do not work so the internal potential
energy of the system always remains constant. Any
body which does not undergo deformation under the
action of forces is said to be the rigid body. There are
two types of rigid body motion-(a) Translational or Deformed body Rigid body
Linear motion (b) Rotational motion. (a) (b)
Sometimes a rigid body may have combination of Fig. 1.30
both translational and rotational motion.

1.18.1 Translational Motion

For translational motion of a rigid body, all the points of the body have the same displacement, the same
velocity and the same acceleration at a given instant. Fig. 1.31 represent the translational motion of a rigid
body from is position P to a position Q.
A
-B
B

(Position P) (Position Q)
Fig. 1.31 Translational motion of a rigid body

1.18.2 Rotational Motion

A rigid body is said to be in pure rotatory motion if it rotates abouta fixed axis (a fixed line perpendicular to
the plane of motion). The fixed axis of rotational may be inside [Fig. 1.32a] or outside [Fig. 1.32b] the body.
 M2
M3

(a) (b)
Fig 1.32 (a) Fixed axis of rotation inside the body, (b) Fixed axis of rotation outside the body

1.18.3 Motion of a Rigid Body in Plane

For rigid body the motion is said to plane motion if the motion of any particle of the rigid body is confined
to a plane with some condition that for any two particles of the rigid body their plane of motion are either
completely identical or parallel. Example of plane motions are shown in Fig. 1.33(a, b)

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.33 (a) Sphere or disc rolling down in an Fig. 1.33 (b) Oscillation of pendulum in a
inclined plane plane.

1.19 ANGULARVELOCITY VECTOR

Angular velocity is avector with its magnitude measures the rate of rota
tion. The direction of angular velocity is along the direction of axis of
rotation. For right-hand rule the direction of thumb gives the direction of
angular velocity vector which is shown in Fig. 1.34.
In certesian co-ordinate system in 3D the position vector.
Y=in+y + kz (1.89)
By differentiating Y with respect to t we get translational velocity
and acceleration. Fig. 1.34 Right handed rule
Similarly if we divide angular position vector into angular co-ordinates ,, , and 6, then
õ=ie, +je, +ke. (1.90)
The vector commutative relation gives A+ B= B+ A. But fronm diagran [Fig. 1.35] the 3D rigid body
undergoes two 90° rotations about thex and y axes does not commute i.e.,
îe,+ je, je, +io,
 So the angular position 0 can't be represent by a vector. But anguar
velocity, the, rate of change of angular position is a vector.
Angular velocity for rigid body in 3D is
ö=i0, +je, +kô.
=îw, + jo, +ko,
where o,= 0,, angular velocity along -direction. 0, = 0 , angu
lar velocity along y-direction and o, = 6.,angular velocity along
direction.
Pig, 1.35 io, +j0, jo, +io,
1.20 MOMENT OF INERTIA
Ageometric quantity which is most important in the case of rigid body motion is knowIn as monent of inertia,
Moment of inertia plays same role in rotational motion as mass does in translational motion. We can define
moment of inertia about a given axis, as the property of body by virtue of whieh it is unable to changeits
position of rest or of uniform rotational motion without the help of an external torque,
Moment of inertia depends upon
(i) axis of rotation
(ii) mass of the body
(iii) distribution of mass about the axis of rotation

1.20.1 Kinetic Energy and Rotational Inertia

Let mË, M, M3, .m,, are the masses of the constituent particles of a
rigidbody of mass Mrotating about the axis YY with an angular veloc
ity o [Fig. 1.36] and their distances Iromn axis of rotation are j, ), s

The total kineticenergy of the body is given by

2 mn'a'mejo'
2 wo'... Piy, I,30 lotation of rigid bly

1.9)
2

where / Sm is known as moment of inertia,

Hence, the monent of inertiaof a hody abot anuxis 0sdelined as the hu) of he product of the msANS
different particles constituting the hody nd the square of their distaces lom e xis of otion.
1.20.2 Radius of Gyration
Radius of gyration of a body about an axis is that distance at which if whole of the mass of the body were
concentrated, it would have same moment of inertia as that of the body. Mathematically, radius of gyration
K is written as

(1.92)

where M is the whole mass of the body concentrated at a point and I is the moment of inertia. The dimension

of K has the length. For a continuous mass distribution K =

1.20.3 Theorem of Moment of Inertia

There are two important theorem on moment of inertia. By these theorems we can easily calculate the moment
of inertiaof the body about an axis when the moment of inertia about some other axis is known.
A.Theorem of perpendicular axes (for a plane Lamina)
Statement: The theorem state that the sum of the moment of inertia
of a plane lamina about any two mutually perpendicular axes in its X
plane is equal to its moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to
the plane of the lamina and passing through the point of intersection ly
of the first two axes. X
Mathematically, I,=1,+1, (1.93)
where ,, I, and 1, represent the moments of inertia of the lamina
about the axes OX, OY, 0Z respectively. This theorem is applicable
only to the plane bodies. Fig. 1.37 Perpendicular axis theorem
B. Theorem of parallel axis
Statement: This theorem state that the moment of inertia of a lamina about an axis is the sum of the moment
of inertia of the lamina about a parallel axis passing through the centre of mass of the lamina (both axis lying
in the plane of the lamine) plus the product of the mass of the lamina and A
square of the distance between two axes.
Mathematically I=1+M (1.94)
Here r is the perpendicular distance between two axes [Fig. 1.38]. I, is
the moment of inertia about an axis AB passing through the centre of mass
B
of the lamina.M is the mass of the lamina. Iis the moment of inertia about
an axis CD which is parallel to AB. Fig. 1.38 Parallel axis theorem
1.20.4 Moment of Inertia of Some Common Bodies A

1. Uniform thin rod

Suppose the rod is rotating about an axis passing through its centre and dx
perpendicular to its length [Fig. 1.39] Let L is the length of the rod and M
is the mass of the rod.
B
Let us consider an element dx at a distance x from the axis of rotation
AB, passing through its centre 0. Fig, 1.39 Rotation of uniform
thinrod
 M
Mass per unit length of the rod =
L
M
Mass of the element da, dm = -dx
M
Moment of inertia of the element dx about AB is

.:. Total moment of inertia of the whole rod about AB is

L/2 L/2
M
I=
L LL3
-L/2

M' (1.95)
12
2. Moment of inertia of uniform thin rod about an axis passing through A
its centre of mass and making an angle with the rod. xsin
Here moment of inertia of the element dx about AB [Fig. 1.40] is
dl = dn(x sin 0)
M B
sin 0 d
L Fig. 1.40 Rotation of uniform thin
.:. Total moment of inertia rod (axis makes an angle
L/2 with the rod)
M
sin dx
-L/2
L

M MI?
L
sin sin (1.96)
3 -LI2 12

Case I: If axis is coincides with the rod, =0

I=0
Case I: If axis is perpendicular to the rod = 90°
MI?
I=
12 A

3. Moment of inertia of a circular disc rotating about an axis passing through its
d
centre and perpendicular to its plane.
Let M be the mass and R is the radius of the disc [Fig. 1.41]. The centre is at 0
and the axis AB is perpendicular to the plane of the disc. Let us consider a con
centric circular strip of the disc of radius of x and thickness dr. B
The area of the elementaryring is 2Txdx. The area of the plane is uR Since
M Fig. l.41 Rotationof
the plane is uniform, itsmass per unit area= circular disc.

M 2M xdx
Mass of the ring= -2Txdx =
R? R?
 (1.97) co TR1. uniform (0.98)
a
cylinder
consider
dx| solid
exlinder
of
Rotation
us the Y -X
Letof cylinder.
Volume
1.42]. 1.42
[Fig.
I. Fig. the
theorem] cylinder of
theorem] length
YY
axisthe
axes the
axes an of on
perpendicular length
axis about
parallel is depends
axis MR?
its
rotating
about The given 2
MR? [by dx. whole
cylinder 7R2M4
R2
4Jo
not
is by
2 diameter cylinder the does
AB =(d= MR
R thickness nRI
radius 2M
about cylinder
aboutMxdx
2 is MR? M
disc its 1'== + solid
R' R2
4
MR? 1"=÷MR andand = inertia
MR
ring about tangent 4 cylinder l 2MR² the
whole d2rx 2 solid
R 2 4 uniforn
Mx of
whole is radius of dl=
dl disc l inertia
the about cylinder dx x -.r
dr moment the
a
the 2x
the of of of 2M of
of of M of inertia
of
inertia inertia inertia inertiashell length =
its moment
the shell =
inertia shell x,
of of of of cylindrical is of
moment moment moment of mass unitthe moment
the radius total
of Moment
Moment
per of
the Volumeof The
The
axial Mass Mass its The
The The Let As .:.
4.
1.20.5 Moment of Inertiaof Different Bodies having Regular Shapes about
Particular Axes of Rotation

Shape of body Axis of rotation Moment of Inertia Radius of gyration (K)

1. Circular ring (a) Perpendicular to the plane of ring MR' R

R
(b) any diameter MR
2

(c) any tangent in the plane of the ring MR? V3R

2

R
2. Circular disc (a) About perpendicular axes. MR?
2

R
(b) any diameter MR2
4

5
(c) tangent in the plane of the disc -MR -R
4 2

1 R
3.Cylinder (solid) (a) about own axis
2
-MR?

R' R?
(by through centre perpendicular to length M4 *
V4
+
12

M
4. Cylinder fhollow) (a) about own axis R+ R
2

(b) through centre perpendicular to length M i+R, |R+ R, +

4 4 12

2
5. Solid sphere (a)about a diameter MR?

(b) about tangent MR²

2
6. Hollow sphere (a) about a diameter MR?
3
V3
w
(b) about a tangent
3
MR
7. Hollow sphere
with inner and out (a) about a diameter
2
M (R- RË) |2 (R- R)
5 (R}- R)
radius V5(R- R)
8. Rectangular M(a' +b)
Lamina of sides a (a) about perpendicular axis a'+b?)
12 12
and b.
 1.21 ACCELERATION OF A RIGID BODY ROLLING DOWN AN INCLINED
PLANE
Let us consider a rigid body of mass M and radius R rolling down a plane A
inclined at an angle to the horizontal without slipping [Fig. 1.43]
Atthe initial position A, the velocity of the body =0. After traversing a
distance xr along the plane, let velocity at the position B be v. The vertical B
distance = sin 0. The loss of potential energy equal to Mgx sin 0. If there
is no loss of energy due to friction, the loss of potential energy equal to gain
in kinetic energy. Fig. 1.43 Rigid body rolling
down an inclined
The gain in kinetic energy = 2 Mu +lo
2
(1.99) plane.
where I is the moment of inertia about the axis of rotation.

Mu +lo' =Mgx sin

2

Or,
My'41,' = Mgx sin
2 2 R?
2Mgx sin
Or,
M+
R
2gx sin G
(1.100)
1+
MR
Again v = 2ax where a is the linear acceleration
g sin 0 g sin
Acceleration, a = [K is the radius of gyration] (1.101)
1+
K?
MR R
Acceleration is independent of mass of the body.
K? is small
Acceleration is large when
R
Particular Cases
R' 2
8Sin9
(i) For solid cylinder K= and a =
2

(ii) For solid sphere K'=R and a= 78sine

Acceleration of solid sphere is greater than the acceleration of solid cylinder having same radius.
Sosolid sphere falls faster than a solid cylinder.
 B
sin
g
3
sin
a= g
and
=
a
R and
2= 3
R
K* =
sphere K*
ring
hollow circula
For For
(iii) (iv)
EP- OPTICS
BSPH-101 BY M.ASFAK
 SYLLABUS

➢ Distinction between interference and diffraction, Fraunhofer and Fresnel

diffraction, Fraunhofer diffraction at single slit, double slit, and multiple
slits ( only the expressions for max;min, & intensity and qualitative
discussion of fringes); diffraction grating(resolution formulaic only),
characteristics of diffraction grating and its applications.

➢ Polarisation : Introduction, polarisation by reflection, polarisation by

double reflection, scattering of light, circular and elliptical polarisation,
optical activity.

➢ Lasers : Principles and working of laser : population inversion,

pumping, various modes, threshold population inversion with examples.

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 DIFFRACTION

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 Q. What is meant by diffraction of light? Distinguish between Fresnel and Fraunhofer
classes of diffraction.

Answer: Diffraction refers to various phenomena which occur when a wave (light) encounters an
obstacle. The diffraction phenomenon is described by the bending of waves around small obstacles and the
spreading out of waves past small openings.

Diffraction of light can be divided into two classes:

1. Fraunhofer diffraction
2. Fresnel diffraction

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 Q. What is the difference between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction?

Sl No. Fresnel Fraunhofer

Source and the screen are at finite distance Source and the screen are at infinite
1
from the diffracting aperture. distance from the diffracting aperture.
Incident wave fronts are spherical or Incident wave fronts on the diffracting
2
cylindrical. obstacle are plane.
For obtaining Fresnal diffraction, zone For this, single, double slits or gratings
3
plates are used. are used.
Plane diffracting wave fronts are
Convex lens is not needed to converge the
4 converged by means of a convex lens to
spherical wave fronts.
produce diffraction pattern
The centre of diffraction pattern may be
The centre of the diffraction pattern is
5 bright or dark depending upon the number
always bright.
of Fresnel zones.

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 Q. What is the difference between interference and diffraction?

Sl No. Interference Diffraction

Interference is due to interaction of light
Diffraction is due to interaction of light
coming from two different wave fronts
1 coming from different parts of the same
originating from the same source.
wave front.

Diffraction fringes are not of the same

2 Interference fringes are of the same width.
width.
All bright fringes are not of the same
3 All bright fringes are of the same intensity.
intensity.
All points of minimum intensity are perfectly All points of minimum intensity are not
4
dark. perfectly dark.
The spacing between fringes is uniform. The spacing between fringes is not
5
uniform.

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NOTE POINT (ONLY FOR UNDERSTANDING)

Resultant of “n” simple harmonic motions of equal

amplitude and period, and phases increasing in
arithmetic progression (Vector polygon method):

Let a particle be affected simultaneously by “n” simple

harmonic vibrations of equal amplitude “a” and having
common phase difference “δ” between successive vibrations.
The resultant amplitude and phase are “R” and "∅"
respectively.
The resultant amplitude is given by the following relation as:

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 Q. Give Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit and show that the relative intensities of
successive maxima are nearly
1 : (4/9π2) : (4/25π2) : . . . . . . . .

Answer: Let a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength λ, produced by a point source S be incident
upon a converging lens (L1) and emerging light from it, falls upon a slit AB of width ‘a’ where it gets diffracted. If
a converging lens (L2) is placed in the path of the diffracted beam, a real image of the diffraction pattern is
formed on the screen in the focal plane of the lens.

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 Figure: Diffraction due to single slit

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Q. Explain the Fraunhofer diffraction due to double slit. Explain missing order in double
slit pattern.

Answer: Let a monochromatic plane wave front of wave length ‘λ’ is incident normally on both the slits.
The double slits have been represented as A1B1 and A2B2 in Fig. The slits are narrow and rectangular in
shape. Let the width of both the slits be equal and it is ‘a’ and they are separated by length ‘b ’.

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 Figure: Intensity distribution due to double slit diffraction.

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 Q. What do you mean by diffraction grating? Give construction and theory of plane
transmission grating. Also give the conditions for central maxima, secondary minima
and secondary maxima.

Answer: A plane diffraction grating is an arrangement consists of a large number of close, parallel,
straight, transparent and equidistant slits of same width a, with neighboring slits being separated by an
opaque region of width b. It may be constructed by ruling a large number of parallel and equidistant lines
on a plane glass plate with the help of a diamond point. Ruled part is opaque and unruled part is
transparent.

Let a monochromatic light incident on a plane diffraction grating consists of large number of N parallel
slits, each of width a and separation b. Here (a+b) is called grating element.

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 Figure: Diffraction due to N slits

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 Figure: Intensity distribution due to N slit diffraction

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 Q. What do you mean by missing order spectra in diffraction grating?

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 Q. What is the maximum number of order observable in diffraction grating?

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 Q. Explain formation of spectra by diffraction grating.

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 Q. What do you mean by dispersive power of diffraction grating?

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The above equation leads to the following conclusion:
1) ω is directly proportional to the order of spectrum i.e. the higher is the order, greater is the
dispersive power.
2) ω is inversely proportional to the (a+b) i.e. the dispersive power is greater for a grating having
larger number of lines per cm.
3) ω is inversely proportional to the cos θ i.e. larger the value of θ, higher is the dispersive power

Q. What do you mean by resolving power? Describe Rayleigh criterion of resolution.

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 Q. What do you mean by resolving power of diffraction grating? Write down the
expression of resolution in case of grating.

Answer: The resolving power of a grating is defined as the ratio of the wavelength of any spectral
line to the smallest wavelength difference between neighboring lines for which the spectral can be
just resolved at the wavelength λ. It can be expressed mathematically as λ/d λ.

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 Q. Give difference between dispersive power and resolving power of grating.

Sl No. Dispersive power Resolving power

The resolving power of a grating is defined as
The dispersive power of a grating is
the ratio of the wavelength of any spectral line
defined as the rate of change of angle
1 to the smallest wavelength difference between
diffraction with the wavelength of
neighboring lines for which the spectral lines
light used (dθ/dλ).
can be just resolved.
The dispersive power is independent The resolving power increases as the number
2 of the number of lines on the grating of lines on the grating surface increases.
element.
The dispersive power depends upon The resolving power is independent of the
3
the grating element. grating element.
The dispersive power depends upon
The resolving power depends on the total
4 the number of lines per centimeter
number of lines on the ruled surface
on the grating

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Optics continue……….Coming soon………………….

P O L A R I S AT I O N

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 P O L A R I S AT I O N

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 Polarization of Light Definition

Polarization is a phenomenon induced

by the wave nature of
electromagnetic radiation, according
to physics.

Sunlight is an example of an
electromagnetic wave since it travels
through the vacuum to reach the
Earth. Because an electric field
interacts with a magnetic field, these
waves are known as electromagnetic
waves.

Polarization is the process of

converting non-polarized light into
polarised light. The light in which
particles vibrate in all various planes
is known as unpolarised light.

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 Transverse Waves and Longitudinal Waves

Two types of waves are involved in this phenomenon. These are:

• Transverse Waves: The waves in which the movement of the particles is perpendicular to the
wave’s motion direction. For example, when you throw a stone, it creates ripples in the water
and sound waves moving across the air.

• Longitudinal Waves: These occur when the medium’s particles move in the same direction as
the waves.

• The combination of electric and magnetic forces travelling across space is known as light. A
light wave’s electric and magnetic vibrations are perpendicular to each other. The magnetic
field travels in one direction and the electric field in the other, but they are always
perpendicular. So we have an electric field in one plane, a magnetic field perpendicular to it,
and a travel direction that is perpendicular to both. Electric and magnetic vibrations can
happen in a variety of planes.

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 Polarized Light and Unpolarized Light

Polarized light and unpolarized light are two types of light that differ in the orientation of their
electric field vibrations.

Polarized Light
Polarized light, on the other hand, refers to light in which the electric field vectors vibrate in a
specific plane or direction. In polarized light, the electric field oscillations occur in a well-defined
direction, rather than randomly. The process of transforming unpolarized light into polarized light
is called polarization. Polarization can occur through various methods, such as reflection,
transmission, scattering, or filtering.

Unpolarized Light
The light wave in which the electric field vectors vibrate in all possible directions perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of the light is called unpolarized light. That is unpolarized light electric
field vibrated randomly in all possible planes. We can define unpolarized light as a combination of
light waves with all possible orientations of the electric field vectors. Sources of light such as the
Sun or Incandescent bulbs emit unpolarized light.

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 In above diagram plane ABCD represents the plane of
vibration and EFGH represents the plane of polarisation.

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 Types of Polarization

The three types of Polarization based on transverse and longitudinal wave motion are as follows:
➢ Linear polarization
➢ Elliptical Polarization
➢ Circular Polarization

Linear Polarization
In linear Polarization, the electric field of light is confined to a single plane along the direction of the
propagation of light.

Elliptical Polarization
In Elliptical Polarization, the electric field of light propagates along an elliptical path. The two linear
components do not have the same amplitude and phase difference in elliptical polarization.

Circular Polarization
In Circular Polarization, the electric field of light has two linear components that are perpendicular to
each other and have identical amplitudes, but the phase difference is π ⁄ 2. The electric field that
occurs will propagate in a circular motion.

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Methods Used in Polarization of Light
There are a few different ways to polarize the light which are,
• Polarization by Transmission
• Polarization by Reflection
• Polarization by Scattering
• Polarization by Refraction

Polarization by Transmission (Polaroids)

We can observe that there is a plane of
vibration parallel to the plane in the
diagram below. There is also a vibration
plane that is perpendicular to the plane.
The first picture is one that is not polarised.
The second picture is polarised, meaning it
is perpendicular or parallel to the first. So
let’s start with polaroids to understand
polarization.
The various types of light are shown in the
image added.

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Polaroids are polarising materials made up of molecules that are oriented in a specific direction. A
pass axis exists on every Polaroid. Only the pass axis will enable light to flow through. Both the
horizontal and vertical pass axes can exist on a polaroid. The way light passes through it is
determined by these. When the light that is not polarised travels through a polaroid, it becomes
polarised.
The unpolarized light passing through the polarizing filter is shown in the image below.

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Polarization by Scattering
When light strikes a molecule or an atom, the
light energy is absorbed and re-emitted in
multiple directions. Polarization causes this
scattering. Furthermore, the emitted light travels
in many directions.

If the unpolarised light is incident on a particle,

then we obtain dispersed light. Now when this
polarized light passes through the atmosphere
the molecule in the atmosphere dispersed the
polarized light in all possible directions. And this
is how light scattering causes polarization.

The dispersed light is emitted in a direction that is

perpendicular to the incident beam. Furthermore,
dispersed light has complete polarization, but
light travelling through molecules has partial
polarization.

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 Polarization by Reflection and Refraction

The incident ray reflected and refracted ray

may all be seen in the diagram.
Unpolarised light is visible on the incident
beam. The unpolarized light is depicted in the
diagram above. The dot denotes
perpendicular directions, whereas the lines
denote parallel directions.
The unpolarized light becomes polarized after
reflection of refraction as shown in the image.

The majority of the light in the reflected ray is

polarised parallel to the plane, with only a
few exceptions. In contrast, most of the light
in a refracted beam is unpolarized, with one or
two polarised components. As a result, we
can see that the reflected and refracted rays
are both partly polarised.

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Example: A beam of light strikes the surface of a plate of glass with a refractive index of √3 at the
polarising angle. What will be the ray’s angle of refraction?

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 Applications of Polarization
Polarization is a very important phenomenon of physics and some of its common applications are,
• Polarization is used to determine the chirality of organic molecules.
• Differentiating between transverse and longitudinal waves is done via polarization.
• In the plastics industry, Polaroid filters are used to conduct stress analysis testing.
• Polarization is used to create and display three-dimensional movies.
• In sunglasses, polarization is used to minimize glare.
• It’s used to analyze earthquakes in seismology.
• Polarization is used in infrared spectroscopy.

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 Optics continue……….Coming soon………………….

LASER

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 LASER

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 LASER

❖ The word “LASER” stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
❖ It is a device to produce strong intense, monochromatic, collimated, unidirectional and highly coherent
beam of light; and depends on the phenomena of stimulated emission.
❖ The theoretical basis of laser was predicted by Einstein in 1917. The first laser device was developed
by T. H. Maiman in 1960.
Laser light properties
❑ Highly monochromatic: The light emitted form a laser is monochromatic, that means it is of one
wavelength(color)of light.
❑ Highly intense: All the power or energy is concentrated with in small area.
❑ Collimated: It is formed in an optical cavity between two parallel mirrors which constrain the light to a
path perpendicular to the surface of the mirrors.

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❑ Unidirectional: Which implies laser light is of very small divergence. It seems that laser light comes
from the resonant cavity and wave propagating along the optical axis only.
❑ Highly coherent: Which means the waves of light emitted a constant relative phase.

Principle of Laser
It is based on the principle of stimulated emission of radiation, with light amplification. For
stimulated emission of radiation, to take place, the population of atom in higher energy level should
be greater than the lower energy level. This can be achieved by pumping.

Difference between laser light and ordinary light

S. N. Ordinary Light Laser light
1 Light emitted is not monochromatic. Light emitted is highly
monochromatic.
2 Light is not intense and bright. Light is intense and bright.

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 S. N. Ordinary Light Laser light
3 Light is emitted in all direction. Light is emitted only in one direction.
4 Light does not have high degree of Light have high degree of coherence.
Coherence.
5 Coherence time is not higher. Coherence time is much higher.

Absorption of Radiation
Let us consider two energy levels 1 and 2 of an atom with energies E1 and E2 as shown in following figure.

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An atom residing in energy state E1 can absorb a photon and go to excited state with energy E2, provided the
photon energy h ν equals the energy difference (E2 - E1).
Therefore, hν = E2 - E1
or ν = (E2-E1) / h
This process is called stimulated absorption or simply absorption.
Therefore, an atom in ground state with energy E1 absorbs an incident photon of energy hν and goes to
excited state with higher energy E2. This process is known as stimulated absorption. The rate of absorption
or rate of transition 1→2 is proportional to N1 and also to energy density u(ν). P12 = N1B12 u(ν),
where B12 is known as Einstein’s coefficient of absorption.

Spontaneous Emission
Let us now consider an atom initially is in the higher energy state E2 (shown in following figure), higher
energy state E2 is not a stable state.

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After a short interval of time (10-8 Sec), the atom jumps to ground state E1 by emitting a photon of frequency
v. This is known as spontaneous emission of radiation. “The emission of radiation from higher energy
state to lower energy state without any external influence is called as spontaneous emission.” The
spontaneous emission is random in character. Therefore spontaneous emission is incoherent. The rate of fall
of electrons from excited state E2 to ground state E1 is proportional to number of electrons in excited state E2.
The probability of spontaneous emission transition 2→1 is directly proportion to number of atoms in upper
energy level P21 = N2A21, where A21 is known as Einstein’s coefficientof spontaneous emission absorption.

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 Stimulated Emission
According to Einstein, an atom in an excited energy state, under the influence of photon of frequency v
incident upon it, transits from higher to lower energy state.

This transition produces a second photon which is identical to incident photon with respect to frequency,
phase and propagation direction. This process is called stimulated or induced emission. The probability of
stimulated emission transition 2→1 is directly proportion to number of atoms in upper energy level N2 and
energy density u(ν),
P21 = N2B21 u(ν),
where B21 is known as Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission of radiation.

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 Difference between spontaneous emission and stimulated emission

Sl No. Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

The emitted photons from various The emitted photons have same frequency
1 atoms have no phase relationship and are in phase with incident photons.
between them.
2 Emitted radiation are non-coherent. Emitted radiation are coherent.
Emitted photons can move in any Foe every incident photon, there are two
3 direction. outgoing photons moving in same
direction.
The rate of emission is proportional The rate of emission is proportional to
to number of excited electrons in number of excited electrons in excited
4
excited state E2. state E2 and energy density of incident
radiation.
Spontaneous emission disfavours Stimulated emission favours laser action.
5
laser action.

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 Metastable State
We know that normally an atom in excited
state has very short life time (~10-8 sec.). As
atoms are continuously going to excited state
by pumping process, they should remain in
higher energy state until population in higher
state (N2) becomes greater than that in lower
state (N1). An energy state which has a long
lifetime (~ 10-3sec.) is called metastable
state.

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 Necessary condition to achieve laser action
✓ The rate of emission must be greater than the rate of absorption- Under normal condition, the number of
atoms in the upper energy level is always smaller than that in lower energy level. If by some means, the
number of atoms in higher energy state is made greater than that in lower energy state, the emission rate will
become greater than the absorption rate.

✓ The probability of spontaneous emission must be negligible in comparison to the probability of

stimulated emission- This condition can be achieved by taking working substance(active medium) such that
its atom have metastable states which have a life time 10-3 second or more instead of usual 10-8 second. If
certain atoms are excited to metastable state the probability of spontaneous emission will be quite negligible.

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✓ The coherent beam of light must be sufficiently amplified-For this, active medium must be placed
between two reflecting mirrors. The one of mirror is fully reflecting while the other is partially
transmitting.

The photons emitted by stimulating emission are reflected back and forth in the laser medium by these
mirrors so that they are confined within the system long enough to allow them to stimulate further emission
from other excited state. In this way reflected photons, traveling through the medium stimulate further
emission as well as to produce amplified coherent and intense beam of light which is emitted by partially
transmitting mirror.

Population Inversion
For the laser action to take place, the higher energy levels should be more populated than the lower energy
levels, i.e., N2>N1. The situation in which the number of atoms in the higher energy state exceeds that in the
lower state (N2>N1) is known as “population inversion”.

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 Various Pumping Methods
Pumping : The raising of atoms from lower energy level to upper energy level is called pumping. i. e. The
process of achieving population inversion is known as “ Pumping of atoms”. There are several method for
pumping.

Optical Pumping : The atoms are exposed to light radiation (photons) of energy h ν. The atoms in lower
energy states absorb these radiations and go to excited state. In optical pumping the energy comes in the form
of short flashes of light. This method was first used by Maiman in Ruby laser. This method is suitable for
those medium which are transparent to light. This type of pumping is used in Ruby laser, Nd-YAG laser, etc.

Electric discharge method : In this method, the electrons are produced in an electric discharge tube. These
electrons are accelerated to high velocities by strong electric field. These accelerated electrons collide with gas
atoms. The accelerated electrons transfer energy to gas atoms. Some of the atoms gain energy and go to

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excited state. This method is known as electric discharge method. This method of pumping is used in gas
laser like argon laser, Helium - Neon laser, CO2 laser, etc.

Inelastic atom-atom collision : In this method, accelerated electrons produced by electric discharge of
gaseous medium (a mixture of two gases) collide with the atoms of one kind of gas (which are responsible
for pumping). The excitation energy of these atoms are transferred to the atoms of other kind of gas (which
are responsible for laser transition in their inelastic collision with them. In He-Ne laser, Helium is the
pumping medium and Neon is the lasing medium.

Chemical Pumping : The energy necessary for pumping is generated by chemical reaction. As an example,
the heat energy evolved, when hydrogen combines with fluorine to form hydrogen fluoride, is used for
pumping the atoms in a CO2 laser.

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 Einstein’s Coefficients of Radiation

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 Component of laser
There are three main component of basic laser system which as follows
❖ 1. Active medium
❖ 2. Energy source or pumping
❖ 3. Optical resonator or resonant cavity

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 1. Active medium:
This is the basic material in which atomic transition take place, when the active medium is excited, it
achieve population inversion. Active medium decide the types of laser, solid, liquid and gaseous state
laser. Active medium also determine the shape, size and output of laser.

2. Energy source or pumping:

The excitation mechanism is the source of energy that raises the atoms, molecule or ions in the active
medium into their excited state. One of the requirements of laser action is to achieve population inversion
which is achieved by pumping.

3. Optical resonator or resonant cavity:

The optical resonator consists of two reflecting mirrors R1 and R2. The mirror R1 is fully reflecting while
the other mirror R2 is partially reflecting. The active material is placed between them.

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The photon generated due to transitions between the energy states of active material undergoes multiple
reflections between the two mirrors. As the photons (light) bounces back and forth between the two
mirrors, the intensity of light is increased enormously. Finally the intense and amplified beam (laser) is
allowed to come out the partial mirror R2. Therefore the function of the optical resonator is to
increase the intensity of laser beam.

❑ The arrangement of mirrors is known as laser cavity.

❑ It consist two mirror. One is fully reflected and other is partially reflected.
❑ Role of optical cavity is amplification.

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 Two level LASER system
Why two level energy system cannot be used for producing lasers?
A two level laser has laser medium whose atoms have only two energy states- a ground state or low
energy level (E1) and an excited state or higher energy level (E2). In two level atoms, spontaneous emission
occur instantly causing the excited atoms to immediately fall back to their ground state and the rate of
absorption becomes equal to the rate of emission. There is no time for excited atoms to collect in higher
energy state and population inversion cannot possible. The life time of the excited state is too short to excite
atoms around to undergo stimulated emission. This shows that, in practical application, a two level energy
system cannot be used for producing lasers.

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03-12-2023 ENG...PHY BY M. ASFAK 106
 ‘Three’ levels Laser

The diagram of three level laser systems is shown in figure. In this laser system upper energy level E3 is
known as pumping level and ground energy level E1 is known as lower lasing level. The intermediate
excited state is called upper lasing level and its life time 10-3 sec which is greater than the life time of
pumping level E3 (10-8 sec). Initially the atomic population of ground state E1 is maximum.

When the atoms in ground state

are subjected to an intense
(pumping) radiation of pumping
frequency (E3-E1)/h, a large
number of atoms that is
originally in the ground energy
level E1 are pumped to the upper
most energy level E3.

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The excited state E3 is short lived, therefore atoms cannot remain for a longer time. Some of these pumped
atoms make spontaneous transition to the lowest energy level E1 but most of them decay rapidly into an
intermediate metastable state E2. This transition from E3 to E2 is radiation less or non-radiative. In this
transition (E3 to E2), energy is converted to the system as heat. As the energy level E2 is long lived, the
atomic population of metastable state E2 goes on increasing gradually, while the atomic population of
ground level E1 goes on decreasing. Because of continuous pumping more and more atom accumulate at the
upper lasing level E2. When the atomic population of level E2 becomes more them half of the atomic
population of lower lasing level E1. The population inversion is achieved between E2 and E1 levels. Now
photon of energy (E2-E1) = hν can initiate stimulated or laser transition.

The three level system (Ruby laser) has a drawback that it generally require very high pumping power
because in these three level system, the laser transition terminates at the ground level E1 and more than one
half of the ground state atoms must be pumped up to the higher state for achieving population inversion.

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 RUBY LASER
This is the first laser developed by Maiman in 1960 and is the solid state laser. The solid state Ruby laser
(pulse laser) is a three level laser system. Solid laser can be made by introducing impurity atoms into a
crystal (by doping method).

It consists of a pink ruby cylindrical rod whose ends are optically flat and parallel. One end is fully silvered
and the other is only partially silvered. The partially reflecting end can be used as a window for laser output.
This works as Resonant Cavity.

Ruby rod is surrounded by a helical xenon flash tube, which provides light to raise chromium ions to upper
energy levels. In Ruby laser, 𝐶𝑟+++ ions are the active material.

Working : The ruby rod is a crystal of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) doped with 0.05% chromium oxide

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(Cr2O3), so that some of the Al+++ions are replaced by Cr+++ ions. These “impurity” chromium ions give pink
colors to the ruby and give rise to laser action. The crystal is in the form of cylindrical rod which is 2 to 20
cm in length and nearly 0.1 to 2.0 cm in diameter.

A simplified energy- level diagram is shown in following figure. It consists of an upper short-lived energy
level E3 above its ground energy level E1, the energy difference E3-E1 corresponds to a wavelength of about
5500 Å. There is an intermediate excited-state level E2 which is metastable having a life time of 10-3 sec.

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Normally, most of the chromium ions are in the ground state E1.When a flash of light falls upon the ruby
rod, the 5500 Å radiation photons are absorbed by the chromium ions which are pumped to the excited state
E3. The excited ions give up, by collision, part of their energy to the crystal lattice and decay to the
metastable state E2. The corresponding transition 2 is thus a radiation less transition. Since E2 has a much
longer life-time, the number of ions in this state goes on increasing while, due to pumping, the number in
the ground state E1 goes on decreasing. Thus, population inversion is established between the metastable
state E2 and the ground state E1. When an excited ion passes from the metastable state to the ground state, it
emits a photon of wavelength 6943Å. This photon travels through the ruby rod and, if it is moving parallel
to the axis of crystal, is reflected back and forth by the silvered ends until it stimulates an excited ion and
causes it to emit a fresh photon, in phase with stimulating photon. This “stimulated” transition 4 is the laser
transition. The process is repeated again and again because the photons repeatedly move along the crystal,
being reflected from its ends. The photons thus multiply. When the photon beam becomes sufficiently
intense, part of it emerges through the partially silvered end of the crystal.

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Drawback in the three level lasers (Ruby Laser)
The laser requires high pumping power because the laser transition terminates at the ground state and more
than one half of the ground state atoms must be pumped up to the higher state to achieve population
inversion. The efficiency of ruby laser is very small. Only the green component of pumping light is utilized.
The laser output is not continuous. The output occurs in the form of pulses of microsecond duration.
Characteristics of Ruby laser
Type : Three level solid state laser
Active medium : Ruby rod is used as active medium
Pumping method : Optical pumping

Applications of ruby Laser

1. It is used in laboratory experiments.
2. It is used in soldering and wielding.
3. It is used to test the quality of the materials.

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 Concept of Four level Laser
A four level laser energy diagram is shown following figure. Pumping excites some of the atoms from the
ground level E1 to a short lived upper most pumping level E4. The transition from E4 to E3 as well as E2 to E1
are much faster compared to E3 to E2. After sometime atoms from level E4 drop spontaneously to a long lived
metastable upper lasing level E3. As the lower lasing level E2 is not the ground state, but very much above
the ground level E1, it is virtually vacant or free from any atoms. Due to continuous pumping population
inversion is achieved between the levels E3 and E2. When a photon of energy (E2-E1) = hν can start a chain
of stimulated emission, atom come down to state E2 from state E3, laser beam produced. The laser transition
terminate at the lower energy state E2. Non-radiative transition take place from E2 to E1 and laser cycle is
completed. Pumping power needed for the excitation of atoms is much lower than is a three level laser. The
efficiency of four level lasers is much better than that of a three level laser.

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 Helium Neon Gas Laser (Four Level Transition Laser)
It is the first gas laser which was operated successfully. To get continuous and intense beam of laser, gas
lasers are used. The spectral lines in a gas laser are narrow and well defined as compared to solid in which
absorption bands are broad. A simplified diagram showing basic features of a gas laser is shown in
following figure.

Active medium : He- Ne laser consists of a discharge (quartz) tube containing the helium and neon in the
ratio of 5 to 1 at a total pressure of about 1 torr (1 mm of Hg). This gas mixture form the active medium.

Resonant cavity : Active medium enclosed between set of mirror one is fully reflective and other is
partially reflective, this forms the plane parallel resonant cavity. The end faces of discharge tube are inclined
at the polarizing angle so that the laser light is plane polarized. Such an arrangement is known as Brewster
window.

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Pumping mechanism : A powerful generator (R. F. Generator) is used to produce a discharge in the gas.
Actual lasing atoms are neon atoms while helium is used just for selective pumping of the upper laser level
of neon.

Working : He-Ne gas laser is a four level laser. The energy levels of He and Ne atoms are shown in figure.

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 When an electric discharge passes through gas, the electrons in discharge tube collide with He and Ne
atoms as He atom are lighter than the Ne atom, they are easily excite to metastable state 20.61eV and Ne
atom to 20.66 eV respectively from above the ground state. Some of excited He atoms transfer their energy
to unexcited Ne atoms by collisions. Thus lighter He atoms help in achieving population inversion in
heavier Ne atoms.

When an excited Ne atoms drop down spontaneously from metastable state at 20.66 eV to lower
energy state at 18.70 eV, it emits a photon (6328Å) in visible region. This photon travels through mixture of
gas and if it is moving parallel to axis of tube, is reflected back and forth by reflector ends until it stimulates
an excited Ne atom and causes it to emit a fresh 6328Å photon in phase with stimulating photon.

The photon emitted spontaneously which do not move parallel to axis of tube escape through sides of
tube. The stimulated transition from 20.66 eV level to 18.70 eV level is the laser transition. The two
photons will knock out two more photons and the process is repeated again and again and photon………….

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multiplies. When gain is achieved, a portion of it escapes through partially silvered end. The Ne atoms drop
down from 18.70 eV to lower metastable state through spontaneous emission emitting incoherent light.
From level E, Neon atoms are brought to ground state through collision with walls of tube. Hence final
transition is radiation less.

Characteristics of He-Ne laser

Type : Four level gas laser
Active medium : It uses a mixture of helium and neon gases as the active medium.
Pumping method : Electric discharge method.
Resonant cavity : Plane parallel
Output : Continuous laser
Applications of ruby Laser
1. It is used in laboratory experiments to produce interference and diffraction patterns.
2. It is used in optical communication without fibre for moderate distance.

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 Difference between Ruby laser and He-Ne laser

Sl. No. Ruby Laser He-Ne Laser

1 It produces a pulsed laser beam. It produces a continuous laser beam.

2 It is a three level laser system. It is a four level laser system.

3 Optical pumping method is used for Electric discharge method is used for
pumping. pumping.

4 It has active medium in solid state. It has active medium in gaseous state.

5 Cooling arrangement is required. Cooling arrangement is not required.

6 It emits light of wavelength 6943 Å It emits light of wavelength 6328 Å.

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 Advantages of Gas laser (He-Ne) over solid state laser or Ruby laser
In gas laser, light is produced as a continuous beam rather than ultra-short pulses as in Ruby laser. Gas laser
beam is highly monochromatic and highly directional. This is because of fact that in gas lasers the crystalline
imperfection, thermal distortion and scattering are almost absent like Ruby laser. Gas laser are capable of
operating continuously without any need of cooling. Therefore He-Ne laser is superior than Ruby laser.

Applications of Laser Radiations

Industrial
• Drilling:
• In industrial and technical fields the laser beam is used for drilling fine holes in diamonds, teeth, paper
clips, hard sheets and even in human hairs.
• Cutting:
• Laser cutting technology is widely used in the fabrication of space craft.

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• Welding:
• Laser welding used to weld in the metal industry for neat and clean weld. It has been observed that finger
prints can be detected under laser light where the normal method of obtaining finger prints through
dusting powder is ineffective.
In medicine
• In treatment of eye related problem:
• LASIK is eye surgery that permanently changes the shape of the cornet is done to improve vision
and reduce a person's need for glasses or contact lenses.
• In treatment of skin related problem:
➢ Unwanted hair removal
➢ Tattoo removal
➢ Scar removal

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• In treatment of dentistry
• Lasers are used to reshape gums and remove bacteria during root canal procedures.
• In treatment of cancer
• Micro-surgery has become possible due to narrow angular spread of the laser beam.
• The laser beam can be focused on harmful components to destroy them without seriously damaging
the neighboring regions.
• It can be used in the treatment of kidney stone, tumor, in cutting and sealing the small blood vessel
in brain operations.
In Optical communication
➢ Laser has an important application in optical communication
➢ Optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place to another by sending
highly intense laser light through an optical fiber.

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Atmospheric Studies
➢ Laser remote sensing is frequently used for precise measurement of ozone in the atmosphere.
➢ Atmospheric optics uses lasers for the measurement of traces of pollutant gases, water vapor
concentration.
➢ Pictures of clouds, wind movement can be obtained with laser beam. The data so obtained helps in
weather forecasting
➢ Radio astronomers have been able to amplify very faint radio signals from space with the uses of
lasers.
➢ With the help of lasers it is possibly to hear the bursts of light and radiation waves from stars which
emitted them over a millions of years ago.

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Holography and LIDAR
➢ We can get 3-D photography using laser, known as Holography.
➢ LIDAR is a method for measuring distances (ranging) by illuminating the target with laser light and
measuring the reflection with a sensor.
➢ Differences in laser return times and wavelengths can then be used to make digital 3-D
representations of the target.

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Next Module: Electromagnetism and DMPM...continue……..

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 BS-PH101
Electromagnetism and Dielectric Magnetic
Properties of Materials

SYLLABUS
Maxwell’s equations. Polarisation, permeability and dielectric constant,
polar and non-polar dielecrrics, internal fields in a solid, Clausius- Mossotti
equation(expression only), applications of dielectrics.
Magnetisation , permeability and susceptibility, classificationof magnetic
materials, ferromagnetism, magnetic domains and hysteresis, applications.
 UNIT 2: ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
Introduction
Initially electricity and magnetism were studied separately. In 1820 Oersted showed that magnetic field
can be produced by electric current, later on Faraday invented phenomenon of electromagnetic induction and
showed that electric current can be produced by a time varying magnetic field. In 1864 Maxwell unified both
electric and magnetic field and showed that an accelerated charge particle generates electromagnetic waves.
The coupled oscillating electric and magnetic field that moves with the speed of light and exhibit wave
behavior is called Electromagnetic Wave. The microwaves, infrared rays, ultraviolet rays, X-rays and γ-
rays are few examples of electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves are formed when an electric field
comes in contact with a magnetic field. They are hence known as Electromagnetic waves. The electric field
and magnetic field of an electromagnetic wave are perpendicular to each other. They are also perpendicular
to the direction of EM waves.

Some important terms

Point Charge – When whole charge is centered at a point
Discrete Charge distribution – The system of point charges separated by a finite distance.

Continuous Charge distribution – The system of charge in which the distance between two
successive point charge is zero

Linear charge density – In a continuous line charge distribution, the charge per unit length is known
as linear charge density. It is given by
1
 𝑞
𝜆= 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑙
Surface charge density – In a continuous surface charge distribution, the charge per unit surface
area is known as surface charge density. It is given by
𝑞
𝜎= 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 2
𝑆
Volume charge density – In a continuous volume charge distribution the charge per unit volume is
known as volume charge density. It is given by
𝑞
𝜌= 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 3
𝑉
Dell Operator
∂ ∂ ∂
𝛁= 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
This is a vector
Laplacian Operator

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇2 = + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Laplacian Operator is a scalar

𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝜙 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜙 = 𝛁𝜙

𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑨 = 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑨 = 𝛁. 𝑨

𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑨 = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑨 = 𝛁 × 𝑨
Two Important Tools
1) Gauss Divergence theorem – Surface integral of a vector over a closed surface areais equal to
volume integral of divergence of the same vector over the volume enclosed by that surface area i.e
∮ 𝑨. 𝒅𝑺 = ∫(𝛁. 𝑨)𝑑𝑉

2) Stoke’s theorem - Line integral of a vector over a closed loop is equal to surface integral of curl of
the same vector over the surface area enclosed by that loop i.e
∮ 𝑨. 𝒅𝒍 = ∫(𝛁 × 𝑨)𝒅𝑺
Ampere’s Circuital Law
It states that the closed line integral of the magnetic field around a current carrying conductor is equal to 𝜇0
times ofnet current crossing the area enclosed by that path

⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = 𝜇0 𝐼
∮𝑩

2
 Or ∮ ⃗𝑩
⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = 𝜇0 ∫ 𝑱 . 𝒅𝑺
⃗

Where𝑱is current density

Proof:∮ ⃗𝑩
⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = ∮ 𝐵𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

= ∮ 𝐵𝑑𝑙

𝜇𝑜 2𝐼
=∮ . 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋 𝑟

𝜇𝑜 2𝐼 𝜇𝑜 2𝐼
= . ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 4𝜋 . . 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
4𝜋 𝑟 𝑟

Displacement Current
The concept of displacement current was first introduced by Maxwell purely on theoretical ground. The
displacement current does not have significance like current in which the charges actually move. To
demonstrate the displacement current, consider an electrical circuit in which a capacitor is charged with a
battery of emf E. The current is going to decreasing as the capacitor is charging. When the capacitor is
charged up to the voltage equal to emf of battery the current is stopped. In the empty area between the
capacitor, if magnetic needle is placed then it gets deflected showing the presence of magnetic field. Thus
this equivalent current produces the same magnetic effect as an ordinary current in a conductor. This
equivalent current is termed as Displacement current.

Consider two surfaces S1 (plane) and S2 (hemispherical) bounded by common closed path l. let an instant of
time t the current is i. S2
Applying Ampere law for surface S1 we get,
∮ ⃗𝑩
⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = 𝜇0 𝐼…………………..(1)
Ampere law for surface S2 is given by,

∮ ⃗𝑩
⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = 0……………………..(2)

Because inside the capacitor the dielectric current is zero.

We see that equation (1) & (2) are contradict to each other which is impossible.

3
 𝑑𝜙𝐸
Maxwell`s removed this controversy by adding a new factor 𝜀0 instead of i in equation (i). This new
𝑑𝑡
factor is known as displacement current. Now equation (i) may be written as,
⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = 𝜇0 (𝑖 + 𝜀0 𝑑𝜙𝐸 )
∮ ⃗𝑩 𝑑𝑡

⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝟎 (𝒊 + 𝒊𝒅 ) … … … … … … … (𝟑)
∮𝑩

The displacement current is equal to the conduction current in the connecting wires.
Let any instant t the charge on the capacitor is q. Then the electric field between the plates of capacitor is
given by,
𝜎 𝑞
𝐸= = … … … … … … . (4)
𝜀0 𝜀0 𝐴

Where, A→ the surface area of each plate and 𝜎→ surface charge density.

𝑑𝐸 1 𝑑𝑞 𝑖
= = … … … … … … (5)
𝑑𝑡 𝜀0 𝐴 𝑑𝑡 𝜀0 𝐴
𝑑𝐸
𝑖 = 𝜀0 𝐴 𝑑𝑡

𝑑(𝐸𝐴)
= 𝜀0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜙𝐸
= 𝜀0
𝑑𝑡
= 𝒊𝒅 … . . … … . . (𝟔)

Thus the displacement current in the gap is identical with the conduction current in the connecting wire.

∮ ⃗𝑩
⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝟎 (𝒊 + 𝒊𝒅 )

This is the modified Ampere circuital law, where i is due to electric current and id due to change in electric
field.

Equation of Continuity

Electric current through a surface area is given by

⃗
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑱 . 𝒅𝑺

Where𝑱is current density

If the area is closed then
⃗ ………………………(1)
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑱 . 𝒅𝑺

Consider, a closed surface S enclosing a volume V. If ρ is the volume density inside the volume
4
Then
𝑑𝑞
𝐼=−
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝐼 = − 𝑑𝑡 ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉………………………(2)

-ve sign indicate that charge decreases inside the volume with time
If there is neither source nor sink inside the volume, then according to the law of conservation of charge
value of electric current given by equations (1) and (2) will be same
Therefore
𝑑
⃗ = − ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉……………………(3)
∮ 𝑱. 𝒅𝑺 𝑑𝑡

Applying Gauss divergence theorem on Left Hand Side we get

𝑑
⃗ . 𝑱𝑑𝑉 = −
∫∇ ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝜌
⃗ . 𝑱𝑑𝑉 = −∫
∫∇ 𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑡

Or ⃗ . 𝑱 + 𝜕𝜌) 𝑑𝑉 = 0
∫ (∇ 𝜕𝑡

The integral must be zero for any arbitrary volume element dV. Hence the integrand must be vanishing
everywhere
𝜕𝜌
⃗ .𝑱 +
∇ =0
𝜕𝑡
This is called equation of continuity and is a mathematical expression for law of conservation of charge.
It states that the total current flowing out of some volume must be equal to the rate of decrease of charge
within the volume, assuming that charge can neither be created nor be destroyed.
For steady state
𝜕𝜌
= 0, therefore ⃗∇. 𝑱 = 0
𝜕𝑡

Maxwell Equations
In 1864 James Maxwell`s unified electricity and magnetism on the basis of four equations which are given
below:

S.No. Differential form S.No. Integral form

1
∮ ⃗𝑬. 𝒅𝑺
⃗ = ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉
1. ⃗𝛁. ⃗𝑫
⃗ =𝜌 1. 𝜀0

5
 ⃗𝛁
⃗ . ⃗𝑩
⃗ =0 ⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
∮𝑩 ⃗ =0
2. 2.

⃗⃗
𝜕𝑩 𝑑
3. ⃗ ×𝑬
𝛁 ⃗ =− 3. ∮ ⃗𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 = − ∫ ⃗𝑩
⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
⃗
𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑡

⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫 𝑑
⃗⃗ × 𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑱 + ⃗⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = 𝑖 + 𝜀
∮𝑯 ⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
∫𝑬 ⃗
4. 𝛁 4. 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑡

Physical Significance:
1. First Equation:
It is Gauss law in electrostatics. It states that the surface integral of electric field over any closed
𝟏
surface area is equal to𝜺 times of net charge enclosed by that surface.
𝟎
2. Second Equation:
It is Gauss law in magneto statics. It states that there is no existence of magnetic monopoles or the net
magnetic flux through any closed surface area is zero. It also signifies that magnetic field lines are
closed curves.

3. Third Equation:
It is Faraday`s law in electromagnetic induction. It states that induced emf around any closed path is
equal to the negative rate of change of magnetic flux bounded by the surface w.r.to time. i.e. any
changing magnetic field produces a electric field.
4. Fourth Equation:
It is modified Ampere`s law. It states that any current carrying conductor as well as time varying
electric field produces a magnetic field.

Derivation of Maxwell Equations in differential form

1. According to Gauss law in electrostatics
𝑞
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
∮𝑬 ⃗ =
𝜀0
1
∮ ⃗𝑬
⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
⃗ = ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉
𝜀0

∮ 𝜀0 ⃗𝑬. 𝒅𝑺
⃗ = ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉

⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
∮𝑫 ⃗ = ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉 ⃗⃗ = 𝜀0 𝑬
(𝐵𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑫 ⃗)

⃗⃗ is called electric displacement vector

Where 𝑫
Using Gauss divergence theorem, we get
6
 ∮ ⃗𝑫
⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
⃗ = ∫ (𝛁
⃗ . ⃗𝑫
⃗ )𝑑𝑉

Therefore
⃗ .𝑫
∫ (𝛁 ⃗⃗ )𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉

⃗ . ⃗𝑫
∫ (𝛁 ⃗ − 𝜌)𝑑𝑉 = 0

Since the equation is true for any volume the integrand must vanish, thus

⃗ . ⃗𝑫
(𝛁 ⃗ − 𝜌) = 0

⃗𝛁
⃗ . ⃗𝑫
⃗ =𝜌

This is Maxwell’s first equation.

2. According to Gauss law in magnetostatics

∮ ⃗𝑩
⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
⃗ =0

Using Gauss divergence theorem, we get

∮ ⃗𝑩
⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
⃗ = ∫ ⃗𝛁
⃗ . ⃗𝑩
⃗ 𝑑𝑉

Therefore
⃗ .𝑩
∫𝛁 ⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = 0

The integrand should vanish for the surface boundary as the volume is arbitrary

i.e. ⃗𝛁
⃗ . ⃗𝑩
⃗ =0

This is Maxwell’s second equation.

3. According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

𝑑∅
𝑒𝑚𝑓 = −
𝑑𝑡

By the definition of emf we know

𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ∮ 𝑬⃗ . 𝒅𝒍
And by the definition of magnetic flux we know
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
∅ = ∫𝑩 ⃗
Where S is the surface bounded by the circuit thus we have
𝑑
∮ ⃗𝑬 . 𝒅𝒍 = − ∫ ⃗𝑩 ⃗ . 𝒅𝑺⃗
𝑑𝑡
Since the surface S does not change its shape or position with time, we can write above equation as
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑩
∮𝑬⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = − ∫ . 𝒅𝑺⃗
𝜕𝑡
7
 Using Stokes’s theorem we get
⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = ∫(𝛁
∮𝑬 ⃗ ×𝑬
⃗⃗ ). 𝒅𝑺
⃗

Therefore
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑩
⃗ ×𝑬
∫(𝛁 ⃗ ). 𝒅𝑺
⃗ = −∫ ⃗
. 𝒅𝑺
𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗
𝜕𝑩
∫( ⃗𝛁
⃗ × ⃗𝑬 + ⃗ =𝟎
). 𝒅𝑺
𝜕𝑡
This equation must hold for any arbitrary surface, thus the integrand should vanish
i.e
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑩
⃗ ×𝑬
𝛁 ⃗ + =0
𝜕𝑡
Or
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑩
⃗ ×𝑬
𝛁 ⃗⃗ = −
𝜕𝑡
This is Maxwell’s third equation.
4. According to Ampere’s circuital law

⃗⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = 𝐼
∮𝑯
We also know
⃗
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑱 . 𝒅𝑺
So
∮ ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = ∫ 𝑱 . 𝒅𝑺
⃗
Using Stoke’s theorem we get
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = ∫(𝛁
∮𝑯 ⃗ ×𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ ). 𝒅𝑺
⃗
So
⃗ × ⃗𝑯
∫(𝛁 ⃗⃗ ). 𝒅𝑺
⃗ = ∫ 𝑱 . 𝒅𝑺
⃗

∫( ⃗𝛁 × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ − 𝑱). 𝒅𝑺
⃗ =0

This equation must hold for any arbitrary surface, thus the integrand should vanish
⃗𝛁 × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ − 𝑱 = 0

⃗⃗ × 𝑯
𝛁 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑱 …………………….(1)
8
 This equation derived on the basis of ampere’s law stands only for steady state current but for time
varying fields the current density should be modified. Thus taking divergence of both sides of above
equation we get
⃗𝛁. (𝛁
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ ) = ⃗𝛁. 𝑱

Since ⃗⃗ . (𝛁
𝛁 ⃗ ×𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ ) = 0

Therefore ⃗𝛁. 𝑱 = 0...................................... (2)

But by equation of continuity we have

⃗ . 𝑱 = − 𝜕𝜌……………………..(3)
⃗𝛁
𝜕𝑡

Maxwell realized the situation and suggested that the definition of total current density is incomplete
and suggested to add something to J, such that equation 1 becomes
⃗ ×𝑯
𝛁 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑱 + 𝑱′ ............................ (4)

Now taking divergence of both the sides we get

⃗𝛁
⃗ . (𝛁
⃗ × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ ) = 𝛁. (𝑱 + 𝑱′ )

Or ⃗𝛁
⃗ . (𝑱 + 𝑱′ ) = 0

Or ⃗𝛁
⃗ . 𝑱 = −𝛁
⃗ . 𝑱′

⃗⃗ . 𝑱 from equation (3) we get

Putting the value of 𝛁

Or ⃗ . 𝑱′ = 𝜕𝜌
⃗𝛁
𝜕𝑡

But we know that ⃗⃗ . 𝑫 = 𝜌

𝛁

Therefore ⃗⃗ . 𝑱′ = 𝜕 (𝛁
𝛁 ⃗⃗ . 𝑫
⃗⃗ )
𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫
⃗𝛁. 𝑱′ = ⃗𝛁. ( )
𝜕𝑡

Hence
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫
𝑱′ =
𝜕𝑡
Substituting the value of 𝐽′ in equation 4 we get
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫
⃗ ×𝑯
𝛁 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑱 +
𝜕𝑡
This is Maxwell’s fourth equation. The term arises when the electric displacement 𝑫 ⃗⃗ is changing with
time and is called displacement current density. J is called conduction current density.
Derivation of Maxwell Equations in integral form
9
First Equation: -
We know Maxwell’s first equation in differential form

⃗𝛁
⃗ . ⃗𝑫
⃗ =𝜌

Integrating over an entire volume we get

⃗⃗ . 𝑫
∫(𝛁 ⃗⃗ )𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉

Applying Gauss divergence theorem on LHS we get

∮ ⃗𝑫
⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
⃗ = ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉

⃗ ). 𝒅𝑺
∮(ε0 𝑬 ⃗ = ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉

ε0 ∮ ⃗𝑬. 𝒅𝑺
⃗ = ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉

1
⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
∮𝑬 ⃗ = ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉
ε0
Second Equation:
We know Maxwell’s second equation in differential form
⃗𝛁. ⃗𝑩
⃗ =0

Integrating over an entire volume we get

⃗ . ⃗𝑩
∫(𝛁 ⃗ )𝑑𝑉 = 0

Applying Gauss divergence theorem on LHS we get

∮ ⃗𝑩
⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
⃗ =0

Third Equation
We know Maxwell’s third equation in differential form
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑩
⃗ ×𝑬
𝛁 ⃗⃗ = −
𝜕𝑡
Integrating over an open surface area we get
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑩
⃗ × ⃗𝑬). 𝒅𝑺
∫(𝛁 ⃗ = −∫ ⃗
. 𝒅𝑺
𝜕𝑡
Applying Stoke`s theorem on LHS we get

10
 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝑩
⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = − ∫
∮𝑬 ⃗
. 𝒅𝑺
𝜕𝑡
𝑑
∮ ⃗𝑬 . 𝒅𝒍 = − ∫ ⃗𝑩
⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
⃗
𝑑𝑡
Fourth Equation:
We know
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫
⃗ ×𝑯
𝛁 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑱 +
𝜕𝑡
Integrating over an open surface area we get
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫
⃗ ×𝑯
∫(𝛁 ⃗⃗⃗ ). 𝒅𝑺
⃗ = ∫ (𝑱 + ⃗
) . 𝒅𝑺
𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫
⃗ ×𝑯
∫(𝛁 ⃗⃗⃗ ). 𝒅𝑺
⃗ = ∫ 𝑱. 𝒅𝑺
⃗ +∫ ⃗
. 𝒅𝑺
𝜕𝑡
Applying Stoke`s theorem on LHS we get
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫
∮ ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = 𝐼 + ∫ . 𝒅𝑺
𝜕𝑡
𝑑
∮ ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = 𝐼 + ∫ ⃗𝑫
⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
⃗
𝑑𝑡
Poynting theorem
Poynting theorem describes the flow of energy or power in an electromagnetic field during the propagation
of uniform plane wave. Maxwell’s third and fourth equations are given
⃗⃗
𝛁 ⃗⃗ = − 𝜕𝑩
⃗ ×𝑬 (1)
𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗
𝛁 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑱 + 𝜕𝑫
⃗ ×𝑯 (2)
𝜕𝑡

Taking dot product of equation(1) with H and equation (2) with Ewe get
⃗⃗
∂𝑩
⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ . (𝛁
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑬
⃗ ) = −𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ . … . (3)
∂t
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫
⃗ . (𝛁
𝑬 ⃗ ×𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ ) = 𝑬
⃗ . (𝑱 + ) … . (4)
𝜕𝑡
Subtracting equation (4) from equation (3) we get
⃗⃗
∂𝑩 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫
⃗⃗⃗ . (𝛁
𝑯 ⃗ ×𝑬
⃗⃗ ) − 𝑬
⃗⃗ . (𝛁
⃗ ×𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ ) = −𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗ . 𝑱 − 𝑬
−𝑬 ⃗. … (5)
∂t 𝜕𝑡
Using vector identity;
11
 ⃗𝛁
⃗ . (𝑬
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ ) = ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ . (𝛁
⃗ × ⃗𝑬) − ⃗𝑬
⃗ . (𝛁
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ ) … (6)

From equations (5) and (6) we get

⃗⃗
∂𝑩 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫
⃗𝛁. (𝑬
⃗ × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ ) = −𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ . − ⃗𝑬. 𝑱 − ⃗𝑬. … . (7)
∂t 𝜕𝑡
On rearranging we get
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫 ⃗⃗
∂𝑩
⃗𝛁. (𝑬
⃗ × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ ) = −𝑬
⃗ . 𝑱 − ⃗𝑬. − ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ .
𝜕𝑡 ∂t
Or
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫 ⃗⃗
∂𝑩
⃗⃗ . (𝑬
−𝛁 ⃗ ×𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ ) = 𝑬
⃗ .𝑱 + 𝑬
⃗. ⃗⃗⃗ .
+𝑯 … (8)
𝜕𝑡 ∂t
Now
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫 ⃗
𝜕𝑬 1 𝜕𝐸 2 1 𝜕 𝜕 1
⃗.
𝑬 ⃗⃗ .
= 𝜀𝑬 = 𝜀 = ⃗ .𝑫
(𝑬 ⃗⃗ ) = ( 𝑬 ⃗ .𝑫
⃗⃗ )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
and
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑯 1 𝜕𝐻 2 1 𝜕 𝜕 1
⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ . ⃗
⃗⃗
= 𝜇𝑯. = 𝜇 = ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗𝑩
(𝑯 ⃗ ) = ( ⃗𝑯⃗⃗ . ⃗𝑩
⃗)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
Making these substitutions in equation (8) we get
𝜕 1 𝜕 1
⃗⃗ . (𝑬
−𝛁 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ ) = ⃗𝑬. 𝑱 + ( ⃗𝑬
⃗ . ⃗𝑫
⃗ ) + ( ⃗𝑯⃗⃗ . ⃗𝑩
⃗)
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2
Taking the volume integral of the above equation we get
𝜕 1 𝜕 1
⃗⃗ . ( 𝑬
−∫𝛁 ⃗ ×𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ )𝑑𝑉 = ∫(𝑬
⃗ . 𝑱)𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ( 𝑬⃗ .𝑫
⃗⃗ ) 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ( 𝑯 ⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑩
⃗⃗ ) 𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2
𝑑 1 𝑑 1
− ∫ ⃗𝛁. ( ⃗𝑬
⃗ × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ )𝑑𝑉 = ∫(𝑬
⃗⃗ . 𝑱)𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ( ⃗𝑬. ⃗𝑫
⃗ ) 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ( ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ . ⃗𝑩
⃗ ) 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑 1
− ∫ ⃗𝛁. ( ⃗𝑬
⃗ × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ )𝑑𝑉 = ∫(𝑬
⃗ . 𝑱)𝑑𝑉 + ⃗ . ⃗𝑫
∫ (𝑬 ⃗ + ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ . ⃗𝑩
⃗ ) 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡 2
Applying Gauss divergence theorem on LHS we get
𝑑 1
⃗⃗ × 𝑯
− ∮(𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗ ) . 𝒅𝑺
⃗ = ∫(𝑬
⃗⃗ . 𝑱)𝑑𝑉 + ⃗ .𝑫
∫ (𝑬 ⃗⃗ + 𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑩
⃗⃗ ) 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡 2
On RHS

(i) First term represents the rate of transfer of EM energy due to the motion of the charge.
(ii) The second term represents the rate of transfer of EM energy in form of electromagnetic field

12
This equation is called Poynting theorem. It represents the conservation of energy in an electromagnetic
field.
Therefore total EM energy flowing per unit time in entire volume is given by

⃗ ×𝑯
− ∮(𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗ ) . 𝒅𝑺
⃗

So total outgoing EM energy from entire volume is given by

⃗ ×𝑯
∮(𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗ ) . 𝒅𝑺
⃗

If this volume in bounded by a surface area S then 𝑬 × 𝑯 represent outgoing energy from per unit area per
unit time and it is called Poynting vector and denoted by S
So Poynting vector

⃗𝑺 = ⃗𝑬 × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗

Poynting vector

The vector 𝑺 ⃗ =𝑬⃗ ×𝑯⃗⃗⃗ is known as poynting vector. It is interpreted as the amount of field energy passing
through unit area of the surface in a direction perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑬 ⃗ &𝑯 ⃗⃗⃗ per unit time. As
⃗⃗ &𝑯
𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗ are perpendicular to each other and also to the direction of propagation, therefore 𝑺 ⃗ having magnitude
0
𝐸𝐻 𝑠𝑖𝑛90 = 𝐸𝐻is also in the direction of wave propagation..

Unit of Poynting vector𝑖𝑠 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒/ (𝑚2 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐) or 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡/ 𝑚2

Dimensions of Poynting vector are

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2
=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎. 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐿2 𝑇
= 𝑀𝑇 −3
Electromagnetic waves in free space
The wave equation for an electrically free space or vacuum, containing neither free charge nor
conduction current.
Maxwell’s equations are
⃗𝛁. ⃗𝑫
⃗ =𝜌 … (1)
⃗ .𝑩
𝛁 ⃗⃗ = 0 … (2)
⃗⃗
⃗𝛁 × ⃗𝑬 = − 𝜕𝑩 (3)
𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝑱 + 𝜕𝑫
⃗𝛁 × ⃗𝑯 (4)
𝜕𝑡

13
 In free space 𝜌 = 0,𝑱 = 0, ⃗𝑫
⃗ = 𝜀0 ⃗𝑬, ⃗𝑩
⃗ = 𝜇0 ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗

Making these substitutions in above equations we get Maxwell`s equations in free space
⃗⃗ . 𝑬
𝛁 ⃗ =0 … (5)
⃗𝛁
⃗ . ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ = 0 … (6)
⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑯
⃗𝛁 × ⃗𝑬 = −𝜇0 … (7)
𝜕𝑡
⃗
𝜕𝑬
⃗𝛁 × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ = 𝜀0 … (8)
𝜕𝑡

Taking curl of equation (7), we get

⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑯
⃗ ×𝛁
𝛁 ⃗ ×𝑬
⃗ = −𝛁
⃗ × (𝜇0 )
𝜕𝑡

⇒ ⃗𝛁 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑬) = −𝜇0 𝜕 (𝛁
⃗ × (𝛁 ⃗ × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ ) …(9)
𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑯
Putting the value of𝛁 ⃗⃗ in equation (9) from equation (8) we get

𝜕 ⃗
𝜕𝑬
⃗𝛁 × (𝛁
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑬) = −𝜇0 (𝜀0 )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝜕 2 ⃗𝑬
⃗𝛁
⃗ × (𝛁
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑬) = −𝜇0 𝜀0 … (10)
𝜕𝑡 2
Using vector identity, we get

⃗𝛁 × (𝛁
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑬) = ⃗𝛁
⃗ (𝛁
⃗ . ⃗𝑬) − 𝛻 2 ⃗𝑬

From equation (5) we have ⃗𝛁. ⃗𝑬

⃗ = 0,

Therefore ⃗ × (𝛁
𝛁 ⃗ ×𝑬
⃗ ) = −𝛻 2 𝑬
⃗⃗

Putting this in equation (10) we get

𝜕 2⃗𝑬
⃗ = −𝜇0 𝜀0
−𝛻 2 𝑬
𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕 2⃗𝑬
⃗
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0
𝛻2𝑬 … (11)
𝜕𝑡 2
Similarly we can get
𝜕 2 ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗
𝛻 2 ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0 … (12)
𝜕𝑡 2

14
By general wave equation we have
1 𝜕 2𝜓
𝛻2𝜓 = … (13)
𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2
Where 𝜓 is the wave function which propagates with velocity v. Thus comparing equations (11) & (12) with
the above equation we observe that field vectors E & H propagate as waves in free space and the velocity of
propagation is
1
𝑣=
√𝜇0 𝜀0
1
=
√4𝜋 × 10−7 × 8.85 × 10−12
= 2.99 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 = 𝑐 (Speed of light)
Thus EM waves travel in free space with speed of light.
So equations (11) and (12) may be written as

2⃗
1 𝜕 2 ⃗𝑬 2 ⃗⃗⃗
1 𝜕 2 ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗
∇ 𝑬 − 2 2 = 0 &∇ 𝑯 − 2 2 = 0
𝑐 𝜕𝑡 𝑐 𝜕𝑡

Show that the Maxwell’s equation in vacuum can be reduced as

⃗𝒌. ⃗𝑬
⃗ = 𝟎, ⃗𝒌. ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ = 𝟎 ⃗ × ⃗𝑯
−𝒌 ⃗⃗ = 𝝎𝜺𝒐 ⃗𝑬 and ⃗𝒌 × ⃗𝑬 = 𝝎𝝁𝒐 ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗

or
Solution of plane electromagnetic wave (transverse nature of waves)
The equation for electric and magnetic field in free space are given by
𝜕2𝑬 𝜕2 𝑯
𝛻 2 ⃗𝑬
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0 2 & 𝛻 2 ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0 2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

The solution of above equations may be written as:

⃗ (𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝑬𝟎 𝑒 𝑖(𝒌⃗.𝒓⃗−𝜔𝑡)
𝑬

⃗⃗⃗ (𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝑯𝟎 𝑒 𝑖(𝒌⃗.𝒓⃗−𝜔𝑡)

𝑯

Where 𝐸0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻0 𝑎𝑟𝑒 amplitudes and k are is propagation vector defined as

2𝜋 2𝜋𝜈 𝜔
⃗ = 𝑘𝑛̂ =
𝒌 𝑛̂ = 𝑛̂ = 𝑛̂
𝜆 𝑐 𝑐
Here 𝑛̂ is a unit vector in the direction of wave propagation.
⃗ and𝑯
Since in 𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗ there are no angular coordinates therefore

15
 𝜕
𝛻=
𝜕𝑟
Now
⃗
𝜕𝑬 𝜕 ⃗
= 𝑬 𝑒 𝑖(𝒌.𝒓⃗−𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝟎
⃗
= 𝑖𝑘𝑬𝟎 𝑒 𝑖(𝒌.𝒓⃗−𝜔𝑡)
⃗
= 𝑖𝑘𝑬
𝜕
⇒ 𝛻= = 𝑖𝑘
𝜕𝑟
Now
⃗
𝜕𝑬 𝜕 ⃗
= 𝑬𝟎 𝑒 𝑖(𝒌.𝒓⃗−𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
⃗
= (−𝑖𝜔)𝑬𝟎 𝑒 𝑖(𝒌.𝒓⃗−𝜔𝑡)
⃗
= −𝑖𝜔𝑬
𝜕
⇒ = −𝑖𝜔
𝜕𝑡
Making the substitutions for 𝛻 in equation (5) we get
⃗ . ⃗𝑬
𝑖𝒌 ⃗ =𝟎

⃗𝒌. ⃗𝑬 = 0

i.e. ⃗ ⊥𝑬
𝒌 ⃗⃗

Similarly making the substitutions for 𝛻 in equation (6) we get

⃗ . ⃗𝑯
𝑖𝒌 ⃗⃗ = 𝟎

⃗𝒌. ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ = 0

i.e. ⃗ ⊥𝑯
𝒌
𝜕 𝜕𝑯 ⃗⃗⃗
Now making the substitutions for 𝛻 and 𝜕𝑡 in equation ⃗𝛁 × ⃗𝑬 = −𝜇0 𝜕𝑡 we get

⃗ ×𝑬
𝑖(𝒌 ⃗ ) = 𝜇0 𝑖𝜔𝑯
⃗⃗⃗

⇒ ⃗ ×𝑬
(𝒌 ⃗ ) = 𝜇0 𝜔𝑯
⃗⃗⃗

⃗ × ⃗𝑬) = 𝜔𝑩
(𝒌 ⃗⃗

̂ × ⃗𝑬) = 𝜔𝑩
𝑘(𝒏 ⃗⃗
16
 𝑘
⃗⃗ ) = 𝑩
̂×𝑬
(𝒏 ⃗⃗
𝜔
𝑘
̂ × ⃗𝑬
(𝒏 ⃗ ) = ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗
𝜔𝜇𝑜
𝜔
=𝑐
𝑘
1
⃗ )=𝑯
̂×𝑬
(𝒏 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑐𝜇𝑜

⃗⃗ is perpendicular to both ⃗𝒌 and ⃗𝑬.

From above equation it is clear that field vector ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ and direction of propagation k are mutually
Thus we see that in EM wave electric field E, magnetic field 𝑯
perpendicular i.e. EM waves are transverse in nature.
⃗.
This means electromagnetic field vectors E and H are perpendicular to the direction of propagation vector 𝒌
This implies that electromagnetic waves have transverse nature.
Relation between E and H

We know ⃗ ×𝑬
(𝒌 ⃗ ) = 𝜇0 𝜔𝑯
⃗⃗⃗

𝑘𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛900 = 𝜇0 𝜔𝐻

𝑘𝐸 = 𝜇0 𝜔𝐻
𝜔
𝐸 = 𝜇0 𝐻
𝑘
𝜔
𝐸 = 𝜇0 𝑐𝐻 , (𝑣 = = 𝑐)
𝑘

1 1
𝐸 = 𝜇0 𝐻 , (𝑐 = )
√ 𝜇0 𝜀 0 √ 𝜇0 𝜀 0

𝜇0
𝐸=√ 𝐻
𝜀0

Characteristic Impedance

The ratio of magnitude of E to the magnitude of H issymbolized as 𝑍𝑜 and has the dimensions of electric
resistance.

⃗𝑬
⃗ 𝑬𝒐 1 𝜇𝑜
𝒁𝒐 = | | = = 𝜇𝑜 𝑐 = 𝜇𝑜 = √ = 376.72𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
⃗𝑯⃗⃗ 𝑯𝒐 √𝜇0 𝜀0 𝜀𝑜

The ratio Zois a universal constant and is called characteristic impedance or wave impedance of free space.

Electromagnetic waves in non-conducting media

A non-charged, current free dielectrics are non-conducting media,
17
 Maxwell’s equations are
⃗𝛁
⃗ . ⃗𝑫
⃗ =𝜌 (1)
⃗ .𝑩
𝛁 ⃗⃗ = 0 (2)
⃗⃗
⃗ ×𝑬
𝛁 ⃗ = − 𝜕𝑩 (3)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑫⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝛁 × 𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑱 + (4)
𝜕𝑡

In non-conducting media𝜌 = 0,𝑱 = 0, ⃗𝑫

⃗ = 𝜀𝑬
⃗ , ⃗𝑩
⃗ = 𝜇𝑯
⃗⃗⃗

Making these substitutions in above equations we get Maxwell`s equations in free space
⃗𝛁. ⃗𝑬 = 0 … (5)
⃗𝛁
⃗ . ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ = 0 … (6)
⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑯
⃗⃗ × 𝑬
𝛁 ⃗ = −𝜇 … (7)
𝜕𝑡
⃗
𝜕𝑬
⃗𝛁
⃗ × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ = 𝜀 … (8)
𝜕𝑡
Taking curl of equation (7), we get
⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑯
⃗ × (𝛁
𝛁 ⃗ ×𝑬
⃗ ) = −𝛁
⃗ × (𝜇 )
𝜕𝑡

⇒ ⃗ × (𝛁
𝛁 ⃗ ) = −𝜇 𝜕 (𝛁
⃗ ×𝑬 ⃗ ×𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ ) …(9)
𝜕𝑡

Putting the value of ⃗𝛁 × ⃗𝑯

⃗⃗ in equation (9) from equation (8) we get

𝜕 ⃗
𝜕𝑬
⃗𝛁 × (𝛁
⃗ × ⃗𝑬) = −𝜇 (𝜀 )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗
𝜕 2𝑬
⃗𝛁
⃗ × (𝛁
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑬) = −𝜇𝜀 … (10)
𝜕𝑡 2
Using vector identity we get
⃗𝛁 × (𝛁
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑬) = ⃗𝛁
⃗ (𝛁
⃗ . ⃗𝑬) − 𝛻 2 ⃗𝑬

From equation (5) we have ⃗ .𝑬

𝛁 ⃗⃗ = 0 ,

Therefore ⃗𝛁 × (𝛁
⃗ × ⃗𝑬) = −𝛻 2 ⃗𝑬
⃗

Putting this in equation (10) we get

𝜕 2 ⃗𝑬
−𝜵𝟐 ⃗𝑬
⃗ = −𝜇𝜀
𝜕𝑡 2

18
 𝜕 2 ⃗𝑬
⃗
⃗ = 𝜇𝜀
𝜵𝟐 𝑬 … (11)
𝜕𝑡 2
Similarly we can get
⃗⃗⃗
𝜕 2𝑯
𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗
𝜵 𝑯 = 𝜇𝜀 2 … (12)
𝜕𝑡

Depth of penetration (Skin depth)

When an EM wave propagates in a medium its amplitude decrease with the distance inside the medium from
the surface. This phenomenon is known as attenuation.
The amplitude of an EM wave at a depth x is given by

𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥
Where

E0 is amplitude of the wave at the surface of the medium

𝛼 is attenuation constant it is given by

1
1 2
𝜇𝜀 𝜎2 2
𝛼 = 𝜔[ {(1 + 2 2 ) − 1}]
2 𝜔 𝜀

The depth of penetration is defined as the depth at which the strength of electric field associated with the
1
electromagnetic wave reduces to 𝑒 times to its initial value.

Now
𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥
𝐸0
At skin depth 𝑥 = 𝛿, 𝐸 = 𝑒

19
 𝐸0
= 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝛼𝛿
𝑒
𝑒 −1 = 𝑒 −𝛼𝛿

𝛼𝛿 = 1
1
𝛿 =
𝛼
1
Thus, 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ =
𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

For good conductors:

𝜎
≫1
𝜔𝜀
σ
Therefore neglecting 1 with respect to ωε we get
1
𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2
𝛼 = 𝜔 { ( − 1)}
2 𝜔𝜀
1
𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2
𝛼 = 𝜔( )
2 𝜔𝜀
1
𝜇𝜎𝜔 2
𝛼=( )
2
𝜇𝜎𝜔
𝛼=√
2
Skin depth
1
𝛿 =
𝛼

2
𝛿 = √
𝜇𝜎𝜔

For poor conductors or insulators:

𝜎
≪1
𝜔𝜀
Therefore
1
𝜎2 2 𝜎2
(1 + 2 2 ) ≈ 1 +
𝜔 𝜀 2𝜔 2 𝜀 2

20
 1
𝜇𝜀 𝜎2 2
𝛼 = 𝜔 { (1 + − 1)}
2 2𝜔 2 𝜀 2
1
𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2 2
𝛼 = 𝜔( )
2 2𝜔 2 𝜀 2
1
𝜎 𝜇 2
𝛼= ( )
2 𝜀
𝜎 𝜇
𝛼= √
2 𝜀

2 𝜀
𝛿 = √
𝜎 𝜇

From this expression it is clear that skin depth for insulator does not depend upon frequency of EM waves
Energy Density of Plane Electromagnetic Wave in Free Space:
1
⃗ is UE = 𝜀0 𝑬2 dV,
In small volume dV, the energy of electric field 𝑬 2

1
⃗⃗ is UB =
In small volume dV, the energy of magnetic field 𝑩 𝑩2 dV,
2𝜇 0

The electric energy per unit volume or electric field energy density UE is given by
1
UE = 2 𝜀0 𝑬2 …….....(1)

Similarly, the magnetic field energy density UB is given by

1
UB = 2𝜇 𝑩2 ………....(2)
0

⃗ and 𝑩
In electromagnetic field, sum of energy densities due to both 𝑬 ⃗⃗ is

1 1
U = UE + UB = 2 𝜀0 𝑬2 + ⃗⃗ = 𝜇𝑯
𝑩2 , (𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗ )
2𝜇0

𝑬 𝝁 𝜺
= √ 𝜺 𝒐 or H=E √𝝁𝒐 ……...(3)
𝑯 𝒐 𝒐

1 1 𝜺
U= 𝜀 𝑬2 + 2 𝜇0 𝝁𝒐 𝑬2
2 0 𝒐

U = 𝜀0 𝑬2 ………………….(4)

Hence total electromagnetic energy density U = 𝜀0 𝑬2

Therefore, time average of energy density, u is obtained as

21
<u> = <𝜀0 𝑬2 > = 𝜀0 < (𝑬𝒐 𝑒 𝑖𝒌.𝒓−𝑖𝜔𝑡 )2real> ….. ...(5)
⃗
We know that real part of 𝑒 𝑖𝒌.𝒓⃗−𝑖𝜔𝑡 =cos (𝜔𝑡 − ⃗𝒌. 𝒓
⃗)

<u> = 𝜀0 𝐸0
2
< 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 − ⃗𝒌. 𝒓
⃗ )>
1
⃗ .𝒓
Again, < 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝒌 ⃗ )> =
2

1
Therefore, <u>=2 𝜀0 𝐸02 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠
2
(Erms = 𝐸0 ⁄√2) .....(6)

We, know that the Poynting vector

𝑆 = 𝐸⃗ × 𝐻
⃗

1 1
𝑆 = 𝐸⃗ × (𝑛̂ × 𝐸⃗ ) = 𝐸⃗ × (𝑛̂ × 𝐸⃗ )
𝜇𝑜 𝑐 𝜇𝑜 𝑐

1
𝑆= [(𝐸⃗ . 𝐸⃗ )𝑛̂ − (𝐸⃗ . 𝑛̂)𝐸⃗ ]
𝜇𝑜 𝑐

But 𝐸⃗ . 𝑛̂ = 0, because 𝐸⃗ is perpendicular to the direction of propagation 𝑛̂ or the angle between 𝑛̂ and 𝐸⃗ 90°.

1 2
𝑆= 𝐸 𝑛̂
𝜇𝑜 𝑐

𝜇𝑜 𝑐 = 𝑍𝑜 , where 𝑍𝑜 is the characteristic impedance of the free space

𝐸2
𝑆= 𝑛̂
𝑍𝑜

The average value of 𝑆 over a complete cycle is

1 2 1
〈𝑆〉 = 〈𝐸 〉𝑛̂ = 〈𝑬𝒐 𝑒 𝑖𝒌.𝒓−𝑖𝜔𝑡 )2 real〉
𝑍𝑜 𝑍𝑜

1 𝐸𝑜2
〈𝑆〉 = 𝑛̂
𝑍𝑜 2

From Equation 6 and 7

<𝑆> 𝑛̂ 𝑛̂ 𝑛̂
=𝑍 = = = c 𝑛̂
<𝑢> 0 𝜀0 𝜇 √ 𝜇0 𝜀 0
𝜀0 √ 0⁄𝜀0

〈𝑆〉 = c𝑛̂ < 𝑢 > ...8

Or Energy flux= velocity of light × energy density

22
 Thus the energy density associated with an electromagnetic wave in free space travels with a speed equal to
velocity of light with which the field vectors propagate.

The ratio of electric and magnetic densities:

1
UE 𝜀0 𝑬2 𝜀 𝑬2
= 12 = 𝜇 0𝑯2
𝑈𝐵 𝜇 𝑯2 0
2 0

𝑬 𝝁
Again from equation 𝑯= √ 𝜺 𝒐
𝒐

𝐸2 𝜇
= 𝜀 𝑜, or𝜇0 𝑯2 = 𝜀0 𝑬2
𝐻2 𝑜

UE 𝜀0 𝑬 2
= =1
𝑈𝐵 𝜀0 𝑬 2

Thus the electric field energy density is equal to magnetic field energy density.

Radiation Pressure-- When electromagnetic radiation strikes to a surface area; its momentum gets
changed. It means some momentum get transferred to the surface. If electromagnetic radiation is striking
continuously to a surface, then the momentum of the surface will be continuously changed. According to
Newton`s second law the rate of change of momentum of the surface will be equal to the force exerted on the
surface and the force per unit area on the surface is equal to the pressure. Therefore, if electromagnetic
radiation strikes to a surface then it exerts a pressure on that surface.

Relation between radiation Pressure and energy density –

Maxwell predicted that electromagnetic waves transport linear momentum in the direction of propagation.
The momentum of the particle of mass m moving with velocity v is given by

𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
According to Einstein’s mass-energy relation

𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐 2 or 𝑚 = 𝑈/𝑐 2
𝑈
𝑝= 𝑣
𝑐2
𝑣 = 𝑐𝑖̂, for electromagnetic wave propagating along x direction
𝑈
𝑝= 𝑖̂
𝑐
Let a plane EM wave incident normally on a perfectly absorbing surface having area A.
Also let this surface area absorbs energy U in time t.
Then momentum transferred to the surface is
𝑈
𝑝=
𝑐

23
We know

𝑈 = 𝑆𝐴𝑡 (energy passing per unit area per unit time)

Where S in magnitude of Poynting vector
Therefore
𝑆𝐴𝑡
𝑝=
𝑐
𝑝 = 𝑢𝐴𝑡 (𝑆 = 𝑢𝑐)

Where 𝑢 is energy density

𝑑𝑝
By Newton`s second law , 𝐹= = 𝑢𝐴
𝑑𝑡

Now Pressure
𝐹
𝑃= =𝑢
𝐴
i.e.

𝑃=𝑢
i.e. Radiation pressure is equal to energy density.

24
 UNIT Second Numerical: Electromagnetic Theory
Question 1. Derive Coulomb`s law from Maxwell`s first equation. (IMP)

Solution. Maxwell`s first equation , ⃗⃗ = 𝜌

∇. 𝑫

Integrating over an entire volume we get

∫ (∇. ⃗⃗⃗
𝑫) 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉

Applying Gauss divergence theorem on LHS we get

⃗⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
∮𝑫 ⃗ = ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉

∮ (ε0 ⃗𝑬
⃗ ) . 𝒅𝒔
⃗ = ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉

ε0 ∮ ⃗𝑬
⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
⃗ =𝑞

𝑞
∮ ⃗𝑬
⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
⃗ =
ε0
Consider a point charge 𝑞0 at a point O

Now applying Gauss law for a spherical

surface of radius r centered at O

𝑞
We get , ∮ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑬. 𝒅⃗𝒔 = ε 0 … … … … … . . (1)
0

For a positive point charge electric field

will be radial outward and so it will along
𝒅𝑺

𝑞0
∮ E𝑑𝑆 =
ε0
𝑞0
E ∮ 𝑑𝑆 =
ε0
𝑞0
E. 4𝜋𝑟 2 =
ε0
𝑞0
E=
4𝜋ε0 𝑟 2

25
If an another point charge q is placed at point P then electrostatic force on that is

𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸
𝑞0 𝑞
𝐹=
4𝜋ε0 𝑟 2

This is Coulomb`s law

Question 2. Derive equation of continuity from Maxwell`s fourth equation. (IMP)

⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫
Solution. Maxwell`s fourth equation is , ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑱 +
∇×𝑯 𝜕𝑡

Taking divergence on both sides we get

⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫
𝛻. (∇ × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ ) = 𝛻. (𝑱 + )
𝜕𝑡

But 𝛻. (∇ × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ ) = 0

⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫
Therefore 𝛻. (𝑱 + )=0
𝜕𝑡

⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫
𝛻. 𝑱 + 𝛻. ( )=0
𝜕𝑡

𝜕(𝛻. ⃗𝑫
⃗)
𝛻. 𝑱 + =0
𝜕𝑡
But by Maxwell`s first equation we know, ⃗⃗ = 𝜌
∇. 𝑫
𝜕𝜌
Putting the value of ∇. ⃗𝑫
⃗ we get, 𝛻. 𝑱 + 𝜕𝑡 = 0

This is the equation of continuity.

𝟐𝒄𝒂𝒍
Question 3. Earth receives solar energy from the Sun which is 𝒄𝒎𝟐 .𝑴𝒊𝒏. what are the amplitude of
electric and magnetic fields of radiation? (M. IMP)
or
The sunlight strikes upper atmosphere of earth with energy𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐭/𝐦𝟐 . Calculate peak
values of electric and magnetic fields at points.

Solution: 𝑆 = 2𝑐𝑎𝑙/(𝑐𝑚2 . 𝑀𝑖𝑛)

2 × 4.2 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
=
(10−2 𝑚)2 × 60 𝑠

= 1400 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒/(𝑚2 . 𝑠)

We know Poynting vector is given by, 𝑆 = 𝐸𝑋𝐻= EH sin90 = EH

26
 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
Therefore 𝐸𝐻 == 1400 … … … … … … … . (1)
𝑚2 .𝑠

We also know by characteristic impedance of vacuum is given by

𝐸
= 376.77 Ω … … … … … … … … . . (2)
𝐻

Multiplying equations (1) and equation (2) we get

𝐸 2 = 527478 (𝑁/𝐶)2

⇒ 𝐸 = 726.27 𝑁/𝐶
1400
Putting the value of E in equation (1) we get , 𝐻 = 726.27 𝑁/(𝐴. 𝑚)

= 1.93 𝑁/(𝐴. 𝑚)

𝐸0 = 𝐸√2

⇒ 𝐸0 = 726.27√2 𝑁/𝐶

⇒ 𝐸0 = 1027.1 𝑁/𝐶

𝐻0 = 𝐻√2

⇒ 𝐻0 = 1.93√2 𝑁/(𝐴. 𝑚)

⇒ 𝐻0 = 2.73 𝑁/(𝐴. 𝑚)

Question 4. Earth receives solar energy from the Sun which is 10 Joules per minute per cm 2 What are
the amplitude of electric and magnetic fields of radiation? (M. IMP)

Solution: 𝑆 = 10 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠/(𝑐𝑚2 . 𝑀𝑖𝑛)

10 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
=
(10−2 𝑚)2 × 60 𝑠

= 1666.67 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒/(𝑚2 . 𝑠)

We know Poynting vector is given by, 𝑆 = 𝐸𝑋𝐻= EH sin90 = EH

𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
Therefore 𝐸𝐻 == 1666.67 … … … … … … … . (1)
𝑚2 .𝑠

We also know by characteristic impedance of vacuum is given by

𝐸
= 376.77 Ω … … … … … … … … . . (2)
𝐻

Multiplying equations (1) and equation (2) we get

𝐸 2 = 627951.25 (𝑁/𝐶)2

27
⇒ 𝐸 = 792.43 𝑁/𝐶

Putting the value of E in equation (1) we get

1666.67
𝐻= 𝑁/(𝐴. 𝑚)
792.43

= 2.1 𝑁/(𝐴. 𝑚)

𝐸0 = 𝐸√2

⇒ 𝐸0 = 792.43 √2 𝑁/𝐶

⇒ 𝐸0 = 1120.67 𝑁/𝐶

𝐻0 = 𝐻√2

⇒ 𝐻0 = 2.1√2 𝑁/(𝐴. 𝑚)

⇒ 𝐻0 = 2.97 𝑁/(𝐴. 𝑚)

Question 5. If the upper atmosphere of earth receives the energy 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕/𝒎𝟐 from the sun what
will be the peak values of electric and magnetic fields at the layer. (IMP)

Solution: 𝑆 = 1360 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠/𝑚2

𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑆 = 1360
(𝑚2 . 𝑠)

We know Poynting vector is given by, 𝑆 = 𝐸𝑋𝐻= EH sin90 = EH

𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
Therefore 𝐸𝐻 == 1360 … … … … … … … . (1)
𝑚2 .𝑠

We also know by characteristic impedance of vacuum is given by

𝐸
= 376.77 Ω … … … … … … … … . . (2)
𝐻

Multiplying equations (1) and equation (2) we get

𝐸 2 = 512407.2 (𝑁/𝐶)2

⇒ 𝐸 = 715.83 𝑁/𝐶

Putting the value of E in equation (1) we get

1360
𝐻= 𝑁/(𝐴. 𝑚)
715.83

= 1.89 𝑁/(𝐴. 𝑚)

𝐸0 = 𝐸√2

28
 ⇒ 𝐸0 = 715.83 √2 𝑁/𝐶

⇒ 𝐸0 = 1012.34 𝑁/𝐶

𝐻0 = 𝐻√2

⇒ 𝐻0 = 1.89 √2 𝑁/(𝐴. 𝑚)

⇒ 𝐻0 = 2.67 𝑁/(𝐴. 𝑚)

Question 6. Assuming that all the energy from a 100 watt lamp is radiated uniformly. Calculate the
average values of the intensities of electric and magnetic fields of radiation at a distance of 2 m
from the lamp. (IMP)
𝑃 𝑃
Solution: We know Poynting vector is given by, 𝑆 = =
𝐴 4𝜋𝑟 2

100 𝑊
⇒ 𝑆=
4 × 3.14 × (2 𝑚)2

100 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
⇒ 𝑆=
4 × 3.14 × 4 𝑚2 . 𝑠
⇒ 𝑆 = 1.99 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒/(𝑚2 . 𝑠)

We know 𝑆 = 𝐸𝑋𝐻= EH sin90 = EH

𝑆 = 𝐸𝐻
𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
Therefore 𝐸𝐻 = 1.99 … … … … … … … . (1)
𝑚2 .𝑠

We also know by characteristic impedance of vacuum is given by

𝐸
= 376.77 Ω … … … … … … … … . . (2)
𝐻

Multiplying equations (1) and equation (2) we get

𝐸 2 = 1492 (𝑁/𝐶)2

⇒ 𝐸 = 6.22 𝑁/𝐶

Putting the value of E in equation (1) we get

1.99
𝐻= 𝑁/(𝐴. 𝑚)
6.22

= 0.05 𝑁/(𝐴. 𝑚)

Question 7. A 500 watt lamp radiates power uniformly in all directions. Calculate the electric and
magnetic field intensities at 1 m distance from the lamp.
29
 𝑃
Solution: We know Poynting vector is given by, 𝑆 =
4𝜋𝑟 2

500 𝑊
⇒ 𝑆=
4 × 3.14 × (1 𝑚)2

500 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
⇒ 𝑆=
4 × 3.14 × 1 𝑚2 . 𝑠
⇒ 𝑆 = 38.53 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒/(𝑚2 . 𝑠)

We know 𝑆 = 𝐸𝑋𝐻= EH sin90 = EH

𝑆 = 𝐸𝐻
𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
Therefore 𝐸𝐻 = 38.53 … … … … … … … . (1)
𝑚2 .𝑠

We also know by characteristic impedance of vacuum is given by

𝐸
= 376.77 Ω … … … … … … … … . . (2)
𝐻

Multiplying equations (1) and equation (2) we get

𝐸 2 = 14516.94 (𝑁/𝐶)2

⇒ 𝐸 = 120.49 𝑁/𝐶

Putting the value of E in equation (1) we get

38.53
𝐻= 𝑁/(𝐴. 𝑚)
120.49

= 0.32 𝑁/(𝐴. 𝑚)

Question 8. Calculate the magnitude of Poynting vector at the surface of the sun. Given the power
radiated by sun is 𝟑. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟔 Watts and radius of the sun is 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 m. (M. IMP)
𝑃
Solution: We know Poynting vector is given by𝑆 =
4𝜋𝑟 2

3.8 × 1026 𝑊
⇒ 𝑆=
4 × 3.14 × (7 × 108 𝑚)2

3.8 × 1026 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒

⇒ 𝑆=
4 × 3.14 × 49 × 1016 𝑚2 . 𝑠
⇒ 𝑆 = 6.17 × 107 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒/(𝑚2 . 𝑠)

30
Question 9. In a material for which 𝛔 = 𝟓 𝐒/𝐦 and 𝛆𝐫 = 𝟏the electric field intensity is𝐄 =
𝟐𝟓𝟎𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝐭)𝐕/𝐦.Find conduction and displacement current densities and the frequency at
which both have equal amplitude.

Solution: Conduction current density is given by 𝐽𝑐 = 𝜎𝐸

⇒ 𝐽𝑐 = 5 × 250 𝑠𝑖𝑛(1010 𝑡) 𝐴/𝑚2

= 1250 𝑠𝑖𝑛(1010 𝑡) 𝐴/𝑚2

𝑑𝐸
𝐽𝑑 = 𝜀
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
⟹ 𝐽𝑑 = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 {250𝑠𝑖𝑛(1010 𝑡)}
𝑑𝑡

⟹ 𝐽𝑑 = 1 × 8.854 × 10−12 × 250 × 1010 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠(1010 𝑡)

= 22.125 𝑐𝑜𝑠(1010 𝑡) 𝐴/𝑚2

𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝜀𝐸 𝑑
For harmonically time varying field 𝐽𝑑 = = = (𝜀𝐸0 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐽𝑑 = 𝜀𝐸0 𝑖𝜔 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡

𝐽𝑑 = 𝜀𝑖𝜔 𝐸

According to given condition

I Jd I = I 𝐽𝑐 I

𝜀𝜔 𝐸 = 𝜎𝐸

𝜀𝜔 = 𝜎, 𝜀2𝜋𝜈 = 𝜎

𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 5
𝜈= = = = = 8.996 × 1010 𝐻𝑧
𝜀2𝜋 𝜀2𝜋 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 2𝜋 1×8.854×10−12 ×2×3.14

Question 10. The permeability, permittivity and conductivity of aluminum are𝛍𝐫 = 𝟏, 𝛆𝐫 = 𝟏 and𝛔 =
𝟑. 𝟓𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎𝒉𝒐/𝒎. Find the skin depth if the wave enter in aluminum with frequency of 71.56
MHz.

2
Solution: Skin depth is given by , 𝛿 = √𝜇𝜎𝜔

2
𝛿=√
𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝜎2𝜋𝑓

1
𝛿=√
𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝜎𝜋𝑓

31
 1
𝛿=√
1 × 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑁/𝐴2 × 3.54 × 107 𝑚ℎ𝑜/𝑚 × 𝜋 × 71.56 × 106 Hz

𝛿 = 9.99 × 10−6 𝑚

Question 11. For silver, 𝝁 = 𝝁𝟎 and𝝈 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎𝒉𝒐𝒔/𝒎. Calculate the skin depth at
𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝑯𝒛frequency. Given, 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑵/𝑨𝟐
2
Solution: Skin depth is given by , 𝜆 = √𝜇𝜎𝜔

2
𝛿=√
𝜇𝜎2𝜋𝑓

1
𝛿=√
𝜇𝜎𝜋𝑓

1
𝛿=√
4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑁/𝐴2 × 3 × 107 𝑚ℎ𝑜/𝑚 × 𝜋 × 108 Hz

𝛿 = 9.18 × 10−6 𝑚

Question 12. Find the skin depth at frequency 71.6 MHz in aluminum. The related parameters for
aluminum are 𝛍 = 𝛍𝟎 = 𝟒𝛑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐍/𝐀𝟐 and 𝛔 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝐬𝐢𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧/𝐦. (IMP)

2
Solution: Skin depth is given by , 𝜆 = √𝜇𝜎𝜔

2
𝛿=√
𝜇𝜎𝜔

2
𝛿=√
𝜇𝜎2𝜋𝑓

1
𝛿=√
𝜇𝜎𝜋𝑓

1
𝛿=√
4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑁/𝐴2 × 3.58 × 107 𝑚ℎ𝑜/𝑚 × 𝜋 × 71.6106 Hz

𝛿 = 9.99 × 10−6 𝑚
⃗⃗
𝝏𝑫
⃗⃗ = 𝝁𝟎 (𝑱 +
Question 13. Using Maxwell’s equation, curl 𝑩 ⃗⃗ = 𝝆. (IMP)
) prove that div 𝑫
𝝏𝒕
32
 ⃗
⃗ = 𝜇0 (𝐽 + 𝜕𝐷)
Solution: According to the given problem, curl 𝐵 𝜕𝑡

Taking divergence of both sides, we get

⃗
𝜕𝐷
⃗ . (∇
∇ ⃗ ×𝐵
⃗ ) = 𝜇𝑜 ∇
⃗ . (𝐽 + )
𝜕𝑡
⃗∇. (∇
⃗ ×𝐵
⃗)=0

⃗
𝜕𝐷
⃗ . (𝐽 +
∇ )=0
𝜕𝑡

𝜕
⃗ .𝐽 +
∇ ⃗ .𝐷
(∇ ⃗ )=0
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌
From equation of continuity, ⃗∇. 𝐽 = − 𝜕𝑡

𝜕 𝜕𝜌
⃗ .𝐷
Hence, 𝜕𝑡 (∇ ⃗ )=
𝜕𝑡

⃗ .𝐷
∇ ⃗ =𝜌

Question 14: If the magnitude of ⃗𝑯

⃗⃗ in a plane wave is 1 amp/meter, find the magnitude of ⃗𝑬
⃗ for
plane wave in free space. (IMP)

𝐻 𝜀 𝜇
Solution: We know that, 𝐸𝑜 = √𝜇𝑜 or 𝐸𝑜 = √ 𝜀 𝑜 𝐻𝑜
𝑜 𝑜 𝑜

10−7 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 10−12 𝐶

Here, 𝐻𝑜 = 1𝑎𝑚𝑝/𝑚, 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × − 𝑚 and 𝜀𝑜 = 8.85 × − 𝑚2
𝐴𝑚𝑝 𝑁

4𝜋 × 10−7
𝐸𝑜 = 1 × √ = 376.72 𝑉/𝑚
8.85 × 10−12

Question 15: The maximum electric field in a plane electromagnetic wave is 10 2 Newton/Coul. The
wave is going in the X-direction and the electric field is in the Y-direction. Find the maximum
magnetic field in the wave and its direction.

Solution: The maximum electric field Eo in a plane electromagnetic wave is related with maximum magnetic
field Bo as

𝐸𝑜 = 𝑐𝐵𝑜

Where 𝑐 is the velocity of light

𝐸𝑜 102
𝐵𝑜 = = 8
= 3.33 × 10−7 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2
𝑐 3 × 10

33
Question 16: The sunlight strikes the upper atmosphere of earth with energy flux 1.38 kWm -2. What
will be the peak values of electric and magnetic fields at the points. (IMP)

Or

If the copper atmospheric layer of earth receives 1.38 kWm -2 energy from the sun what will be the
values of electric and magnetic fields at the layer.

Solution: Energy flux or Poynting vector S is given by

𝐸⃗ × 𝐵⃗
𝑆=
𝜇𝑜
𝐸𝐵 2
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠
Or 𝑆 = =
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜

But 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐸0 /√2

𝑆 = 𝐸02 /2𝜇0 𝑐

Or 𝐸𝑜 = √2𝜇𝑜 𝑐𝑆

Here, 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻/𝑚, 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 and 𝑆 = 1.38 𝑘𝑊𝑚−2 = 1380 𝑊𝑚−2

𝐸𝑜 = √2 × 4 × 3.14 × 10−7 × 3 × 108 × 1380 = 1.02 𝐾𝑉𝑚−1

Peak value of magnetic field is given by

𝐸𝑜 1.02 × 103
𝐵𝑜 = = = 3.4 × 10−6 𝑊𝑏𝑚−2
𝑐 3 × 108
Question 17: The relative permittivity of distilled water is 81. Calculate refractive index and velocity of
light in it.

Solution: We know that 𝜇 = √(𝜇𝜀/𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 and 𝑣 = 𝑐/𝜇

𝜀 = 81𝜀𝑜 and for distilled water 𝜇 ≅ 𝜇𝑜

3×108
𝜇 = √(81) = 9 and 𝑣 = = 3.33 × 107 𝑚𝑠 −1
9

Advanced Level Numerical Problems

Question 18: If the upper atmospheric layer of earth receives 1360 Wm2 energy from the sun, what
will be the peak values of electric and magnetic field at the layer. (IMP)

Solution: The energy flux S is given by

𝐸⃗ × 𝐵⃗
𝑆=
𝜇𝑜
34
 𝐸𝐵 2
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠
Or 𝑆 = =
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑜

But 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐸0 /√2

𝑆 = 𝐸02 /2𝜇0 𝑐

Or 𝐸𝑜 = √2𝜇𝑜 𝑐𝑆

Here, 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻/𝑚, 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 and 𝑆 = 1.36 𝑘𝑊𝑚−2 = 1360 𝑊𝑚−2

𝐸𝑜 = √2 × 4 × 3.14 × 10−7 × 3 × 108 × 1360 = 1.012 𝐾𝑉𝑚−1

Peak value of magnetic field is given by

𝐸𝑜 1.012 × 103
𝐵𝑜 = = = 3.37 × 10−6 𝑊𝑏𝑚−2
𝑐 3 × 108
Question 19: A conductor of circular cross-section of radius 2mm carries a current 𝒊𝒄 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟓 ×
𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕)𝝁𝑨. What is the amplitude of the displacement current if σ = 35 MS/m and εr = 1?

Solution: The ratio of the conduction current Jc to the displacement current Jd is given as,

𝐽𝑐 𝜎 𝜎
= =
𝐽𝑑 𝜔𝜀 𝜔𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟

Here, 𝜎 = 35 × 106 𝑆/𝑚, 𝜔 = 5 × 108 , 𝜀𝑜 = 8.85 × 10−12 , and 𝜀𝑟 = 1

⃗⃗𝐽𝑐 35 × 106
= 8 × 8.85 × 10−2 × 1
= 79.09 × 108
⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝑑 5 × 10

The conduction current density is related with conduction current as

⃗⃗𝐽𝑐 = 𝑖𝑐 /(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎)

Here, area, 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑎2 = 𝜋(2 × 10−3 )2 and 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝑖𝑐 = 2.5 × 10−6 amp

2.5 × 10−6
⃗⃗𝐽𝑐 = = 0.199
3.14 × (2 × 10−3 )2

Hence,

𝐽𝑐
= 79.09 × 108
𝐽𝑑

𝐽𝑐 0.199
𝐽𝑑 = 8
=
79.09 × 10 79.09 × 108

35
Or Displacement current, 𝐽𝑑 = 2.516 × 10−11 amp/m2

𝒙
Question 20: The electric field in an electromagnetic wave is given by 𝑬 = 𝑬𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎 (𝒕 − 𝒄 ), where 𝑬𝒐 =
𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝟏𝟎𝟎 . Find the energy contained in a cylinder of cross-section 10-3 m2 and length 100 cm along
𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍
the X-axis.

Solution: The average electric energy density is

1
𝑢𝑎𝑣 = ( )𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝑜2
2
If V is the volume of a cylinder, then the energy contained in this volume

1
𝑈 = 𝑉𝑢𝑎𝑣 = ( )𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝑜2 𝑉
2
Here 𝑉 = cross-sectional X length = 10−3 × 100 × 10−2 = 10−3 𝑚3

1
𝑈 = ( ) × 8.85 × 10−12 × (100)2 × 10−3 = 4.425 × 10−11 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
2
Question 21: Calculate the magnitude of Poynting vector at the surface of the sun. Given that power
radiated by sun = 5.4 X 1028 watts and radius of sun is 7 X 108 m. (IMP)

Solution: Power radiated by the surface area (4πR2) of the sun is

𝑃 = 4𝜋𝑅 2 × 𝑆

Where S is the pointing vector and R is the radius of the sun

𝑃 5.4 × 1028
𝑆= 2
= 8 2
= 8.77 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡/𝑚2
4𝜋𝑅 4 × 3.14 × (7 × 10 )

Question 22. Show that the direction of cross product of electric and magnetic fields in electromagnetic
wave is along the direction of propagation of wave.

Solution: The electric and magnetic field vectors for a plane electromagnetic wave propagating along X-
axis, are expressed as,

𝐸⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑜 sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 𝐵𝑜 sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

In which 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 𝑎 ⃗ = 𝐵𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑎

̂𝑧 and 𝐵 ̂𝑧

Therefore, cross product of E and B, that is, 𝐸⃗ × 𝐵

⃗ = (𝐸𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 𝑎
̂)𝑧 × (𝐵𝑦 𝑎
̂𝑦 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑎
̂)𝑧

36
Or, 𝐸⃗ × 𝐵
⃗ =𝑎
̂(𝐸
𝑥 𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐵𝑦 𝐸𝑧 )

But it is known that, 𝐸𝑧 = −𝑐𝐵𝑦 and 𝐸𝑦 = 𝑐𝐵𝑧

𝐸𝑦 𝐸𝑧 𝐸𝑦2 + 𝐸𝑧2
𝐸⃗ × 𝐵
⃗ =𝑎
̂𝑥 [𝐸𝑦 ( ) − 𝐸𝑧 (− )] = 𝑎
̂[𝑥 ]
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝐸 2
Or 𝐸⃗ × 𝐵
⃗ =𝑎
̂𝑥 𝑐

From this equation it is clear that the direction of 𝐸⃗ × 𝐵

⃗ is along x-axis, that is, along the direction of
propagation of plane electromagnetic wave.

Question23: Show that the ratio of the magnitudes of electric and magnetic field vectors in
electromagnetic waves is equal to the speed of light in free space.

Solution: The electric and magnetic field vectors for a plane electromagnetic wave propagating along X-axis
are given by

𝐸⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑜 sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) (1)

⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 𝐵𝑜 sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) (2)

In which 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 𝑎 ⃗ = 𝐵𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑎

̂𝑧 and 𝐵 ̂𝑧 (3)

But it is known that 𝐸𝑧 = −𝑐𝐵𝑦 and 𝐸𝑦 = 𝑐𝐵𝑧 (4)

Substituting the values of 𝐵𝑦 and 𝐵𝑧 from equation (4) in equation (3), we get

𝐸𝑧 𝐸𝑦
⃗ = −𝑎̂𝑦
𝐵 +𝑎
̂𝑧
𝑐 𝑐
Putting, 𝑎̂𝑦 = 𝑎
̂𝑧 × 𝑎
̂𝑥 or −𝑎̂𝑦 = 𝑎
̂𝑥 × 𝑎
̂𝑧 and 𝑎
̂𝑧 = 𝑎
̂𝑥 × 𝑎̂𝑦

1 1
⃗ = [(𝑎
𝐵 ̂𝑥 × 𝑎
̂)𝐸
𝑧 𝑧 + (𝑎
̂𝑥 × 𝑎̂)𝐸
𝑦 𝑦 ] = [𝑎
̂ × (𝐸𝑧 𝑎
̂𝑧 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑎̂)]
𝑐 𝑐 𝑥 𝑦

⃗ = 1 (𝑎
𝐵 ̂ 𝑥 × 𝐸 ⃗ | = 1 |𝑎
⃗ ) or |𝐵 ̂𝑥 × 𝐸⃗ |
𝑐 𝑐

𝐸
⃗|=
|𝐵
𝑐

̂𝑥 and 𝐸⃗ are mutually perpendicular.

Because, 𝑎
𝐸
Thus, =𝑐
𝐵

37
 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER & DIELECTRICS

VI Semester B,Sc., Physics Syllabus (Paper 603) Unit – II : Magnetic Properties of Matter
Review of basic formulae : Magnetic intensity, magnetic induction, permeability, magnetic
Magnetisation , permeability and susceptibility,
susceptibility, magnetization (M), Classification of Dia, Para, and ferro– magnetic materials.
classificationof magnetic materials, ferromagnetism,
Classical Langevin Theory of dia – and Paramagnetic Domains. Quantum Mechanical Treatment
magnetic domains and hysteresis, applications
of Paramagnetism. Curie’s law, Weiss’s Theory of Ferromagnetism and Ferromagnetic Domains.
Discussion of B-H Curve. Hysteresis and Energy Loss, Hard and Soft magnetic materials

Introduction : Matter is made of atoms which contain charged particles called electrons
revolving round the nucleus. These moving electrons produce magnetic field. Also, a
current carrying conductor produces magnetic field. All materials are affected in some
way or the other by a magnetic field. However, not all materials react the same way.
A magnetic material is a material which can attract or repel other substances under
the influence of its magnetic field. The action of attracting or repelling a substance
depend on the alignment of atomic magnetic moments in the substance in the presence
of external magnetic field.
Magnetic Field: It is a region around a magnet where other magnetic
materials experience a force. Magnetic field can be described by
imaginary lines of force around a magnet which enables other
magnetic materials to get repelled or attracted towards it.
Properties of Magnetic field Lines
➢ The Magnetic field lines enter the south pole and comes out of the north pole
forming closed loops.
➢ The magnetic field lines are strong near the poles of the magnet.
➢ There is no chance of magnetic field lines intersecting each other.
➢ More the closeness of the magnetic field lines, more is the strength of magnetic
field.

Magnetic Field Strength or Magnetic intensity : A current

carrying coil (a solenoid) produces a magnetic field H measured as
𝑁𝑖
magnetic intensity given by 𝐻 = 𝐴𝑚−1 . where N is the number
𝐿
of turns in the solenoid, i is the current and L is the length of the
solenoid. H is also called magnetising field.

1. Magnetic permeability
When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetising field
H (dia. a), the material acquires magnetism due to
induction. The lines of force of the magnetising field
concentrate inside the material (dia. b).
Magnetic Flux Density (B) : When a substance is subjected to the magnetic field H,
then the number of magnetic field lines that pass through the substance per square
meter is known as Magnetic Flux Density or magnetic induction.

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The flux density B is directly proportional to magnetic field strength H. Thus 𝐵 ∝ 𝐻

or 𝑩 = 𝝁 𝑯 The unit of B is Tesla or weber/m2.
μ is the constant of proportionality called absolute Permeability of the medium and is
defined as the ability of a material to allow the magnetic lines of force to pass through
𝑩
it or degree to which a material can be magnetised. It is given by 𝝁 = .
𝑯
If the flux density is established in air or vacuum or a nonmagnetic material, then the
above equation is 𝐵0 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑯 . The value of permeability in vacuum is given by 𝝁𝟎 =
𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑯𝒎−𝟏
𝜇 𝐵
The ratio = 𝜇𝑟 is called the relative permeability of the medium given by 𝜇𝑟 = .
𝜇0 𝐵0
Its value is one for air or a non magnetic material and it is greater than one for a
magnetic material.

Magnetic Moment (𝝁𝒎 ) : Motion of electrons in atoms gives rise to the phenomenon called
magnetism. Basically, two types of motions are associated with the electrons:
➢ Motion of electrons in an orbit around the nucleus.
➢ Spin of electrons around its axis
The spin and orbital moments impart magnetic moment on each electron, forcing them to
behave as tiny magnets.
The rotational force (moment) experienced by a magnet when placed in a magnetic field
perpendicular to its magnetic axis is defined as the Magnetic Moment of a Magnet. For a
magnet of length 2𝑙 and pole strength 𝑝, the magnetic moment is 𝜇𝑚 = 𝑝 × 2𝑙 .
In case of a current loop producing magnetic field 𝜇𝑚 = 𝑖 × 𝐴 , where 𝑖 is the current and A is
the area of the loop. Its unit is 𝐴𝑚2 .
𝑒 𝑒𝜔 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
𝜇𝑚 = 𝑖 × 𝐴 = − × 𝜋𝑟 2 = − × 𝜋𝑟 2 = − × 𝜔𝑟 2 = − × 𝑚𝜔𝑟 2 = − × 𝐿 Here L is the angular
𝑇 2𝜋 2 2𝑚 2𝑚
momentum and the negative sign shows that L and magnetic moment are in opposite directions.

2. Magnetisation : Magnetisation is the process of converting a non-magnetic material

to a magnetic material.
Intensity of magnetisation (M) is defined as the vector sum of magnetic moments of
the atoms (or molecules) contained in unit volume of the material. It is given by
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∑ 𝜇𝑚
𝑀= = . It is a vector and its unit is 𝐴𝑚−1 .
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉

Relation between B, M and H : The flux density 𝐵 = 𝜇 𝐻 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐻 or

𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐻 + 𝜇0 𝐻 − 𝜇0 𝐻
or 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻 + 𝜇0 𝐻(𝜇𝑟 − 1) = 𝜇0 𝐻 + 𝜇0 𝑀 where 𝐻(𝜇𝑟 − 1) = 𝑀.
Thus 𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 (𝑯 + 𝑴) Thus it is seen that the magnetic flux density is equal to the sum
of magnetic effect in vacuum and that in the material.

3. Magnetic susceptibility : The intensity of magnetisation for a material is

proportional to the magnetising field (𝑴 ∝ 𝑯 𝒐𝒓 𝑴 = 𝝌𝑯).

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The magnetic susceptibility ( 𝝌 ) of a material is the measure of ease with which the
material can be magnetised and is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetisation
𝑴
induced in the material to the magnetising field. Thus, 𝝌 = .
𝑯

Relation between magnetic susceptibility and relative permeability

The magnetic flux density is 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝑀)
or 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝜒 𝐻) = 𝜇0 𝐻(1 + 𝜒 ). ……(1) (as 𝑀 = 𝜒 𝐻)
As 𝐵 = 𝜇 𝐻 …..(2) Comparing (1) and (2) 𝜇 𝐻 = 𝜇0 𝐻(1 + 𝜒 )
Thus 𝜇 = 𝜇0 (1 + 𝜒 )
As 𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 we get 𝝁𝒓 = (𝟏 + 𝝌 ) .

Classification of magnetic materials Depending on the way the magnetic moments of

the electrons in the atoms of a material react to an applied magnetic field, materials can
be classified as diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials.

Diamagnetic material : Those substances which are weakly magnetised in a direction

opposite to the applied magnetic field are called diamagnetic substances.
Examples: Gold, silver lead, copper, antimony, bismuth, silicon, mercury, water, air,
hydrogen, nitrogen etc..
Explanation : In general, the magnetic moments of atoms are oriented such that the
vector sum of the magnetic moments of atoms is zero. When such a diamagnetic
substance is placed in an external magnetic field, the substance as a whole acquires a
net magnetic moment in a direction opposite to the applied field. Atoms of diamagnetic
materials do not possess any unpaired electrons.
Characteristics :
1. They possess small and negative
susceptibility. (  m  0 )
2. The Magnetic moment of the atoms align
in the opposite direction to applied
magnetic field.
3. They are slightly repelled by a magnetic
field.
4. When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, they tend to move from the stronger
to the weaker part of the field.
5. They do not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed.
6. Susceptibility is independent of temperature of the material.

Paramagnetic materials : Those substances which are weakly magnetised in the same
direction as the applied magnetic field are called paramagnetic substances.

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Examples : Aluminium, platinum, manganese, chromium, sodium, calcium, lithium,

tungsten, niobium, oxygen etc..
Explanation : The orbital and the spin magnetic moments of atoms are oriented in such
a way that, each atom has a permanent magnetic dipole moment. However, due to
thermal motion (vibration), magnetic moments have random orientations. As a result,
the net magnetic moment zero. When such a substance is placed in an external
magnetic field, each atomic magnet tends to align in the direction of the field. The
substance acquires a net magnetic moment and gets magnetised. The atoms of
paramagnetic materials possess unpaired electrons.
Characteristics:
1. They possess small and positive susceptibility.
m  0 small
2. The Magnetic moment of the atoms align in the
same direction as that of applied magnetic
field.
3. They are slightly attracted by a magnetic field.
4. They tend to move from weaker to the stronger part of the field.
5. Material does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is
removed.
6. Susceptibility depends on the temperature of the material.

Ferromagnetic materials : Those substances which are strongly magnetised in the

same direction as that of applied magnetic field and retains its magnetic moment even
after the removal of the applied field are called ferromagnetic materials.
Examples: Iron, cobalt, nickel
Explanation : Ferromagnetism is a special case of paramagnetism. In ferromagnetic
substances, the contribution of the spin magnetic moment to the magnetic dipole
moment of atoms is very large. They possess strong magnetic properties due to the
presence of magnetic domains. In these domains, large number of atomic moments (1012
to 1015) are aligned parallel, so that the magnetic force within the domain is strong.
When such a material is in the un-magnetized state, the domains are nearly randomly
organized and the net magnetic field for the part as a whole is zero. When a magnetizing
force is applied, the domains are aligned to produce a strong magnetic field within the
part.
Characteristics :
1. They have large and positive M
susceptibility.
2. They have strong attraction
towards magnetic fields. H
3. They retain their magnetic
properties even after the external
field is removed.

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4. They have a strong tendency to move from weaker to the stronger parts of the non
uniform external magnetic field.
5. B = o ( H + M ) Magnetization is not proportional to the applied field. They exhibit
a property called Hysteresis.
6. Susceptibility depends on the temperature of the material.

Differences between Dia, Para and Ferromagnetic substances

Property Diamagnetism Paramagnetism Ferromagnetism

Susceptibility −1 ≤ 𝜒 < 0 (negative 0<𝜒<𝜖 𝜒 ≫ 1 (positive and a

(𝜒 ) and small) (𝜖 𝑎 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟) large number)
(positive and small)

Relative 0 ≪ 𝜇𝑟 < 1 (𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 1) 1 < 𝜇𝑟 < 1 + 𝜖 (slightly 𝜇𝑟 ≫ 1 (much greater

Permeability ( 𝜇𝑟 ) greater than 1) than 1)

Retentivity Zero Zero or Very low Very high

Variation of M Linear and small Linear and small Non linear variation
with H negative slope Positive slope

Material placed Weakly magnetised Weakly magnetised in Strongly magnetised

in a uniform opposite to the direction the direction of in the direction of
magnetic field of applied magnetic applied magnetic field applied magnetic field
field.

Material placed Tends to move from Tends to move from Tends to move quickly
in a non uniform stronger to weaker weaker to stronger from weaker to
magnetic field regions of the magnetic regions of the stronger regions of the
field magnetic field magnetic field

Effect of Independent of 1 1
𝜒∝ 𝜒∝ (𝑇 > 𝑇𝑐 )
temperature temperature 𝑇 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐

Classical Langevin’s theory of diamagnetism

Diamagnetism is caused by the reaction of the orbiting electron of the atom to an applied
magnetic field in accordance with Lenz’s law, so that the magnetisation and the
susceptibility are negative.
When a diamagnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field, the induced emf
in each atom increases. As a result, the speed of electrons revolving in one direction
increases and those revolving in opposite direction decreases. Thus, the substance as a
whole acquires a net magnetic moment in a direction opposite to the applied field.
Consider an electron of mass 𝑚 and charge 𝑒 rotating about the nucleus of charge 𝑍𝑒 in
a circular orbit of radius 𝑟. Let 𝜔0 be the angular velocity of the electron.

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𝑚𝑣 2
The centripetal force acting on the electron is 𝐹0 = 𝑚𝜔02 𝑟 (∵ 𝐹 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔)
𝑟
and it is provided by electrostatic force between electrons and nucleus.
1 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑍𝑒 2
Thus 𝑚𝜔02 𝑟 = or 𝜔02 =4𝜋𝜀 ……(1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 0 𝑚𝑟
3

Let a magnetic field of strength B be applied, (the direction of B is

normal and into the plane of the paper). An additional force 𝐹𝐿 called
Lorentz force acts on the electron given by
𝐹𝐿 = −𝑒(𝑣 × 𝐵) = −𝑒𝐵𝑟𝜔 (∵ 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔, 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 ⊥ 𝑡𝑜 𝐵)
This leads to change in angular velocity of electron from 𝜔0 to 𝜔.
1 𝑍𝑒 2
The condition for stable motion of the electron is given by 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟 = 4𝜋𝜀 − 𝑒𝐵𝑟𝜔 …..(2)
0 𝑟2

𝑍𝑒 2 𝑒𝐵 𝑒𝐵 𝑍𝑒 2 𝒆𝑩
Thus 𝜔2 =4𝜋𝜀 − 𝜔 or 𝜔2 + 𝜔 − 4𝜋𝜀 = 0 or 𝝎𝟐 + ( 𝒎 )𝝎 − 𝝎𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎 ( from (1))
0 𝑚𝑟 3 𝑚 𝑚 0 𝑚𝑟
3

𝑒𝐵 𝑒𝐵 2 1
Solving the above quadratic equation in 𝜔, 𝜔 = {− 𝑚 ± √( 𝑚 ) + 4𝜔02 } (2)

𝑒𝐵 𝑒𝐵 2 𝑒𝐵 𝑒𝐵
𝜔 = − 2𝑚 ± √𝜔02 + (2𝑚) or 𝜔 = − 2𝑚 ± 𝜔0 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ≪ 𝜔0 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑)
2𝑚

𝒆𝑩
Thus 𝝎 = ±𝝎𝟎 − 𝟐𝒎 ……(3)
𝑒𝐵
The change in angular velocity of the electron is ∆𝜔 = 𝜔 ~ 𝜔0 = −2𝑚 .

Under the action of magnetic field, the angular velocity is changed to 𝜔 from 𝜔0 by an
𝑒𝐵
amount 2𝑚 . 𝜔 is called the Larmor frequency.
𝑒 𝑒𝜔 𝑒
The magnetic moment of electron is 𝜇𝑚 = 𝑖 × 𝐴 = − 𝑇 × 𝜋𝑟 2 = − 2𝜋
× 𝜋𝑟2 = − 2 𝜔𝑟2 ……(4)
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒𝐵
The corresponding change in magnetic moment is ∆𝜇𝑚 = ∆𝜔 𝑟 2 = (− 2𝑚) 𝑟 2
2 2

𝑒 2𝑟 2𝐵
or ∆𝜇𝑚 = − ………(5)
4𝑚

Summing all electrons of the atom (having Z orbital electrons),

𝑍𝑒 2 𝐵 ∑ 𝑟 2
the total magnetic moment per atom is ∆𝜇𝑚 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 = − 4𝑚

If N is the number of atoms per unit volume, then the magnetisation 𝑀 is given by
𝑁𝑍𝑒 2 𝐵 ∑ 𝑟 2
𝑀 = 𝑁 ∆𝜇𝑚 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 . Thus 𝑀 = − …..(6)
4𝑚

All the electron orbits are not oriented normal to the magnetic field. Hence ∑ 𝑟 2 in
equation (6) should be replaced by the average of the square of the projection of orbit
radii for various electrons in a plane perpendicular to B.

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2
Hence ∑ 𝑟 2 is replaced by < 𝑟2 > .
3

𝑁𝑍𝑒 2 𝐵 2 𝑁𝑍𝑒 2 𝐵<𝑟 2 >

Therefore 𝑀 = − < 𝑟2 > or 𝑀= −
4𝑚 3 6𝑚

𝑀 𝑁𝑍𝑒 2 𝐵<𝑟 2 > 𝑁𝑍𝑒 2 𝜇0 𝐻<𝑟 2 >

The volume susceptibility of the material is 𝜒 = = − =−
𝐻 6𝑚𝐻 6𝑚𝐻
𝝁𝟎 𝒆𝟐
(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻 ) or 𝝌= − 𝑵𝒁< 𝒓𝟐 >
𝟔𝒎

The above equation shows that the susceptibility is independent of magnetic field and
temperature for a diamagnetic material. It is also seen that 𝜒 is directly proportional to
the atomic number. The value of 𝜒 for most of the diamagnetic substance is of the order
of 10−6 which is found to be experimentally true.

Langevin’s theory of paramagnetism : Curie law

A paramagnetic material possess permanent dipole moments which tend to align along
the direction of applied magnetic field which are also disturbed by the thermal
agitations. Thus magnetisation depends on the applied field and the thermal energy
responsible for agitations.
Every atom of a paramagnetic substances possesses D
pB
permanent magnetic dipole moment 𝜇𝑚 . The atomic
dipoles are considered as tiny magnets (CD) of length 2𝑙 𝜃 B
and pole strength p. When an external magnetic field of
strength 𝐵 is applied, the atomic dipoles experience a force pB E
(𝑝𝐵). Let 𝜃 be the angle of inclination of the axis of the C
atomic dipole with the direction of the applied field 𝐵.
The torque acting on the dipole is 𝜏 = 𝑝𝐵 × 𝐷𝐸 = 𝑝𝐵 × 2𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝜇𝑚 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃…..(1)
(since torque = force × perpendicular distance and 𝑝 × 2𝑙 = 𝜇𝑚 . Here CD = 2𝑙 (diagram))
𝜃 𝜃
Now the magnetic potential energy stored in the dipole is 𝐸 = ∫𝜋/2 𝜏 𝑑𝜃 = ∫𝜋/2 𝜇𝑚 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃

or 𝐸 = −𝜇𝑚 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ……….(2)

From classical statistical analysis, the number of atoms or molecules inclined at an
angle 𝜃 with respect to axis of reference is proportional to 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃. Also on the basis of
equipartition of energy, the number of atoms or molecules whose potential energy is E,
is proportional to 𝑒 −𝐸/𝑘𝐵 𝑇 where 𝑘𝐵 is the Boltzman constant and T is the absolute
temperature. Thus if 𝑑𝑁 is the number of atoms, then

𝑑𝑁 ∝ 𝑒 −𝐸/𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 or 𝑑𝑁 = 𝐶𝑒 −𝐸/𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃….(3)

Substituting for E from (2) in (3) 𝑑𝑁 = 𝐶𝑒 𝜇𝑚𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃/𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝜇𝑚 𝐵
Let 𝛼 = , then 𝑑𝑁 = 𝐶𝑒 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃…..(4)
𝑘𝐵 𝑇

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To find C : The total number of atomic magnets in unit volume of a paramagnetic

𝜋
substance is ∫ 𝑑𝑁 = 𝐶 ∫0 𝑒 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
−1 +1
Let 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑥, then −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥 Thus 𝑁 = −𝐶 ∫+1 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐶 ∫−1 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑒 𝛼𝑥 +1 𝐶 𝑁𝛼
Then 𝑁=𝐶 [ ] = (𝑒 𝛼 − 𝑒 −𝛼 ) or 𝐶= (𝑒 𝛼 − 𝑒 −𝛼 )
….(5)
𝛼 −1 𝛼

To find magnetisation M :For an atomic magnet of moment 𝜇𝑚 inclined at an angle 𝜃

to the field, the resolved component of its moment in the direction of the field is 𝜇𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.
Therefore, the resultant magnetic moment due to all the 𝑑𝑁 atoms in the direction of
the field is 𝜇𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝑁.
Hence the total magnetic moment per unit volume called magnetisation is given by
𝜋
𝑀 = ∫0 𝜇𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝑁
𝜋
Substituting for 𝑑𝑁 from (4) in the above eqn. 𝑀 = ∫0 𝜇𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐶𝑒 𝜇𝑚𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃/𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
−1
Let 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑥, then −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥 then 𝑀 = 𝐶𝜇𝑚 ∫+1 𝑥𝑒 𝛼𝑥 (−𝑑𝑥)
+1
or 𝑀 = 𝐶𝜇𝑚 ∫−1 𝑥𝑒 𝛼𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , substituting for C from (5) in this equation, integrating and
simplifying we get
𝑒 𝛼 + 𝑒 −𝛼 1 1
𝑀 = 𝑁𝜇𝑚 [ − ] = 𝑁𝜇𝑚 [𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝛼 − ]
𝑒 𝛼 − 𝑒 −𝛼 𝛼 𝛼

or 𝑴 = 𝑵𝝁𝒎 𝑳(𝜶)…..(6)
𝟏
where 𝑳(𝜶) = [𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒉𝜶 − 𝜶] called the Langevin function

The variation of M with 𝛼 is as shown.

Case (i) : At low temperature or large applied field, 𝐿(𝛼) → 1. Hence magnetisation in
this case is 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑠 = 𝑁𝜇𝑚 . The graph shows that the magnetisation reaches saturation
showing that all dipoles align along the direction of the field.
Case (ii) : Under normal conditions 𝛼 is very small. Then it can be shown that
1 𝛼 𝛼 𝜇 𝐵 𝑁𝜇𝑚 2 𝐵
𝐿(𝛼) = [𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝛼 − 𝛼] = . Therefore 𝑀 = 𝑁𝜇𝑚 3 = 𝑁𝜇𝑚 3 𝑚 =
3 𝑘 𝐵 𝑇 3 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝑀 𝑁𝜇𝑚 2 𝐵
The susceptibility of the paramagnetic substance is 𝜒 = =
𝐻 3 𝑘𝐵 𝑇𝐻

𝝁𝟎 𝑵𝝁𝒎 𝟐 𝐵 𝑪 𝜇0 𝑁𝜇𝑚 2
or 𝝌 = (since = 𝜇0 ) or 𝝌 = 𝑻 where 𝐶= called curie constant.
𝟑 𝒌𝑩 𝑻 𝐻 3 𝑘𝐵

1
The magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance varies as 𝜒 ∝ 𝑇 . This is called
Curie law. It is observed that many paramagnetic materials do not obey the Curie law.
𝐶
They obey the modified law called Curie-Weiss law given by 𝜒 = where 𝜃 or also
𝑇− 𝜃
written as 𝑇𝐶 which is a constant having dimensions of temperature for a given
substance.

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Failures :1. The classical theory given by Langevin assumes that the individual atomic or ionic
magnetic moments are tiny bar magnets capable of orienting themselves at any arbitrary angle 𝜃 with
respect to magnetic field direction. But it is observed that only few gases agree with variation of
susceptibility with temperature as given by Curie law.

2 This theory could not explain the intimate relation between para and ferro magnetic materials.

Quantum theory of paramagnetism 𝐸2 = + 𝜇𝐵 𝐵

Quantum theory assumes that the permanent
magnetic moments of atoms of paramagnetic
materials do not rotate freely, but limited to a
finite set of orientations with respect to the
𝐸1 = −𝜇𝐵 𝐵
magnetic field.
Let 𝑁 be the number of atoms per unit volume of the material. Considering only the spin
moment and no orbital moment, in the presence of the magnetic field H, there are only
two energy levels. The spin moment of 𝑁1 atomic dipoles are parallel to the field and 𝑁2
spin moments are antiparallel. The energy acquired by the dipoles aligned parallel to
the field is 𝐸1 = − 𝜇𝐵 𝐵 = − 𝜇0 𝜇𝐵 𝐻.
The energy of antiparallel dipoles is 𝐸2 = + 𝜇𝐵 𝐵 = + 𝜇0 𝜇𝐵 𝐻
where B is the magnetic flux density, 𝜇𝐵 is the magnetic moment measured in Bohr
𝑒ℎ
magneton (one Bohr magneton = ) of the dipole where a single spin system is
4𝜋𝑚
assumed and 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻.
Thus 𝐸 = ±𝜇𝐵 𝐵. Thus an energy difference exists between spin magnetic dipole
moment parallel and anti-parallel to the field. The magnitude of the energy difference is
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = 𝜇𝐵 𝐵 − (−𝜇𝐵 𝐵) = 2𝜇𝐵 𝐵.
𝐸
−
From Maxwell Boltzmann distribution function, 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝐸 𝐸
− 1 + 2
Thus 𝑁1 = 𝑁0 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
….(1) and 𝑁2 = 𝑁0 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
…(2)
𝐸1 𝐸
− + 2
The total number of dipoles in the system is 𝑁 = 𝑁1 + 𝑁2 = 𝑁0 ( 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 ) …(3)
If a system has only two levels, the equilibrium populations are,
𝐸1 𝐸1
−
𝑁1 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑁2 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
= 𝐸1 𝐸2 …(4) and = 𝐸1 𝐸2 ….(5)
𝑁 − + 𝑁 − +
𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝜇𝐵 𝐵 𝜇𝐵 𝐵
−
𝑁 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑁 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
As 𝐸1 = − 𝜇𝐵 𝐵 and 𝐸2 = + 𝜇𝐵 𝐵, thus 𝑁1 = 𝜇𝐵 𝐵 𝜇 𝐵 and 𝑁2 = 𝜇𝐵 𝐵 𝜇𝐵 𝐵
− 𝐵 −
𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝜇𝐵 𝐵 𝑁 𝑒𝑥 𝑁 𝑒 −𝑥
Let = 𝑥 , then 𝑁1 = and 𝑁2 =
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥

The resultant dipole moment per unit volume called magnetisation is given by
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑀 = 𝜇𝐵 (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 ). Thus 𝑀 = 𝑁𝜇𝐵 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑴 = 𝑵𝝁𝑩 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉𝒙 ….(6)

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𝑩 𝜇𝐵 𝐵
For 𝑥 ≪ 1, 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥 = 𝑥 , and thus 𝑴 = 𝑵𝝁𝑩 𝒙 = 𝑵𝝁𝟐𝑩 𝒌 (where 𝒙 = )
𝑩𝑻 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝑯
or 𝑴 = 𝑵𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝟐𝑩 𝒌 … … . . (7)
𝑩𝑻

𝑴 𝑵𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝟐𝑩 𝑪 𝑵𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝟐𝑩

Thus susceptibility is 𝝌 = = 𝒐𝒓 𝝌 = called Curie law where 𝑪 = .
𝑯 𝒌𝑩 𝑻 𝑻 𝒌𝑩

This theory overcomes drawbacks of the Langevin theory of paramagnetism. But many
materials obey a modified law called Curie – Weiss law.

Weiss theory of ferromagnetism

Langevin’s theory of paramagnetism was extended by Weiss to give a theoretical
explanation of the behaviour of ferromagnetic materials. He made the following two
assumptions:
(i) Weiss assumed that a ferromagnetic specimen contains a number of small regions
(domains) which are spontaneously magnetized. The total spontaneous magnetization
is the vector sum of the magnetic moments of the individual domains.
(ii) The spontaneous magnetization of each domain is due to the existence of an internal
molecular field. This tends to produce a parallel alignment of the atomic dipoles.
Weiss also assumed that the internal molecular field 𝐻𝑖 is proportional to the
magnetization 𝑀. i.e., 𝐻𝑖 = 𝛾𝑀 where 𝛾 is a constant called Weiss constant.

If now an external field 𝐻 acts on the dipole, then the effective field 𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 is given by
𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐻 + 𝐻𝑖 = 𝐻 + 𝛾𝑀 … (1)
𝜇𝐵 𝜇 0 𝐻
According to Langevin’s theory of paramagnetism, 𝑀 = 𝑁𝜇𝐵 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥, where 𝑥 = …(2)
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝜇𝐵 𝜇0 𝐻
Thus 𝑀 = 𝑁𝜇𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ ( ) ….(2)
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝜇𝐵 𝜇0 (𝐻+ 𝛾𝑀)
Replacing H by Heff in the above equation 𝑀 = 𝑁𝜇𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ ( ) ……(3)
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Assuming 𝜇𝑚 = 𝜇𝐵 called one Bohr magneton as one spin system is considered, the
𝜇𝐵 𝜇0 (𝐻+ 𝛾𝑀)
equation becomes 𝑀 = 𝑁𝜇𝐵 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ ( )….(3)
𝑘𝐵 𝑇

Case (i) : For high temperatures

A ferromagnetic material behaves as a paramagnetic material when temperature is
greater than the Curie temperature. For high values of T, the term within the bracket in
equation (3) is small and hence 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝜃 ≈ 𝜃. Thus, according to Weiss, for ferromagnetic
2
𝑁𝜇𝐵 𝜇0 (𝐻+ 𝛾𝑀)
materials 𝑀= ….(4)
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑁𝜇𝐵 2 𝜇0 𝐻 𝑁𝜇𝐵 2 𝜇0 𝛾𝑀
Thus 𝑀= + Rearranging this equation,
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

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𝑁𝜇𝐵 2 𝜇0 𝐻 𝑁𝜇𝐵 2 𝜇0 𝐻
𝑁𝜇𝐵 2 𝛾𝜇0 𝑁𝜇𝐵 2 𝜇0 𝐻 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝜇𝐵 2 𝜇0 𝐻
𝑀(1 − )= or 𝑀 = 𝑁𝜇𝐵 2 𝛾𝜇0
= 𝑘𝐵 𝑇−𝑁𝜇𝐵 2 𝛾𝜇0
= 𝑁𝜇𝐵 2 𝛾𝜇0
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 1− 𝑘𝐵 (𝑇− )
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑘𝐵
𝑁𝜇𝐵 2 𝜇0 𝐻
Thus 𝑀 = 𝑁𝜇𝐵 2 𝛾𝜇0
……..(5)
𝑘𝐵 (𝑇− )
𝑘𝐵
𝑀 𝑁𝜇𝐵 2 𝜇0
The susceptibility of a ferromagnetic substance is 𝜒 = = 𝑁𝜇𝐵 2 𝛾𝜇0
……(6)
𝐻 𝑘𝐵 (𝑇− )
𝑘𝐵
𝑪 𝑁𝜇𝐵 2 𝜇0 𝑁𝜇𝐵 2 𝛾𝜇0
Thus 𝝌 = …..(7) where 𝐶 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = Also 𝜃 = 𝛾 𝐶….(8)
𝑻− 𝜽 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝐵

𝐶 is called the Curie constant and 𝜃 also written as 𝑇𝐶 is called the Curie temperature.
Curie temperature is the temperature below which the material shows ferromagnetic
behaviour. For values of temperature above θ or 𝑇𝐶 , the ferromagnetic substance
behaves like a paramagnetic substance. Equation (7) is called the Curie – Weiss law for
ferromagnetics.

The graph shows the variation of susceptibility

and magnetisation with temperature for a
ferromagnetic substance. (FM is ferromagnetic
and PM is paramagnetic)

The diagram indicates that 𝑀𝑠 the saturation

magnetisation start dropping at 𝑇𝐶 and dies off slowly as there is a divergence in 1/𝜒 at
𝑇𝐶 in the paramagnetic region. This is a signature of a phase transition to a
spontaneously ordered phase. A positive value of 𝑇𝐶 indicates that molecular field is
acting in the same direction as of applied field and acts to align the magnetic moments
parallel to each other, as should be the case with a ferromagnetic material.

Case (ii) : Ferromagnetic curie temperature

𝐶
The curie Weiss law 𝜒 = holds only for temperatures 𝑇 > 𝜃.
𝑇− 𝜃
When 𝑇 = 𝜃 the susceptibility becomes infinite. This shows existence of a non vanishing
value of M even though H = 0. The existence of magnetisation even in the absence of
applied field is called spontaneous magnetisation. Thus the spontaneous
𝜇𝐵 𝜇0 (𝐻+ 𝛾𝑀)
magnetisation is obtained by putting H = 0 in the equation 𝑀 = 𝑁𝜇𝐵 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ ( )
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝜇𝐵 𝜇0 𝛾𝑀
Thus 𝑀 = 𝑁𝜇𝐵 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ ( )
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝜇0 𝜇𝐵 𝛾𝑀
or 𝑀 = 𝑁𝜇𝐵 tanh 𝑥 where 𝑥 = ….(9)
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑀 𝑀
i.e. = = tanh 𝑥....(10)
𝑁𝜇𝐵 𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑡
Here 𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝑁𝜇𝐵 is the saturation magnetisation due to
parallel alignment of all dipoles.

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𝑀 𝑀
A graph of versus 𝑥 is as shown. For the temperature 𝑇 < 𝜃, the value of is
𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑇
obtained by the intersection of the line (𝜃) 𝑥 with the tanh 𝑥 curve.
For 𝑇 ≫ 𝜃, the spontaneous magnetisation vanishes.
𝜇0 𝜇𝐵 𝛾𝑀 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑥
From equation (10) 𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑀= ….…(11)
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝜇0 𝜇𝐵 𝛾
𝑀 𝑀 𝑘 𝑇
Substituting the value of M from (11) in (10) = = 𝑁𝜇 𝐵𝜇2 𝛾 𝑥
𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑁𝜇𝐵 0 𝐵
2 2
𝑁𝜇0 𝜇𝐵 𝑁𝜇0 𝜇𝐵 𝛾
From equation (8) 𝐶 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 𝛾 𝐶 from this equation, = 𝜃
𝑘 𝑘
𝑀 𝑇
Here = 𝑥 ….....(12)
𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝜃
𝑀
For a given temperature T, the graph of verses 𝑥
𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑇
represents a straight line with a slope equal to 𝜃
𝑀 𝑇
From equations (10) and (12), = tanh 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝜃
𝑀
The value of for the temperature T is given by the
𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑡
intersection of the straight line and the tanh 𝑥 curve, as
shown.
𝑀
For different values T, values are calculated. A graph
𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑇
of this term versus 𝜃 is plotted for three materials Fe, Co and Ni. The curve (a) represents
the classical function. These curves supports the above analysis for the three metals,
even though the curie temperature and saturation magnetisation are different for three
metals.

Note : The maximum possible magnetization, or saturation magnetization 𝑀𝑠 , of a ferromagnetic material

represents the magnetization that results when all the magnetic dipoles in a solid piece are mutually
aligned with the external field. There is also a corresponding saturation flux density Bs. The saturation
magnetization is equal to the product of the net magnetic moment for each atom and the number of atoms
present. For each of iron, cobalt, and nickel, the net magnetic moments per atom are 2.22, 1.72, and
0.60 Bohr magnetons, respectively.

In a ferromagnetic material, coupling interactions cause net spin magnetic moments of adjacent atoms
to align with one another, even in the absence of an external field. The mutual spin alignment exists over
large volume regions of the crystal called domains.

Ferromagnetic domain theory :

To explain the phenomenon of ferromagnetism, Weiss proposed a hypothetical concept
of ferromagnetic domains. Weiss theory of ferromagnetism is also called domain theory
of ferromagnetism.
1. According to the domain theory, a ferromagnetic substance consists of a large
number of small units (regions) known as Domains.
2. Any ferromagnetic material that is at a temperature below curie temperature TC is
composed of small volume regions in which there is a mutual alignment in the same

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direction of all magnetic dipole moments (Fig. below). Such a region is called a domain,
and each one is magnetized to its saturation magnetization.
3. In one domain the magnetic dipole moments of all the atoms are aligned in the same
direction. Hence each domain has a resultant magnetic dipole moment. The regions
separating magnetic domains are called domain walls, where the magnetization rotates
coherently from the direction in one domain to that in the next domain.

4. In the absence of an external magnetic field, various domain vectors have random
orientations and hence their resultant magnetic moment is zero.
5. When a ferromagnetic substance
is kept in the magnetic field, the
permanent alignment of domain due
to a strong interaction (force) takes
place known as exchange coupling.
Each domain experience a torque. As
a result of this, some domains
rapidly rotate and remain aligned parallel to the direction of the field. The magnetisation
is said to have taken place.
6. As the strength of the external magnetic field is increased, more and more domains
flip and align in the direction of the field. Finally, at a certain stage, practically all
domains get aligned in the direction of the field. This is known as magnetic saturation.
At this stage, a ferromagnetic substance behaves as a permanent magnet and retains
its magnetic property (residual magnetism) even if the external magnetic field is
removed.

7. Cause for formation of domains : A magnetic material such as iron spontaneously

divides into separate domains, rather than exist
in a state with magnetization in the same direction
throughout the material, is to minimize its
internal energy.
A ferromagnetic material with a constant
magnetization throughout its region will create a
large magnetic field extending into the space
outside itself (diagram a). This requires a lot of magnetostatic energy stored in the field.

To reduce this energy, the sample can split into two domains, with the magnetization in
opposite directions in each domain (diagram b). The magnetic field lines pass in loops
in opposite directions through each domain, reducing the field outside the material.

To reduce the field energy further, each of these domains can split further, resulting in
smaller parallel domains with magnetization in alternating directions, with smaller
amounts of field outside the material.

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The material can further reduce its magnetostatic energy by forming domains with
magnetization at right angles to the other domains (diagram c). These domains,
called flux closure domains, allow the field lines to turn 180° within the material,
forming closed loops entirely within the material, reducing the magnetostatic energy to
zero.

Energies that Determine the Structure of Ferromagnetic Domains : The total

magnetic energy of a ferromagnetic material is the sum of the contributions of the
following energies: (1) exchange energy, (2) Anisotropy energy, (3) magnetostatic energy,
(4) domain wall energy, and (5) magnetostrictive energy.

Exchange energy - The potential energy within a domain of a ferromagnetic solid is

minimized when all its atomic dipoles are aligned in one direction (exchange energy).

Anisotropy energy – In ferromagnetic crystals there are easy and hard directions of
magnetisation i.e. excess fields are required to magnetise in the hard directions. The
excess of energy required to magnetise a specimen in a particular direction over that
required to magnetise in the easy direction is called crystalline anisotropy energy.

Magnetostatic energy - Magnetostatic energy is the potential magnetic energy of a

ferromagnetic material produced by its external field. This potential energy can be
minimized in a ferromagnetic material by domain formation. Since the intensity of the
external magnetic field of a ferromagnetic material is directly related to its magnetostatic
energy, the formation of multiple domains reduces the magnetostatic energy of a unit
volume of material.

Domain wall energy - A domain wall is the boundary between

two domains whose overall magnetic moments are at different
orientations. Grains changes orientation abruptly and which
is about three atoms wide.

However, a domain changes orientation gradually with a domain boundary being ~300
atoms wide. The large width of a domain wall is due to a balance between two forces:
exchange energy and magneto crystalline anisotropy. When there is only a small
difference in orientation between the dipoles, the exchange forces between the dipoles
are minimized and the exchange energy is reduced. Thus, the exchange forces will tend
to widen the domain wall.

Thus the net amount that the energy is reduced when a domain splits is equal to the
difference between the magnetic field energy saved, and the additional energy required
to create the domain wall. The field energy is proportional to the cube of the domain
size, while the domain wall energy is proportional to the square of the domain size. So
as the domains get smaller, the net energy saved by splitting decreases. The domains
keep dividing into smaller domains until the energy cost of creating an additional
domain wall is just equal to the field energy saved. Then the domains of this size are
stable. In most materials the domains are microscopic in size, around 10−4 - 10−6 m.

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Magnetostrictive energy - When a ferromagnetic material is magnetized, its

dimensions change slightly, and the sample being magnetized either expands or
contracts in the direction of magnetization. This magnetically induced reversible elastic
strain is called magnetostriction and is of the order of 10-6. The energy due to the
mechanical stresses created by magnetostriction is called magnetostrictive energy. The
fields of the dipoles may attract or repel each other, leading to the contraction or
expansion of the metal during magnetization.

B – H Curve - Magnetic Hysteresis

The B-H curve is the curve showing the variation of magnetic flux density 𝑩 with the
magnetising field 𝑯 for a material. It is characteristic of the magnetic properties of a
material or element or alloy. It talks about how the material responds to an external
magnetic field.

Consider a ferromagnetic material in the form a rod

with a copper wire wound around it.
A current flowing through the wire produces
magnetic field along the axis of the coil given by 𝑯 =
𝑵𝒊
. This is also called magnetising field. The
𝑳
ferromagnetic material gets magnetised.
The magnetic flux density B which is the sum of
magnetising field and the magnetisation acquired by
the material is 𝑩 = 𝝁 𝑯 where 𝝁 is the absolute
permeability of the material. The cycle of
magnetisation is as follows :

1. When the core is unmagnetised both B and H will be at zero. (point O on the
magnetisation curve)
2. If the magnetising current, 𝑖 is increased in a positive direction, the magnetic field
H increases with 𝑖 and the flux density B will also increase as shown by the curve
from point O to point a as it reaches saturation. This is a nonlinear variation. i.e.
as an H field is applied, the domains change shape and size by the movement of
domain boundaries. Initially, the moments of the constituent domains are
randomly oriented such that there is no net B (or M) field
3. Now if the current in the coil is reduced to zero, the magnetising field H reduces
to zero. But, the flux density B will not reach zero due to the residual magnetism
present within the core and this is shown by the curve from point a to b. This is
called Retentivity. A hysteresis effect is produced in which the B field lags
behind the applied H field, or decreases at a lower rate. At zero H field, there exists
a residual B field that is called remanence, the material remains magnetized in
the absence of an external H field.
4. To reduce the flux density at point b to zero, the current is reversed in the coil.
The magnetising field H which must be applied to nullify the residual flux density
is called as “Coercive field” or Coercive force. This coercive field leads to re-

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arrangement of molecular magnets until the core becomes unmagnetised at

point con the curve.
5. An increase in this reverse current causes the core to be magnetised in the
opposite direction and increasing current further will cause the core to reach its
saturation point but in the opposite direction, point d on the curve.
6. This point is symmetrical to point b. If the current is reduced again to zero the
residual magnetism present in the core will be equal to the previous value but in
reverse at point e.
7. Again, reversing the current in the coil into a positive direction will cause the flux
density to reach zero, point f on the curve and as before increasing the current
further in a positive direction will cause the core to reach saturation at point a.
8. Then the B-H curve follows the path of a-b-c-d-e-f-a as the magnetising current
flowing through the coil alternates between a positive and negative value such as
the cycle of an AC voltage. This path is called a Magnetic Hysteresis Loop.
9. The magnetization of ferromagnetic substances due to a varying magnetic field
lags behind the applied field. This effect is called hysteresis, and the term is used
to describe any system whose response depends not only on its current state, but
also upon its past history.

Hysteresis loss : Magnetic Hysteresis results in the dissipation of energy in the form
of heat. The loss of heat is proportional to the area under the magnetic hysteresis
loop. It is called Hysteresis loss. It is due to the reversal of magnetization of core
whenever it is subjected to alternating magnetizing force. Whenever the core is
subjected to an alternating magnetic field, the domain present in the material will
change their orientation after every half cycle.
The total magnetic flux𝜙 due to current 𝑖 and flux density 𝐵 is related as 𝜙 = 𝐴 × 𝑑𝐵
weber where A is the area of cross section of the coil.
For small change in flux, the work done is 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 × 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 =
𝑁𝑖 × 𝑑𝜙.
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑁𝑖𝐴 𝑑𝐵 joules where N is the number of turns of the coil.
𝑁𝑖 𝐻𝐿 𝐻𝐿
As 𝐻 = we have 𝑖= . Thus 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑁 ( ) 𝐴 𝑑𝐵 = 𝐻𝐴𝐿 × 𝑑𝐵 joules
𝐿 𝑁 𝑁
Work done during the complete cycle 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝐻𝐴𝐿 × 𝑑𝐵 = 𝐴 𝐿 ∫ 𝐻 𝑑𝐵
As ∫ 𝐻 𝑑𝐵 is the area of the complete hysteresis loop. Thus 𝑊 = 𝐴 𝐿 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝
Hence, when the material is taken through a complete cycle, there is loss of energy
given by area under the hysteresis curve.

Hard and Soft Magnetic materials :Materials which retain their magnetism and are
difficult to demagnetize are called hard magnetic materials.

Ferromagnetic materials in which the magnetic field can be easily reversed are said to
be magnetically soft. Soft magnetic materials are easy to magnetize and demagnetize.

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S. Hard Magnetic Materials Soft Magnetic Materials

No.
1 They have very high residual They have very low residual magnetism and
magnetism and high Coercivity. small Coercivity.
2 It retains a strong magnetic field It does not retain a strong magnetic field (does
(makes a good permanent not make a good permanent magnet), and is
magnet), and is difficult to easy to demagnetize
demagnetize
3 The area enclosed by the B-H The area enclosed by the B-H curve is small,
curve is large, so it has high so it has low hysteresis losses or core losses
hysteresis losses or core losses.
4 Susceptibility and permeability Susceptibility and permeability are high.
are low.
5 Magnetic energy stored is high Magnetic energy stored is low
6 The eddy current loss is high. The eddy current loss is less because of high
resistivity.
7 They are used as permanent They are used for transformer and inductance
magnets and DC magnets. core to minimise energy dissipation. They are
also used as electromagnets.
8 Alloys composed of iron, cobalt Iron-silicon alloys, nickel-iron alloy and iron,
and aluminium, Chromium Ferrites etc..
steel, Carbon steel etc…

PART A : Descriptive questions

1. (a) Explain the term permeability
(b) What are diamagnetic materials? Explain. Give any four properties of diamagnetic
materials.
2. (a) What is magnetic moment? Explain.
(b) What are paramagnetic materials? Explain. Give any four properties of paramagnetic
materials.
3 (a) What is magnetisation? Explain.
(b) What are ferromagnetic materials? Explain. Give any four properties of ferromagnetic
materials.
4. (a) What is magnetic flux density andsusceptibility? Explain.
(b) Arrive at the relation between relative permeability and susceptibility.
5 Explain the classical Langevin theory of diamagnetism and hence arrive at the expression for
susceptibility.
6 Explain the classical Langevin theory of paramagnetism and hence arrive at the expression
for susceptibility. Mention its drawbacks.
7 Explain the quantum theory of paramagnetism. Arrive at the expression for the susceptibility.
8 (a) Explain the Weiss domain theory of ferromagnetism and arrive at the expression for
susceptibility.
(b) What are ferromagnetic domains? Explain.
9 (a) What is hysteresis? Explain B – H curve.
(b) Distinguish between soft and hard magnetic materials.

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Numerical problems
1 A magnetic material has a magnetisation of 3300 𝐴𝑚−1 and flux density of 0.0044 𝑊𝑏𝑚2.
Calculate the magnetising field and the relative permeability of the medium.(𝜇0 =
4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻𝑚−1 ) Also calculate the susceptibility.
𝐵 𝐵 𝜇
[ 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝑀) 𝑜𝑟 𝐻 = 𝜇 − 𝑀 = 𝟐𝟎𝟑 𝑨𝒎−𝟏 , 𝐵 = 𝜇 𝐻𝜇 = 𝐻 = 2.16 × 10−5 , 𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟐𝟓 As
0 0
(1 + 𝜒 ) = 𝜇𝑟 , 𝜒 = 𝜇𝑟 − 1 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 .]

2 A Magnetic field intensity in copper is106 𝐴𝑚−1. If the susceptibility of copper is −0.8 × 10−5,
calculate the magnetic flux density and magnetisation in copper..(𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻𝑚−1 )
[𝑀 = 𝜒 𝐻 = − 𝟖 𝑨𝒎−𝟏 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝑀) = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝟔 𝑾𝒃𝒎𝟐 ]

3 The magnetic susceptibility of copper is −0.5 × 10−5. Calculate the magnetic moment per unit
volume in copper when subjected to a magnetic field of magnitude 104 𝐴𝑚−1 in copper.
𝑀 = 𝜒 𝐻 = − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝑨𝒎−𝟏 ]

4 A circular loop of conductor having a diameter of 50 cm carries a current of 100 mA. The loop
is placed in a magnetic field having uniform magnetic flux density of 0.05 Wbm 2 with its axis
inclined at 600 to the direction of the field. Calculate the values of magnetic dipole moment and
torque experienced by the current loop.
[ 𝜇𝑚 = 𝑖 × 𝐴 = 𝑖 × 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟔 𝑨𝒎𝟐 , 𝜏 = 𝜇𝑚 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝟖. 𝟒𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝑵𝒎]

5 The magnetic moment of an electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom is one Bohr
magneton. Calculate the induced magnetic moment in a field of 1 Wbm-2. (1bohr magneton =
9.27 × 10−24 𝐽𝑇 −1)(𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽, 𝑚 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔)
𝑒 2 𝑟2𝐵
[∆𝜇𝑚 = − 4𝑚
= − 0.197 × 10−28 𝐴𝑚2 (radius in the first bohr orbit 𝑟 = 0.53 × 10−10 𝑚)∆𝜇𝑚 =
0.197×10−28
− 9.27 ×10−24
= −0.021 × 10−4 𝐵𝑜ℎ𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛]

6 The earth has a magnetic dipole moment of 6.4 × 1021 𝐴𝑚2 . What current would have to be st
up in a single turn of wire going around the earth at its magnetic equator, if we wish to set up
such a dipole? Given the radius of earth = 6.4 × 106 𝑚.
𝜇
[ 𝜇𝑚 = 𝑖 × 𝐴 = 𝑖 × 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑖 = 𝜋𝑟𝑚2 = 4.9 × 107 𝐴 ]

7 The density and atomic weight of a substance are 7900 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 and 56 respectively. Calculate
the spontaneous magnetisation if its magnetic moment is 2.2𝜇𝐵 . Given 1bohr magneton = 9.27
× 10−24 𝐽𝑇 −1.
𝜌 𝑁𝐴 7900×6.023 ×1026
[ Number of atoms per unit volume = 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
= 56
= 8.496 × 1028,
Spontaneous magnetisation 𝑀 = 𝑁𝜇𝐵 = 𝑁 × 2.2𝜇𝐵 = 1.73 × 10 𝐴𝑚 6 −1
]

8 A magnetic field strength 1800 𝐴𝑚−1 produces a magnetic flux of 3 × 10−5 𝑊𝑏

In an iron bar of cross sectional area 0.2 cm 2. Calculate the relative permeability. Also find
susceptibility.
𝜙 𝐵 𝜇
[ 𝐵= 𝐴
= 1.5 Absolute permeability 𝜇 = 𝐻
= 8.3 × 10−4 𝐻𝑚−1 , 𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇0
= 660.8,
𝜒 = 𝜇𝑟 − 1 = 659.8 ]

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9 Calculate the susceptibility of copper which is a diamagnet assuming the number of atoms
per unit volume as 5 × 1028 𝑚−3 and the average radius as 0.1 nm. Given charge and mass of an
electron as 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 and 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔 and 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻𝑚−1 .
𝜇0 𝑒 2
[ 𝜒= − 6𝑚
𝑁𝑍< 𝑟 2 >= -8.5 × 10−5 ]
10 Calculate the susceptibility of a paramagnetic salt having atoms per unit volume as
5 × 1028 𝑚−3 with magnetic flux density of 1T at temperature 300 K. Given 𝑘𝐵 =
1.23 × 10 𝐽𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 𝐵𝑜ℎ𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 9.27 × 10 .
−23 −1 −24
2
𝑀 𝑁𝜇0 𝜇𝐵
[𝜒= 𝐻
= 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
= 1.46 × 10−3]

11 The magnetic susceptibility of silicon is −0.4 × 10-5. Calculate the flux density and magnetic
moment per unit volume when magnetic field of intensity 5 × 105 A/m is applied.
[ B = μ0(H + M) = μ0H(1 + χ) = 0.62Wb/m2 , M = χH =–2.0 A/m. ]

12 A coil of wire 0.20 m long and having 200 turns carries a current of 10 A. (a) What is the
magnitude of the magnetic field strength H? (b) Compute the flux density B if the coil is in a
vacuum. (c) Compute the flux density inside a bar of titanium that is positioned within the coil.
(d) Compute the magnitude of the magnetization M. (𝝌 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 )
𝑵𝒊
[ 𝑯= = 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝑨𝒎−𝟏 , 𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑯 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝑾𝒃𝒎𝟐 , 𝑴 = 𝝌𝑯 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟏𝑨𝒎−𝟏 , 𝝁𝒓 = 𝟏 + 𝝌 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟏,
𝑳
𝝁 = 𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 𝑯 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝑾𝒃𝒎𝟐 ]

13 Compute (a) the saturation magnetization and (b) the saturation flux density for cobalt,
which has a net magnetic moment per atom of 1.72 Bohr magnetons and a density of 8900
kgm-3 and atomic weight 58.99. ( 𝝁𝑩 = 𝟗. 𝟐𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟒 𝑱𝑲−𝟏 ]
𝝆 𝑵𝑨
[𝑵= 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
= 𝟗. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 , 𝑴𝑺 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟐𝝁𝑩 𝑵 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑨𝒎−𝟏 , 𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑴𝑺 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟐 𝑻 ]

14 A paramagnetic salt contains 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 atoms/m3, with a magnetic moment of one Bohr
magneton. Calculate the paramagnetic susceptibility and the magnetisation produced in a
uniform magnetic field of 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑨𝒎−𝟏 at room temperature.
𝑴 𝑵𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝟐𝑩
[ 𝝌= 𝑯
= 𝒌𝑩 𝑻
= 𝟐. 𝟗𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 , 𝑴 = 𝝌 𝑯 = 𝟐𝟗𝟐 𝑨𝒎−𝟏 ]
15 Calculate a theoretical value for the saturation magnetization and saturation flux density for
for pure iron, assuming all magnetic moments due to the four unpaired 3d Fe electrons are
aligned in a magnetic field. Given Puce iron has BCC unit cell with lattice constant a = 0.287
nm. For BCC each unit has 2 Fe atoms with each iron atom having four bohr magnetons.
𝒅𝒊𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟐×𝟒×𝟗.𝟐𝟕×𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕
[ 𝑴𝒔 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
= (𝟎.𝟐𝟖𝟕𝟑 )×(𝟏𝟎−𝟗 )𝟑
= 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑨𝒎−𝟏 , 𝑩𝑺 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑴𝒔 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟒 𝑻 ]
16 Find the magnetisation of a bar of length 10 cm and the area of cross section 3 cm2. Its
𝝁
magnetic moment is 1Am2. [ V = 𝑽 = 𝑳 × 𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 , 𝑴 = 𝑽𝒎 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝑨𝒎−𝟏 ]
17 The susceptibility of a material at 400 K is 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 . At what temperature the susceptibility
will increase to . 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 ?
𝟏 𝝌𝟐 𝑻𝟏
[ 𝝌∝𝑻 , 𝝌𝟏
= 𝑻
𝑻𝟐 𝟐
= 𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝑲 ]

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Syllabus : VI Semester
Polarisation, : Paper
permeability 603 Unitconstant,
and dielectric 2 - Dielectrics : Static
polar and dielectric
non-polar constant,
dielecrrics,
polarizability (electronic,
internal fields in a solid,ionic and orientation),
Clausius- calculation of Lorentz
Mossotti equation(expression only),field (derivation),
applications
Clausius-Mosotti equation (derivation), dielectric
of dielectrics. breakdown, electrostriction
(qualitative), electrets. Piezo electric effect, cause, examples and applications.

Dielectrics
A dielectric (or dielectric material) is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by
an applied electric field. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges
do not flow through the material as they do in an electrical conductor but only slightly
shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric polarization. Eg:
Glass, mica, paraffin, papers, Bakelite etc.
Electric dipole: Two equal and opposite charges +Q and –Q which are separated by a
vector distance dx is called an electric dipole.
Electric dipole moment is a measure of the separation of positive and negative
electrical charges within a system, that is, a measure of the system's overall polarity.
The SI units for electric dipole moment are coulomb-meter (C⋅m) It is defined as the
product of either of the charges and the distance between them.
It is given by 𝜇 = 𝑞 × 𝑑𝑥 and is directed from negative charge to positive charge.

Polar dielectrics Non – polar dielectrics

If the effective centers of positive and negative If the effective centers of the negative
charges in the molecules do not coincide with charge distribution coincide with the
each other (i.e. the effective centres of positive and effective center of the positive charges
negative charges are separated by a small then the effect is to neutralize each other.
distance) even in the absence of any external field, Such materials are called non – polar
then, such materials are called polar dielectrics. dielectrics.
They possess a permanent dipole moment. Eg. They do not possess permanent dipole
H2O, N2O ….. moment. Eg. H2, N2, O2,…..

Permittivity :
Permittivity is defined as the ratio of electric displacement vector (D) in a dielectric
medium to the applied electric field strength (E). Permittivity (ε) is a measure of the
ability of a material to be polarized by an electric field.

Static dielectric constant r or denoted by k is the ratio of the permittivity of the

𝜀
material medium to the permittivity of free space. 𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀 .
0
1. It is independent of shape or dimensions of the material and it is characteristic of
the dielectric medium.
2. Dielectric constant of a material is a macroscopic quantity that measures how
effective electric field is, in polarizing the material.

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Expression for static dielectric constant Consider two conducting plates separated
by a distance d called a capacitor as shown in the diagram. When the plates are charged,
electric field exists between them. Let one flux line originates from each unit charge.
Then q charges having q lines of force
received by unit area is called electric
displacement denoted by D. It is given by
𝑞
𝐷 = 4𝜋𝑑2 . …..(1)
As electric field at a point is given by 𝐸 =
𝑞 𝐷
…..(2) Comparing the two equations we get 𝐸 = . or 𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝐸
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑑2 𝜀0
In a dielectric medium 𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐸 .
In the absence of dielectric medium, from equation (2) 𝑞 = 4𝜋𝑑 2 𝜀0 𝐸0
or 𝑞 = 𝜀0 𝐸0 𝐴 …..(3)
𝑞
The capacitance in the absence of dielectric medium is 𝐶0 = 𝑉 where 𝑉0 is the potential
0
𝑑𝑉
difference between the plates given by 𝑉0 = 𝐸0 𝑑 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐸 = − 𝑑𝑥 ) .
𝜀0 𝐴
Thus 𝐶0 = …..(4) (as 𝜀𝑟 = 1 for air or vacuum).
𝑑
𝑞′
When a dielectric medium is introduced between the plates, the capacitance is 𝐶 = 𝑉
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐸 𝐴 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴
or 𝐶 = where 𝑉 = 𝐸 𝑑 Thus 𝐶 = …..(5)
𝑉 𝑑
𝑪 𝑪𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍
Dividing (5) by (4) we get = 𝜺𝒓 or 𝜺𝒓 = .
𝑪𝟎 𝑪𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎
By introducing dielectric we see that V < V0, E < E0. Thus C > C0

Note : The static dielectric constant is the factor by which the capacitance of a capacitor is increased
when vacuum is substituted by a dielectric medium which fills the entire region where electric field would
be set up on subjecting the capacitor to a static electric potential.

Dielectric polarization (Electrical polarization) :

The displacement of charges in the molecules of a dielectric under the action of an
applied electric field, leading to development of dipole moment is called dielectric
polarization.
Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced in the direction of the
field and negative charges shift in the opposite direction. This creates an internal electric
field that reduces the overall field within the dielectric itself.
From the macroscopic point of view, sum of the dipole moments in a given volume is
given by ∑𝑁∆𝑉
𝑖=1 𝜇𝑖 = 𝑁 𝜇̅ = 𝑃 ∆𝑉 where N is the number of molecules per unit volume, 𝜇̅ is
the average dipole moment and P is the diploe moment per unit volume called electric
polarization.

Expression for dielectric polarisation : In the absence of dielectric, the electric field
𝐸0 between the plates of s capacitor is
𝑞
𝐸0 = …..(1) (since q = 𝜀0 𝐸0 𝐴 ) When a dielectric medium is introduced between
𝐴 𝜀0
the plates, due to electric polarisation, surface charges q’ are developed on the dielectric
producing electric field opposite to applied field.

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𝑞
Thus net electric field decreases. i.e. 𝐸 = ……(2)
𝐴 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
𝑞−𝑞′ 𝑞 𝑞′
Also, in the presence of dielectric medium, 𝐸 = = − ……(3)
𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀0
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞′ 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞′
Comparing (2) and (3) = − or = −
𝐴 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀𝑟 𝐴 𝐴
𝑞 𝑞 𝜀0 𝑞′ 𝑞 𝑞′
Thus = + or 𝑫 = 𝜺𝟎 𝑬 + 𝑷 where 𝐷 = and 𝑃 = called electric
𝐴 𝐴 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
polarisation.
or 𝑃 = 𝐷 − 𝜀0 𝐸 or or 𝑃 = 𝜀 𝐸 − 𝜀0 𝐸 = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝐸 − 𝜀0 𝐸
𝑷
Thus 𝑷 = 𝜺𝟎 𝑬(𝜺𝒓 − 𝟏) or 𝜺𝒓 − 𝟏 = = 𝝌. This is called electric susceptibility of
𝜺𝟎 𝑬
the dielectric medium. The electric susceptibility 𝝌 of a dielectric material is a measure
of how easily it polarizes in response to an electric field. This, in turn, determines the
electric permittivity of the material and thus influences many other phenomena in that
medium, from the capacitance of capacitors to the speed of light.
The electric dipole moment 𝜇 ∝ 𝐸 or 𝝁 = 𝜶 𝑬 , where α is the dielectric polarisability
of the medium.
As, 𝑷 = 𝜺𝟎 (𝜺𝒓 − 𝟏)𝑬 = 𝜺𝟎 𝝌𝑬 we see that P is directly proportional to E. i.e. 𝑃 ∝ 𝐸 .
Also 𝑷 = 𝑵𝝁 = 𝑵𝜶𝑬 , where N is the number of atoms per unit volume.
𝜺𝟎 (𝜺𝒓 −𝟏)
Thus 𝜺𝟎 (𝜺𝒓 − 𝟏)𝑬 = 𝑵𝜶𝑬 or 𝜶= .
𝑵

Types of Electric polarization

There are four different mechanisms through which electrical polarization can occur in
dielectric materials when they are subjected to an external electric field. They are
1.Electronic polarization, 2.Ionic polarization
3.Orientation polarization 4.Space charge polarization

1. Electronic polarization
The electronic polarization occurs due to the displacement
of the positive and negative charges in a dielectric material
due to the application of an external electric field as shown.
The development of dipole moment occurs throughout the material, so whole material
will be polarized.

Expression for electronic polarisability

Let Ze represent nuclear charge surrounded by negative charge as shown in the
diagram.
𝑍𝑒 3𝑍𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
The negative charge density is given by 𝜌 = − 4 = − ……(1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜌 =
𝜋𝑅 3 4𝜋𝑅 3 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
3
where R is the radius of the atom.
When the system is subjected to electric field E, the charges experience electric force
given by 𝐹𝑍 = −𝑍𝑒𝐸. …..(2)
It is assumed that only electron cloud is displaced by the field. Let this displacement be
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑥
𝑥. Then the Coulomb force is 𝐹𝐶 = 𝑍𝑒 × …..(3)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 2
4
The charge enclosed by the sphere is 𝑞 = 𝜋𝑥 3 𝜌 …..(4)
3

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4 3𝑍𝑒 𝑍𝑒 𝑥 3
Substituting for  from (1) in (4), we get 𝑞 = 𝜋𝑥 3 × (− )= − …..(5)
3 4𝜋𝑅 3 𝑅3
Hence the coulomb force is given by putting (5) in (3) for the charge, Hence
𝑍𝑒 𝑍𝑒 𝑥 3 𝑍 2𝑒 2 𝑥
𝐹𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀 ×− = − …..(6)
0 𝑥2 𝑅3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3
In the equilibrium position the two forces are equal i.e. FZ = FC.
𝑍 2𝑒 2 𝑥
Comparing equations (2) and (6) we get −𝑍𝑒𝐸 = − 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅3𝐸
or 𝑥= . Thus the displacement of the electron cloud is proportional to the
𝑍𝑒
applied field. The dipole moment due to electronic polarisation is given by
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3 𝐸
𝜇𝑒 = 𝑍𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑍𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3 𝐸
𝑍𝑒
Thus 𝜇𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 𝐸 or 𝜇𝑒 ∝ 𝐸 𝑜𝑟 𝜇𝑒 = 𝛼𝑒 𝐸 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜶𝒆 = 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑹𝟑
3

𝛼𝑒 is called the electronic polarisability.

Note : Electronic polarizability is proportional to the volume of the atoms and is
independent of temperature. It occurs only at optical frequencies of 1015Hz in the optical
region. Also electronic polarisation is 𝑷𝒆 = 𝑵𝜶𝒆 𝑬
2. Ionic polarisation
This occurs only in materials which are ionic. An
applied field acts to displace positive charges in one
direction (cation) which gives rise to a net dipole
moment.
When an Electric field is applied to the molecule, the positive ions are displaced by X1
to the negative side of electric field and negative ions are displaced by X2 to the positive
side of field. The resultant dipole moment µ = q ( X1 + X2).. This polarization occurs at
frequency 1013 Hz (IR). It is a slower process compared to electronic polarization. It is
independent of temperature. The ionic polarisation is given by 𝑷𝒊 = 𝑵𝜶𝒊 𝑬 where 𝛼𝑖 is
the ionic polarisability.
This type of polarisation typically occurs in ionic crystal elements such as NaCl and KCl.
This mechanism contributes to relative permittivity. Inside these mat erials, there is no
net polarisation in the absence of electric field. This is because dipole moments of the
negative ions are cancelled out by the positive ions. When an external field is applied, the
ions are displaced, this leads to an induced polarization

3. Orientational polarisation
This is found only in substances that possess
permanent dipole moments. Polarization results from
a rotation of the permanent dipoles in the direction of
the applied field. It is strongly temperature dependent
and decreases with increase of temperature.
It is also called dipolar or molecular polarization. The molecules such as H2, N2, O2, Cl2,
CH4, CCl4 etc., does not carry any dipole because centre of positive charge and centre of
negative charge coincides. On the other hand molecules like CH3Cl, H2O, HCl, ethyl
acetate (polar molecules) carries dipoles even in the absence of electric field.

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In the case of a CH3Cl molecule, the positive and negative charges do not coincide. The
Cl- has more electro negativity than hydrogen. Therefore, the chlorine atoms pull the
bonded electrons towards them more strongly than hydrogen atoms. Therefore, even in
the absence of field, there exists a net dipole moment. In the presence of he field there
is alignment of dipoles leading to polarization.
It occurs at a frequency 106 Hz to 1010Hz. It is slow process compared to ionic
polarization. It greatly depends on temperature. The orientational polarisation is 𝑷𝒐 =
𝜇2
𝑵𝜶𝒐 𝑬 where 𝛼𝑜 is the orientational polarisability given by 𝛼𝑜 = .
3𝑘 𝑇

4. Space charge polarisation

The space-charge polarization occurs due to the
diffusion of ions, along the field direction, thereby giving
rise to redistribution of charges in the dielectrics.
Space charge polarization occurs in multiphase
dielectric materials in which there is a change of resistivity between different phases.
The space charge polarization is not an important factor in most common dielectrics.
Interfacial or space charge polarization occurs when there is an accumulation of charge
at an interface between two materials or between two regions within a material because
of an external field. This can occur when there is a compound dielectric, or when there
are two electrodes connected to a dielectric material. This polarization is usually
observed in amorphous or polycrystalline solids. The electric field will cause
a charge imbalance. Mobile charges in the dielectric will migrate over to
maintain charge neutrality. This then causes interfacial polarization.
Total polarisation is given by 𝑷 = 𝑷𝒆 + 𝑷𝒊 + 𝑷𝒐 .
Expression for the internal or the local field (Lorentz field)
The electric field experienced by an atom in the dielectric
medium is the local electric field. To evaluate the field, a
dipole inside the dielectric medium in an applied external
electric field is considered. An imaginary hollow cavity called
the Lorentz cavity is considered around this dipole whose
radius is greater than radius of the atom. The internal field
at the atom is given by 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸0 + 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 ….(1)
where E0 is the applied external electric field, E1 is the depolarising field i.e. field
produced due to surface charges on the dielectric, E2 is the electric field due to charges
on the surface of Lorentz cavity and E3 is the electric field due to charge distribution
inside the cavity which is dependent on structure of the material.
(a) To find E0 : The electric displacement D due to the applied
field is given by 𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝐸 + 𝑃
𝑞 𝑞′
where 𝐷 = and 𝑃 = called electric polarisation.
𝐴 𝐴

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Also 𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝐸0 . E in the above equation is the average electric field due to both applied
field and field due to polarisation.
𝑷
The above equation becomes 𝜀0 𝐸0 = 𝜀0 𝐸 + 𝑃 or 𝑬𝟎 = 𝑬 + 𝜺 ……(2)
𝟎

(b) To find E1 : The application of field E0 will polarise the medium producing another
field which acts in the opposite direction called the depolarising field. Considering only
𝑷
this field, equation (2) can be written as 𝑬𝟏 = − 𝜺 …..(3) where E is taken as zero. (In
𝟎
𝑁𝑃
general for an infinite slab of dielectric medium, this depolarising field is 𝐸1 = − ,
𝜀0
where N is the depolarising factor.

(c) To find E2 : This field is due to surface charges on the Lorentz cavity or Lorentz
sphere. If dS is the area of a ring on the sphere of radius 𝑎 lying between  and d, then
its surface area 𝑑𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
From the diagram, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = or 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and d𝜃 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑑𝜃
𝑎 𝑎
Hence 𝑑𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2

If dq is the charge on this area, then it is given by the product of normal component of
polarisation and the surface area i.e. 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑃 2𝜋 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
The electric field at the centre of the Lorentz cavity due to this ring is given by
1
𝑑𝐸2 = 2
𝑑𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
4𝜋𝑎
1
Substituting for dq in this equation we get 𝑑𝐸2 = 𝑃 2𝜋 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑎2
𝑃
or 𝑑𝐸2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 .
2𝜀0
𝑃 𝜋
The total electric field is 𝐸2 = ∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃.
2𝜀0
Let 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑧, then 𝑑𝑧 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 Also cos 0 = +1 and cos  = -1.
−1
𝑃 −1 𝑃 𝑧3 𝑃 𝑃
Thus the above equation is 𝐸2 = − ∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = − [3] =− (−1 − 1) = .
2𝜀0 +1 2𝜀0 +1 6𝜀0 3𝜀0
𝑷
Thus the electric field is 𝑬𝟐 = ……… (4)
𝟑𝜺𝟎

(d) To find E3 : This field is due to electric dipoles present within the cavity which
depends on crystal structure.
For cubic structure this field is zero, i.e. E3 = 0 . …….(5)
The total electric field at the site of the atom inside the dielectric medium is obtained by
adding all these fields. Substituting for the field expressions from (2), (3), (4) and (5) in
(1) i.e. 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸0 + 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 we get
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸 + 𝜀 + ( − 𝜀 ) + +0=𝐸+
0 0 3𝜀0 3𝜀0
𝑷
Thus the local or the internal electric field is 𝑬𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 = 𝑬 + .
𝟑𝜺𝟎

Derivation of Clausius Mossotti equation Consider a dielectric medium which has

predominantly the electronic polarisation and other effects are negligible. The dipole
moment and the electronic polarisation are given by

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 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER & DIELECTRICS

𝜇𝑒 = 𝛼𝑒 𝐸 , where αe is the electronic polarisability of the medium and

𝑃𝑒 = 𝑁𝜇𝑒 = 𝑁α𝑒 𝐸𝑙 ….. (1) where El is the local electric field and where N is the number of
atoms per unit volume.
The electric displacement is 𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝐸 + 𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 = 𝐷 − 𝜀0 𝐸
𝑃 𝐷
Dividng the above equation by E, we get = 𝐸 − 𝜀0
𝐸
𝐷
As 𝐷 = 𝜀 𝐸 = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝐸, or = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 ,
𝐸
𝑃
Thus the above equation becomes = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 − 𝜀0 = 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1)
𝐸
or 𝑃 = 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1) 𝐸 … . (2)
𝑃
The local or the internal field is 𝐸𝑙 = 𝐸 + …..(3)
3𝜀0
𝑃
Substituting for El from (3) in (1) 𝑃 = 𝑁α𝑒 (𝐸 + ) …..(4)
3𝜀0
𝑃
Comparing (2) and (4) 𝑁α𝑒 (𝐸 + ) = 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1) 𝐸
3𝜀0
𝑁α𝑒 𝑃
𝑁α𝑒 𝐸+ = 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1) 𝐸
3𝜀0
𝑁α𝑒 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 −1) 𝐸
Substituting for P in the above equation from (2) 𝑁α𝑒 𝐸 + = 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1) 𝐸
3𝜀0
𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 −1)
𝑁α𝑒 (1 + ) = 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1)
3𝜀0
𝑁α𝑒 𝑁α𝑒
(3𝜀0 + 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1) ) = 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1) or (𝜀𝑟 + 2)𝜀0 = 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1)
3𝜀0 3𝜀0
(𝜺𝒓 −𝟏) 𝑵𝛂𝒆
or (𝜺𝒓
= . This is called Clausius Mossotti equation and it holds good for
+𝟐) 𝟑𝜺𝟎
crystals of high degree of symmetry. This equation relates the dielectric constant 𝜀𝑟
which is the macroscopic property of the dielectric medium to 𝛂𝒆 i.e. electronic
polarisability which is the atomic property of the material.

Frequency dependence of dielectric constant

When a dielectric material is subjected to an
alternating electric field by applying AC, the
electric polarisation changes direction
continuously as the dipole orientation changes
direction.
1. For low frequencies (in the audio frequency
range), the change over is quick and
responds to variations in electric fields.
Here all the polarisabilities are present as
shown in the diagram. 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑒 + 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑃𝑜 . In
the diagram k’ is the dielectric constant
and k’’ is the absorption loss.
2. As the frequency is increased (in the radio
and microwave region), the orientational (dipolar) polarisation does not take place
and net polarisation decreases. It is given by 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑒 + 𝑃𝑖 . This results in decrease
of dielectric constant 𝜀𝑟 .

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 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER & DIELECTRICS

3. In the infrared region ionic polarisation ceases. In this region and the optical
frequencies only electronic polarisation contributes to the dielectric constant. This
contribution decreases further with increase in frequency.
The absorption peaks occur at specific frequencies when the frequency of the applied
field is equal to the relaxation frequency of the dipoles, maximum absorption from the
electric field occurs. (The average time taken by the dipoles to orient in the direction of
field due to its reversal is the relaxation time and its reciprocal is the relaxation
frequency).

Dielectric breakdown
If a dielectric material is placed in a very strong electric field, electrons can be removed
from their corresponding atoms causing large currents to flow and damaging the
material. This phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown.
This results in the material behaving as conductor instead of insulator.
The value of the electric field at which dielectric breakdown occurs is called the dielectric
strength of the material. Dielectric strength is the maximum electric field that the
dielectric material can withstand without suffering electrical breakdown. The dielectric
strength of a material is denoted by the symbol EBR. It is the breakdown voltage per unit
thickness of the material.
The dielectric strength of a material may vary by several orders of magnitude depending
on various factors including the exact composition of the material. Usually dielectric
breakdown does not permanently damage gaseous or liquid dielectrics, but does ruin
solid dielectrics.
The different types of dielectric breakdown are
1. Intrinsic breakdown : This occurs due to breaking of covalent bonds and electrons
moving from valance to conduction band resulting in conduction.
2. Thermal breakdown : Due to high temperature, the bonds break and random motion of
electrons increase. If the heat supplied is greater than the heat dissipated the remaining
heat will lead to electrons moving out of atoms resulting in large current.
3. Discharge breakdown : This occurs due to presence of gas bubbles in the solid medium
forming ions resulting in current.
4. Electrochemical breakdown : This is also due to heat and chemical reactions.
5. Defect breakdown : This is due to defects such as cracks, dislocations, discontinuities
and presence of impurities.
Air has dielectric strength of 3  106 Vm-1 and paper has 16  106 Vm-1 .

Ferroelectricity
It is a property of certain materials in which they possess spontaneous electric
polarisation even in the absence of electric field and can be reversed by the application
of external electric field.
The materials are referred as ferroelectrics which are analogous in electrical properties
to magnetic properties of ferromagnetics. Eg. Barium titanate, potassium dihydro
phosphate …
Ferroelectrics exhibit electric hysteresis similar to magnetic hysteresis and obey Curie
– Weiss law.

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 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER & DIELECTRICS

Piezoelectricity
It is the electric charge that accumulates in certain
solid materials (such as crystals, certain ceramics,
and biological matter such as bone, DNA and
various proteins) in response to applied
mechanical stress.
The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from pressure and latent heat.
A material that develops voltage due to application of a stress and develops strain when
an electric field is applied is called Piezoelectricity. Diagram (a) indicates the
development of voltage due to stress and (b) indicates the strain or deformation due to
voltage.
The process of creating electric polarization by mechanical stress is called as piezo
electric effect.
This process is used in conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy and also
electrical energy into mechanical energy. According to inverse piezo electric effect, when
an electric stress is applied, the material becomes strained. This strain is directly
proportional to the applied field. Examples: quartz crystal , Rochelle salt etc.,

Applications :
1. Piezo electric materials or peizo electric semiconductors such as Gas, Zno and CdS
are finding applications in ultrasonic amplifiers.
2. Piezoelectric materials are used in quartz watches.
3. They are also used as oscillators. They are used as transducers to measure pressure
very accurately.
4. Piezoelectricity is used in the production and detection of sound, piezoelectric inkjet
printing, generation of high voltages, electronic frequency generation, It forms the basis
for a number of scientific instrumental techniques with atomic resolution, the scanning
probe microscopies, such as STM, AFM, etc…
5. It also finds everyday uses such as acting as the ignition source for cigarette lighters,
push-start propane barbecues etc… .

Electrostriction
When any material undergoes polarization (due to an applied electric field), its ions and
electronic clouds are displaced, causing the development of a mechanical strain in the
material.
This phenomenon is known as the electrostriction. The pressure experienced by the
dielectric is directly proportional to the square of the applied electric field and is not
altered when the direction of the electric field is reversed.

Electret
Electrets are materials that have a quasi-permanent electric field at their surfaces due
to either an imbalance of charge at the surface (space charge electrets) or to aligned
dipoles through the bulk of the material (dipolar electrets).
The term quasi-permanent implies that the amount of charges stored in the material
does not remain the same permanently, but decays very slowly depending on the

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 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER & DIELECTRICS

situation, and the decay time is normally much longer than the time period over which
the electret is in use.
The electrostatic properties of electrets have been exploited for many applications
including xerography, powder coating, and electrostatic precipitation.

Electret is the material that retains its electric polarization after being subjected to a
strong electric field. The positive charge within the material becomes permanently
displaced in the direction of the field, and the negative charge becomes permanently
displaced in the direction opposite to the field. One end of the electret is somewhat
positive, and the other is somewhat negative, though the net charge remains zero.

Electrets are prepared from certain waxes, plastics, and ceramics, the individual
molecules of which are permanently polarized but are randomly arranged before being
subjected to an electric field so that there is no overall polarization in the material.
The strong electric field (approximately 1,000,000 volts per metre) rotates the polar
molecules into an alignment that persists when the external field is removed. Sometimes
electrets are made by allowing a molten material to solidify in a strong electric field.
Example for electrets is a microphone. An electret microphone is a type of electrostatic
capacitor-based microphone, which eliminates the need for a polarizing power supply
by using a permanently charged material.
An electret carries a permanent electric field just as a permanent magnet carries a
permanent magnetic field. One way to think of an electret is as a capacitor that always
carries a charge and that you never have to recharge.

PART A Descriptive questions

1. (a) What are dielectrics? Distinguish between polar and nonpolar dielectrics.
(b) What is dielectric constant? Arrive at the expression for the static dielectric constant.
2. What is electrical polarisation and electrical susceptibiliy? Arrive at the expression for
dielectric polarisation.
3. (a) Explain in brief the different types of dielectric polarisation.
(b) Derive an expression for the electronic polarisability.
4. What is internal field? Arrive at the expression for the internal field of a dielectric.
5. (a) Derive Clausius Mossotti equation for a 3-dimensional cubic lattice.
(b) Explain how the dielectric constant varies with frequency.
6. What is dielectric breakdown? Explain the different types of dielectric breakdown.
7. (a) What is ferroelectricity? Explain the terms- Electrostriction and electret.
(b) What is piezoelectricity? Mention applications of piezoelectric materials.

Numerical problems
1. A parallel plate capacitor is of area 0.04 m2 with plate separation of 2 mm. A voltage of 10 V
is applied across the capacitor. Find the capacitance of the capacitor. If a dielectric medium
of relative permittivity 6 is introduced between the plates, find the capacitance, electric
displacement and dielectric polarisation. (𝜀0 = 8.854 × 10−12 𝐹𝑚−1}
𝜀0 𝐴 𝑉
[ 𝐶0 = = 0.177 × 10−9 𝐹, 𝐶 = 𝜀𝑟 𝐶0 = 1.06 10−9 𝐹, 𝐸= = 5 × 103 𝑉𝑚−1 , 𝐷=
𝑑 𝑑
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐸 = 0.265 × 10 −6
𝐶𝑚 −2
𝑃 = 𝐷 − 𝜀0 𝐸 = 0.212 × 10 −6
𝐶𝑚 −2
[

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 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER & DIELECTRICS

2. The dielectric constant of a gas at NTP is 1.000456. Find the electronic polarisability. If the
gas contains 2.7 × 1023 atoms per cubic metre, find the radius of the atom.
𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 −1)
[ 𝑃 = 𝜀0 𝐸(𝜀𝑟 − 1), 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸 comparing 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸 = 𝜀0 𝐸(𝜀𝑟 − 1) or 𝛼𝑒 = 𝑁
=
1.49 × 10 −38
𝐹𝑚 2
, 𝛼𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3
𝑅 = 0.049 × 10 𝑚 −9
]

3. Dielectric constant of sulphur is 3.4. Find electronic polarisability if the volume density of
sulphur is 2 × 103 kgm-3 and atomic weight is 32.
(𝜀𝑟 −1) 𝑁α𝑒 3𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 −1) 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜌)×𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑁𝑜.(𝑁𝐴 ) 2000×6.023×1023
[ (𝜀𝑟 +2)
= 3𝜀0
, α𝑒 = 𝑁 (𝜀𝑟 +2)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁 = 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
= 32×10−3
α𝑒 = 8 × 10 −40
𝐹𝑚2 ]

4. The electronic polarisability of an atom is 7 × 10 -40 F m-2. Find dielectric constant if the
number of atoms per cubic metre is 3 × 1028.
𝑁α𝑒 𝑁α𝑒
[ 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸 = 𝜀0 𝐸(𝜀𝑟 − 1), 𝜀𝑟 − 1 = 𝜀0
𝑜𝑟 𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀0
+ 1 = 3.37 ]
5. The radius of helium atom is about 0.55 A 0. Calculate the polarisability of helium and its
relative permittivity. The number of helium atoms in a volume of 1 m 3 is 2.7 × 1028 .
𝑁α𝑒
[ 𝛼𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅3 = 18.5 × 10−42 𝐹𝑚2 , 𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀0
+ 1 = 1.056 ]

6. Calculate the induced dipole moment per unit volume (also called electric polarisation) of
helium gas when it is placed in an electric field of 6 × 105 Vm-1. The atomic polarisability of
helium is 0.18 × 10-40 Fm2 and the concentration of helium atom is 2.6 × 1025/m3..
[ 𝜇𝑖 = 𝑃 = 𝑁𝛼𝑎 𝐸 = 2.6 × 1025 × 0.18 × 10−40 × 6 × 105 = 2.81 × 10−10 𝐶𝑚−2 ]

7. The number of atoms in a volume of 1m3 is 3 × 1028. The electronic polarisability is 10-40
𝑁α𝑒
Fm2. Find the relative permittivity of the given system. [ 𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀0
+ 1 = 1.338 ]
8. Calculate the capacitance of 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 that is 0.5 µm thick and 2000mm2 area and having
𝜀 0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴
dielectric constant of 1.0034. [ 𝐶 = = 3.54 × 10 −8
𝐹 ]
𝑑

9 If an ionic crystal is subjected to a electric field of 1000𝑉𝑚−1 produces a polarization of

𝑃
4.3 × 10−8 𝐶𝑚−2, calculate the dielectric constant. [ 𝑃 = 𝜀0 𝐸(𝜀𝑟 − 1) 𝑜𝑟 𝜀𝑟 = 1 + 𝜀0 𝐸
= 5.856 ]

10 Calculate the polarization produced in dielectric medium of dielectric constant 6 when it is

subjected to an electric field of 100 Vm-1. [ 𝑃 = 𝜀0 𝐸(𝜀𝑟 − 1) = 4.427 × 10−9 𝐶𝑚−2 ]

11 Calculate the polarization and susceptibility in a crystal when 3V is applied across a

dielectric of 1 mm thickness. Given K of crystal is 4.
𝑉 3
[𝑃 = 𝜀0 𝐸(𝜀𝑟 − 1) 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 = 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1) = 8.854 × 10−12 ×
𝑑 −3 ×
(4 − 1) = 79.6 × 10−9 𝐶𝑚−2
1×10
𝜒 = 𝜀𝑟 − 1 = 3 (Here dielectric constant K = 𝜀𝑟 ) ]

12 A parallel plate capacitor is made up of a dielectric of thickness 2 mm and dielectric constant

8. If the potential difference cross the capacitor is 50 V, calculate the polarization and
electric displacement.
𝑉 𝑉
[ 𝑃 = 𝜀0 𝐸(𝜀𝑟 − 1) 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 = 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1) = 1.55 × 10−6 𝐶𝑚−2 , 𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐸 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 ×
𝑑 𝑑
𝐷 = 1.7710−6 𝐶𝑚−2 ]

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EP-QUANTUM MECHANICS
BS-PH101 BY M. ASFAK
 SYLLABUS
Introduction to quantum physics, black body radiation,
explanation using the photon concept, Compton effect, de
Broglie hypothesis, wave-particle duality, verification of matter
waves, uncertainty principle, Schrodinger wave equation,
particle in box, quantum harmonic oscillator, hydrogen atom.

16-12-2023 ENGG. PHYSICS BY M. ASFAK SIR 2

 CONTENTS

❖ Classical world and Quantum world

❖ Inadequacy of classical mechanics

❖ Drawbacks of Old Quantum Theory

❖ Energy distribution spectrum of black body radiation

❖ Energy distribution laws of black body radiation

❖ The Compton Effect | Experiment Setup | Theory | Theoretical Expression

| Limitation | Recoil Electron

❖ Significance of Compton's Effect

❖ Assumptions of Planck’s Radiation Law

16-12-2023 ENGG. PHYSICS BY M. ASFAK SIR 3

 CONTENTS

❖ Derivation of Planck's Radiation Law

❖ de-Broglie Concept of Matter wave

❖ Definition and derivation of the phase velocity and group velocity of wave

❖ Relation between group velocity and phase velocity

❖ Group velocity is equal to particle velocity

❖ Product of phase velocity and group velocity is equal to square of speed

of light

❖ Heisenberg uncertainty principle

❖ Generation of wave function for a free particle

❖ Physical interpretation of the wave function

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 CONTENTS

❖ Derivation of time dependent Schrodinger wave equation

❖ Derivation of time independent Schrodinger wave equation

❖ Eigen Function, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors

❖ Postulate of wave mechanics or Quantum Mechanics

❖ Quantum Mechanical Operators

❖ Normalized and Orthogonal wave function

❖ Particle in one dimensional box (Infinite Potential Well)

❖ Minimum Energy Or Zero Point Energy of a Particle in an one

dimensional potential box or Infinite Well

❖ Normalization of the wave function of a particle in one dimension box or

infinite potential well
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 CONTENTS

❖ Orthogonality of the wave functions of a particle in one dimension box or

infinite potential well

❖ Eigen value of the momentum of a particle in one dimension box or

infinite potential well

❖ Schrodinger's equation for the complex conjugate waves function

16-12-2023 ENGG. PHYSICS BY M. ASFAK SIR 6

 CLASSICAL WORLD VS QUANTUM WORLD
The classical world and the quantum world are two fundamentally different
ways of describing the behavior of matter and energy.

In the classical world, the laws of physics are described by classical

mechanics, which is based on the concepts of position, velocity, and
acceleration of objects. Classical mechanics is deterministic, meaning that
if you know the initial conditions of a system, you can predict its future
behavior with complete accuracy. This is the world we experience in our
everyday lives, and it is characterized by a continuous, smooth flow of
events.

In contrast, the quantum world is described by quantum mechanics, which

is based on the behavior of particles on a subatomic scale. In the quantum
world, particles do not have well-defined positions and velocities but rather
exist in a superposition of many possible states. Moreover, measurements
of quantum particles do not give deterministic results, but rather give
probabilities of various outcomes. This probabilistic nature of quantum
mechanics is known as the uncertainty principle.

Another important feature of the quantum world is entanglement, which

occurs.
16-12-2023 ENGG. PHYSICS BY M. ASFAK SIR 7
when two particles become linked in such a way that the state of one
particle depends on the state of the other particle, even if they are separated
by large distances. This has important implications for the way we
understand the nature of reality itself.

While the classical and quantum worlds may seem very different, they are
not entirely separate from each other. Classical mechanics can be seen as
an approximation of quantum mechanics for macroscopic objects, and
quantum mechanics can be used to explain phenomena that cannot be
explained by classical mechanics alone.

Overall, the classical world and the quantum world are both valid ways of
describing the behavior of matter and energy, and they each have their own
unique properties and characteristics.

Classical mechanics is a branch of physics that deals with the motion of

macroscopic bodies or objects (i.ethesizerangegreaterthen10−8m) under the
influence of forces. While it was groundbreaking when first developed by Sir
Isaac Newton in the 17th century, it has certain limitations that were
discovered over time. In this answer, we will discuss these limitations in
more detail:
16-12-2023 ENGG. PHYSICS BY M. ASFAK SIR 8
❖ Classical Mechanics is not applicable to extremely small objects:
Classical mechanics assumes that particles have a definite position and
momentum, which is not true in the quantum world. This limitation
became apparent in the early 20th century with the discovery of
quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics is a branch of physics that
deals with the behavior or motion of particles on an atomic and
subatomic level (i.e the size range is in between 10−8m to 10−15m) i.e
microscopic particles. It has been successful in explaining phenomena
such as the photoelectric effect, blackbody radiation, and the behavior of
electrons in atoms, which cannot be explained by classical mechanics.

❖ Classical Mechanics is not applicable to objects moving at very high

speeds: Classical mechanics assumes that the speed of an object can
be infinite, it is not true in the relativistic world. The theory of relativity
which was developed by Albert Einstein in the early 20th century,
explains the behavior of objects moving at high speeds (i.e. equal to the
speed of light). The theory of relativity has been successful in predicting
phenomena such as time dilation, length contraction, and the
equivalence of mass and energy.

❖ Classical Mechanics can not well explain the behavior of systems with
many particles:
16-12-2023 ENGG. PHYSICS BY M. ASFAK SIR 9
 Classical mechanics is not well suited for dealing with systems that
have many particles. This is because it is difficult to solve the
equations of motion for systems with many particles, and the behavior
of the system can become chaotic. The theory of statistical mechanics,
developed in the late 19th century, addresses this limitation by using
probability distributions to describe the behavior of large systems.

❖ Classical Mechanics can not explain the behavior of objects that are
very far apart or have very high masses: Newton's law of gravity works
well for objects that are close together, but it fails to explain the behavior
of objects that are extremely far apart or have very high masses, such as
black holes and galaxies. The theory of general relativity, developed by
Einstein in the early 20th century, provides a better explanation of the
behavior of objects with very high masses and gravitational fields.

❖ Classical Mechanics assumes determinism: Classical mechanics

assumes that the universe is deterministic, meaning that the future state
of a system can be predicted with complete accuracy if the initial state
is known. However, this assumption has been challenged by the theory
of chaos, which suggests that small changes in the initial state of a
system can lead to unpredictable and chaotic behavior in the future.

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 DRAWBACK OF OLD QUANTUM THEORY

Planck's quantum hypothesis with its application and extension to explain

the black body radiation like the photo-electric effect, the Compton effect,
the variation of specific heat of solid with temperature and the spectrum of
hydrogen is now called the Old quantum theory. Through these phenomena
are successfully explained by the theory, there are numerous drawbacks of
the theory. A few of them are as follows.

1) Bohr's quantization rules are arbitrary. The theory does not provide a
physical explanation for the assumptions.

2) The old quantum theory cannot be applied to explain the spectra of

helium and of more complex atoms.

3) It can provide only a qualitative and incomplete explanation of the

intensities of the spectral lines.

4) It can not explain the dispersion of light.

5) The theory of non-harmonic vibrations of systems cannot be applied to

explain the vibrations of systems.
16-12-2023 ENGG. PHYSICS BY M. ASFAK SIR 11
 Energy distribution spectrum of black body radiation

Description→ The energy distribution among the different wavelengths in

the spectrum of black body radiation was studied by Lummer and
Pringsheim in 1899. There are the following important observations of the
study.

The energy distribution in the radiation spectrum of the black body is not
uniform. As the temperature of the body rises the intensity of radiation for
each wavelength increases.

At a given temperature, the intensity of radiation increases with increases in

wavelength and becomes maximum at a particular wavelength with further
in increases wavelength the intensity of radiation decreases.

The points of maximum energy shift towards the shorter wavelength as the
temperature increases i.e. λm×T = constant. It is also known as Wein’s
displacement law of energy distribution.

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For a given temperature the total energy of radiation is represented by the
area between the curve and the horizontal axis and the area increases with
increases of temperature, being directly proportional to the fourth power of
absolute temperatures.

The total amount

of heat radiated
by a perfectly
black body per
unit area per unit
time is directly
proportional to
the fourth power
of its absolute
temperature (T).

E=σT4

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Where σ = Stefan constant having value (5⋅67×10-8Wm-2K4)

This is called Stefan-Boltzmann's law of energy distribution.

Energy distribution laws of black body radiation

1) Wein’s laws of Energy distributions→

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Note → The energy distribution curves of the black body show a peak while going
towards the ultraviolet wavelength (shorter λ) and then fall while Rayleigh-Jeans law
indicates continuous rise only. This is the failure of classical physics

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 Description of Compton Effect
Experiment Setup, Theory, Theoretical Expression, Limitation, Recoil
Electron

The Compton Effect

1 Compton Experiment Setup
2 Theory of the Compton Effect
3 Theoretical Derivation of Compton Effect (Equation of Compton Shift)
4 Limitation of Compton Effect
Compton Recoil Electron-
5 5(a)Relation between θ and ϕ
5(b) Kinetic Energy of the Recoil Electron

1.) Compton Experiment Setup:

The Compton effect is used to verify the particle nature of matter by

applying the photoelectric effect. The setup of the Compton experiment as
shown in the figure below which consists of the following parts

i.) X-ray source ii.) Collimator iii.) Target iv.) Bragg's Spectrometer

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i.) X-ray Source: The X-ray source is used to produce the monochromatic X-
ray.
ii.) Collimators: The collimators consist of slits that are used to pass the
photon in the same direction.
iii.) Target: The target is made up of low atomic number material (i.e.
Beryllium, Graphite, Aluminium) in which the monochromatic x-ray is
incident and scattered in all directions.
iv.) Braggs Spectrometer: The Braggs spectrometer is used to measure the
intensity of these scattered photons of monochromatic X-ray at different
angles by the analyzing crystal and ionization chamber.

Working:
When the monochromatic X-ray is produced through an X-ray source and
this monochromatic X-ray passes through slit S1 and S2 (i.e. Collimator).
This slit S1 and S2 passes only the photon of a monochromatic X-ray beam in
one direction. Now this beam is incident on graphite block (i.e. Target) and
scattered in all directions. Now the intensity of the scattered beam at
different angles is measured by a Braggs spectrometer. The major
measured intensity by the Braggs spectrometer at different angles is shown
in the figure below.
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2.) Theory of the Compton Effect:

To explain the effect, Compton applied Einstein's quantum theory of light

with the assumption that incident photons possess momentum. The
postulates on which the theory is based are as follows.

I. A beam of monochromatic X-ray is consist of a stream of photons

having energy hv and momentum hν/c . These photons travel in the
direction of the beam with the speed of light.

II. The scattering of X-rays by atoms of graphite element is the result of

elastic collisions between photons and electrons. This is an elastic
collision so the energy and momentum will be conserved (i.e. in such a
collision there is no loss of kinetic energy).

Note: The outer shell electron is loosely bound with the atom and required a
very small amount of energy to leave the atom but the X-ray photons have
very high energy. So the loosely bound electron of the atom leaves atom the
permanently. Therefore for the X-ray loosely bound electrons can be
considered as free electrons at rest.

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3.) Theoretical Derivation of Compton Effect (Equation of Compton Shift):

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To eliminate ϕ, square the equation (2) and equation (3) and then add them.
This gives

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Thus, this theoretical expression derived by Compton is in excellent
agreement with this experimental result.

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An explanation for this unmodified scattered radiation is as follows:

The incident X-ray photons collide with loosely bound outer electrons and
also with tightly bound inner electrons of the atm. During a collision of a
photon with tightly bound electrons, the electron is not detached from the
atom. Consequently the entire atom recoils. In such a collision the Compton
shift of the wavelength is given by replacing mo by the mass of the atom in
equation (7). Calculations show that this shift is so small that it can not be
detected because the mass of an atom is usually several thousand times
greater than the mass of the electron at rest.

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Now substitute the value of the above equation in equation (12), then we get

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The experimental value of E of recoil electrons determined by Compton and
Simon in 19251925 and by Bless in 19271927 agreed well with the
theoretical value.

The study of the Compton effect leads to the conclusion that radiant energy
in its interaction with matter behaves as a stream of discrete particles
(Photons) each having energy hν and momentum hν/c. In other words,
radiant energy is quantized. Therefore the Compton effect is considered a
decisive phenomenon in support of the quantization of energy.

Significance of Compton effect

Description of Significance of Compton effect:

There are the following significance of the Compton effect →

• The greatest significance of the Compton effect is that is to provide final

and deciding proof for Planck-Einstein's visualization of the quantum
nature of radiation. The particle nature of light was established after the
discovery of the Compton effect.

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• The discovery of the Compton effect led to the formulation of quantum
mechanics by W. Heisenberg and E. Schrodinger and provided the basis
for the beginning of the theory of quantum electrodynamics.

• It is most important to radiobiology, as it happens to be the most

probable interaction of high energy x-ray with atomic nuclei in living
beings and is applied in radiation therapy.

• It is used to prove the wave function of electrons in the matter in the

momentum representation.

• It is the most effective in Gamma spectroscopy that gives rise to

Compton edge, as it is possible for gamma rays to scatter out of the
detectors used.

• The Compton effect has played a significant role in diverse scientific

areas such as nuclear engineering, experimental and theoretical nuclear
physics, atomic physics, plasma physics, x-ray crystallography, etc.

• The Compton effect provides an important research tool in some

branches of medicine, including molecular chemistry, solid-state physics,
etc.
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• The Compton effect has an appropriate application in the measurement
of lungs density in living organisms.

• The Compton effect is useful in putting large detectors in orbit above the
earth's atmosphere.

• The development of a high-resolution semiconductor radiation detector

opened a new area for the application of Compton scattering.

Assumptions of Planck’s Radiation Law

Planck in 1900 suggested the correct explanation of the black body radiation
curve. They gave the following assumption →

✓ A chamber contains black body energy radiation and simple harmonic

oscillators (atoms of Wall, i.e. Black lamp & Platinum coating inside wall,
behave as oscillators or resonators) of molecular dimensions which can
vibrate with all possible frequencies.

✓ The frequency of energy radiation emitted by an oscillator is the same as

the frequency of its vibration.
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✓ An oscillator cannot emit or absorb the energy in a continuous manner
it can emit or absorb energy in a small unit (packet) called Quanta.

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This assumption is most revolutionary in character. This implies that the
exchange of energy between radiation and matter (Black lamp or platinum
Coating ) cannot take place continuously but are limited to a discrete set of
value

Derivation of Planck's Radiation Law

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 de-Broglie Concept of Matter wave
Louis de-Broglie thought that similar to the dual nature of light, material
particles must also possess the dual character of particle and wave. This
means that material particles sometimes behave as particle nature and
sometimes behave like a wave nature.

According to de-Broglie –
A moving particle is always associated with a wave, called as de-
Broglie matter-wave, whose wavelengths depend upon the mass of the
particle and its velocity.
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Properties of matter wave →
▪ Matter waves are generated only if the material's particles are in motion.

▪ Matter-wave is produced whether the particles are charged or uncharged.

▪ The velocity of the matter wave is constant; it depends on the velocity of

material particles.

▪ For the velocity of a given particle, the wavelength of matter waves will
be shorter for a particle of large mass and vice-versa.

▪ The matter waves are not electromagnetic waves.

▪ The speed of matter waves is greater than the speed of light.

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The wave and particle nature of moving bodies can never be observed
simultaneously.
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 Definition and derivation of the phase velocity and group
velocity of wave
Wave:
A wave is defined as a disturbance in a medium from an equilibrium
condition that propagates from one region of the medium to other
regions.

When such type of wave propagates in the medium a progressive change in

phase takes place from one particle to the next particle.

Propagation of Wave:
Wave propagation in the medium occurs with two different kinds of
velocity. i.e. phase velocity and group velocity.

1. Phase Velocity:
The velocity with which plane of constant the phase of a wave
propagates through the medium at a certain frequency is called the
phase velocity or wave velocity.

A plane wave traveling in the positive x-direction is represented by

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Question- Show that the phase velocity of matter-wave always exceeds the
velocity of light.

Answer- Method-I

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Wave packet→
A wave packet is an envelope or packet which contains the number of
plane waves having different wavelengths or wavenumbers. These
numbers of waves superimpose on each other and form constructive
and destructive interference over a small region of space and a
resultant wave obtain. The spread of amplitude of the resultant wave
with distance determines the size of the wave packet. A wave packet is
also called a wave group.

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Group Velocity→
The velocity of propagation of wave packet through space is known as
group velocity.

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The amplitude of the resultant wave is

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Note: A moving particle cannot be equal to a single wave train. The speed of a
single wave train is called the phase velocity so moving particles are
equivalent to a group of waves or wave packets.

Relation between group velocity and phase velocity

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 Group velocity is equal to particle velocity

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Product of phase velocity and group velocity is equal to square
of speed of light

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Dispersive medium → The medium in which the phase velocity varies with
wavelength or frequency is called a dispersive medium. In such a medium,
waves of different wavelengths travel with different phase velocities.

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Non-dispersive medium → The medium in which the phase velocity does
not vary with wavelength or frequency is called a Non-dispersive medium.

Dispersive waves → Those waves in the medium for which phase velocity
varies with wavelength or frequency are called dispersive waves.

Non-dispersive waves → Those waves in which phase velocity does not

vary with wavelength are called non-dispersive waves. So phase velocity
independent of wavelength.

Heisenberg uncertainty principle

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 Generation of wave function for a free particle
Simple harmonic motion:
If an object repeats the process or path at a fixed interval of time is
known as periodic motion or Uniform circular motion. It is also called
the Simple harmonic motion.

We know that the wave is the study of infinite S.H.M.

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From above figure -

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 Physical interpretation of the wave function

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 Derivation of time dependent Schrodinger's wave equation

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 Derivation of time independent Schrodinger wave equation

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 Eigenfunction, Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

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 Postulate of wave mechanics or Quantum Mechanics

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 Quantum Mechanical Operators

Operator →
An operator is defined as a mathematical term that is used in the
operation of a function so that this function may or may not be
transformed into another function.

Operators of Quantum Mechanics →

There are the following quantum mechanical operators which are used in
the wave function of particles:-

▪ Momentum Operator

▪ Kinetic Energy Operator

▪ Total Energy Operator (Hamiltonian Operator)

▪ Total Energy Operator in terms of the differential with respect to time

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 Normalized and Orthogonal wave function

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 Particle in one dimensional box (Infinite Potential Well)

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 Minimum Energy Or Zero Point Energy of a Particle in an one
dimensional potential box or Infinite Well

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 Normalization of the wave function of a particle in one
dimension box or infinite potential well

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 Orthogonality of the wave functions of a particle in one
dimension box or infinite potential well

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 Eigen value of the momentum of a particle in one dimension
box or infinite potential well

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 Schrodinger's equation for the complex conjugate waves
function

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References
1. https://www.physicsvidyapith.com/p/study-material.html
2. https://www.physicsvidyapith.com/2023/04/classical-world-and-quantum-
world.html
3. https://www.physicsvidyapith.com/2023/04/inadequacy-of-classical-
mechanics.html
4. https://www.physicsvidyapith.com/2023/05/drawbacks-of-old-quantum-
theory.html
5. https://www.physicsvidyapith.com/2023/01/energy-distribution-spectrum-of-
black-body-radiation.html
6. https://www.physicsvidyapith.com/2022/10/energy-distribution-laws-of-black-
body-radiation.html
7. https://www.physicsvidyapith.com/2023/04/compton-effect-experiment-
setup-theory-expression-limitation-recoil-electron.html
8. Continue…… etc.

All pictures credit goes to https://www.physicsvidyapith.com/p/study-material.html

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